Visual memory
Encyclopedia
Visual memory describes the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding
, storage
and retrieval
of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location. Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the mind's eye
through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals
or people
.
, whereas areas specialized for spatial vision in the dorsal stream have a more superior location in the parietal cortex. However, this two streams hypothesis although useful is a simplification of the visual system as the two streams maintain intercommunications along their entire rostral course.
is a portion of the parietal lobe
, which manipulates mental images, and integrates sensory and motor portions of the brain.
A majority of experiments highlights a role of human posterior parietal cortex in visual working memory
and attention. We therefore have to establish a clear separation of visual memory and attention from processes related to the planning of goal-directed motor behaviors.
We can only hold in mind a minute fraction of the visual scene. These mental representations are stored in visual short-term memory. Activity in the posterior parietal cortex is tightly correlated with the limited amount of scene information that can be stored in visual short-term memory. These results suggest that the posterior parietal cortex is a key neural locus of our impoverished mental representation of the visual world.
The posterior cortex might act as a capacity-limited store for the representation of the visual scene, the frontal/prefrontal cortex might be necessary for the consolidation
and/or maintenance of this store, especially during extended retention intervals.
There is a visual cortex
in each hemisphere
of the brain. The left hemisphere visual cortex receives signals mainly from the right visual field and the right visual cortex mainly from the left visual field. The cortical area receives information from subcortical regions, such as the lateral geniculate body
. However, ample evidence indicates that object identity and location are preferentially processed in ventral (occipito-temporal) and dorsal (parietal) cortical visual streams.
Comparison of rCBF during performance of the two tasks again revealed differences between the ventral and dorsal pathways.
receive and process visual information. The occipital lobes also process colors and shapes. Whereas the right occipital lobe interprets images from the left visual space, the left occipital lobe interprets images from the right visual space. Damage to the occipital lobes can permanently damage visual perception
Visual short-term memory storage is mediated by distinctive posterior brain mechanisms, such that capacity is determined both by a fixed number of objects and by object complexity.
and the anterior cingulate cortex
.
, and visual memory abilities
. More than 50 years of proven clinical use is the staple of the Benton Visual Retention Test. This test has proven its sensitivity
to reading disabilities
, nonverbal learning disabilities
, traumatic brain injury
, attention-deficit disorder, alzheimer's
, and other forms of dementia
. During testing participants are presented with 10 cards for 10 seconds with unique designs on each. After the time has passed participants are asked to immediately reproduce the designs from each card using their visual memory. In the second stage participants are asked to copy each of the 10 card designs while the cards are in view. The participants results from each task are then assessed and placed into six categories; omissions, distortions
, preservations, rotations
, misplacements, and sizing errors. The further the participant’s scores
varies from the averages
provided in the Benton Visual Retention Test manual the worse the participant is assessed to be on visual memory ability. The Benton Visual Retention Test has proved to be a generalizable test with the ability to be accurately administered to participants aged 8-adult, and no gender effect. Some studies have suggested a significant gender
and education
interaction
indicating that an age-associated decline in visual memory performance may be more prominent for those individuals with a lower education
level.
studies focus on the neural networks
involved in visual memory
using methods designed to activate brain areas involved in encoding
, storage
, and recall
. These studies involve the use of one or multiple types of brain imaging techniques designed to measure timing or activation within the brain. The data collected from neuroimaging studies gives researchers the ability to visualize which brain regions are activated in specific cognitive visual memory tasks. With the use of brain imaging devices researchers able to further investigate memory performance above and beyond standard tests based on exact response times, and activation.
. These instructions are intended to minimize the activation of brain regions involved in visual memory to form a true resting brain state. After the scan is complete a control has been formed which can be compared with activated regions of the brain while performing visual memory tasks.
of working memory
. It is responsible for temporarily storing visual
and spatial information, which is currently being used or encoded
. It is thought of as a 3 dimensional cognitive map
, which contains spatial features about where the person is and visual images of the area, or an object being concentrated
on. It is used in tasks such as mental image
manipulation where a person imagines
how a real object would look if it were changed in some way (rotated
, flipped, moved, change of colour
, etc.). It is also responsible for representing how vivid an image is. A vivid image is one which you have a high potential for retrieving
its sensory details. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is responsible for holding onto the visual and spatial qualities of a vivid image
in your working memory
, and the degree of vividness is directly affected by the limits of the sketchpad.
or photographic memory
refers to a person whose memory
is nearly perfect for images
. They also represent images on their visuo-spatial sketchpad in almost life-like vividness.
is the visual
part of the sensory memory
system
. Iconic memory
is responsible for visual priming, because it works very quickly and subconsciously
. Iconic memory decays
very quickly, but contains a very vivid image of the surrounding stimuli.
is a person’s knowledge
of the space around them, and their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories
of areas and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is distinct from object memory
and involves different parts of the brain
. Spatial memory involves the dorsal parts of the brain and more specifically the hippocampus
. However many times both types of memory are used together, such as when trying to remember where you put a lost object
. A classic test of spatial memory is the Corsi block-tapping task, where an instructor taps a series of blocks in a random
order
and the participant attempts to imitate
them. The amount of blocks they can tap before performance
breaks down on average
is called their Corsi span. Spatial memory is always being used whenever a person is moving any part of their body; therefore it is generally more vulnerable
to decay
then object memory is.
, color
, size
, and orientation
. It is processed mainly in the ventral regions of the brain
. A few studies have shown that on average most people can recall up to four items each with a set of four different visual
qualities. It is a separate system from spatial memory
and is not affected by interference
from spatial tasks.
and Gary Wells. In one study by Wells, individuals were exposed to misleading information after witnessing an event; they were then tested on their ability to remember details from this event. Their findings included: when given misinformation that contradicts the witnessed event they were less able to recall those details; and whether misinformation was given before or after the witnessed event did not seem to matter. Furthermore, visual memory can be subjected to various memory errors
which will affect accuracy.
environment, entails work with pictures, symbols, numbers, letters, and especially words. Students
must be able to look at a word, form an image of that word in their minds and be able to recall the appearance of the word later. When teachers
introduce a new vocabulary word, generally they write it on the chalkboard
, have the children spell it, read it and then use it in a sentence. The word is then erased from the chalkboard. Students with good visual memory will recognize that same word later in their readers or other texts and will be able to recall the appearance of the word to spell it.
Children
who have not developed their visual memory skills cannot readily reproduce a sequence of visual stimuli. They frequently experience difficulty in remembering the overall visual appearance of words or the letter sequence of words for reading and spelling.
It has also been found that there are gender differences between males and females in regards to visual memory and sleep. In a study done testing sleep and memory for pictures it was found that daytime sleep contributed to retention of source memory rather than item memory in females, females did not have recollection or familiarity influenced by daytime sleep, whereas males undergoing daytime sleep had a trend towards increased familiarity. The reasons for this may be linked to different memory traces resulting from different encoding strategies, as well as with different electrophysiological changes during daytime sleep.
is another factor that has been found to have an effect on visual memory. Memory impairment affects both novel and familiar experiences. Poor memory after damage to the brain is usually considered to result from information being lost or rendered inaccessible. With such impairment it is assumed that it must be due to the incorrect interpretation of previously encountered information as being novel. In experiments testing rats’ object recognition memory it was found that memory impairment can be the opposite, that there was a tendency to treat novel experiences as familiar. A possible solution for this impairment could be the use of a visual-restriction procedure that reduces interference.
As we age performance in regards to spatial configurations deteriorates. In a task to store and combine two different spatial configurations to form a novel one young people out-performed the elderly. Vision also has an effect on performance. Sighted participants outperformed the visually impaired regardless of testing modality. This suggests that vision tends to shape the general supramodal mechanisms of memory.
on visual memory. In a recent study visual working memory and its neutral correlates was assessed in university students who partake in binge drinking
, the intermittent consumption of large amounts of alcohol. The findings revealed that there may be binge-drinking related functional alteration in recognition working memory processes. This suggests that impaired prefrontal cortex
function may occur at an early age in binge drinkers.
Another study conducted in 2004 examined the level of response to alcohol and brain response during visual working memory. This study looked at the neural correlated of the low level of response to alcohol using functional magnetic resonance imaging
during a challenging visual memory task. The results were that young people who report having needed more alcohol to feel the effects showed higher levels of brain response during visual working memory, this suggests that the individual’s capacity to adjust to cognitive processing decreases, they are less able to adjust cognitive processing to contextual demands.
are different and not necessarily associated with deficits in visual perception
. One common group of people that have this problem are children with reading disabilities
. It was often thought that disabilities are caused by failure to perceive the letters
of a written word in the right order. However, studies show it is more likely that it is caused by a failure to encode
and process the correct order of letters within the word. This means that the child perceives the word just as anyone else would, however their brains do not appear to hold onto the visual characteristics of the word. Although initially it was found that children with reading disabilities had comparable visual memory to those without difficulty, a more specific part of the visual memory system has been found to cause reading disabilities.
These parts are the sustained and transient visual processing
systems. The sustained system is responsible for fine detail such as word and letter recognition and is very important in encoding
words in their correct order. The transient system is responsible for controlling eye movements, and processing the larger visual environment around us. When these two processes do not work in synchronization
this can cause reading disabilities
. This has been tested by having children
with and without reading disabilities perform on tasks related to the transient systems, where the children with reading disabilities did very poorly. It has also been found in postmortem examinations
of the brains
of people with reading disabilities that they have less neurons
and connections in the areas representing the transient visual systems. However there is debate over whether this is the only reason for reading disabilities, scotopic sensitivity syndrome
, deficits in verbal memory and orthographic knowledge are other proposed factors.
Deficits in visual memory can also be caused by disease
and/or trauma to the brain
. These can lead to the patient losing their spatial memory
, and/or their visual memory
for specific things. For example a patient “L.E.” suffered brain damage
and her ability to draw from memory was severely diminished, whilst her spatial memory remained normal. Other patients represent the opposite, where memory for colors
and shapes
is unaffected but spatial memory for previously known places is greatly impaired. These case studies show that these two types of visual memory are located in different parts of the brain and are somewhat unrelated in terms of functioning in daily life.
Encoding (Memory)
Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the...
, storage
Storage (memory)
Storage in human memory is one of three core process of memory, along with Recall and Encoding. It refers to the retention of information, which has been achieved through the encoding process, in brain for prolonged period of time until it is accessed by the recall process...
and retrieval
Recall (memory)
Recall in memory refers to the retrieval of events or information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall...
of the resulting neural representations. Visual memory occurs over a broad time range spanning from eye movements to years in order to visually navigate to a previously visited location. Visual memory is a form of memory which preserves some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. We are able to place in memory visual information which resembles objects, places, animals or people in a mental image. The experience of visual memory is also referred to as the mind's eye
Mind's eye
The phrase "mind's eye" refers to the human ability for visualization, i.e., for the experiencing of visual mental imagery; in other words, one's ability to "see" things with the mind.- Physical basis :...
through which we can retrieve from our memory a mental image of original objects, places, animals
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
or people
People
People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:* as the plural of person or a group of people People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:*...
.
Neuroanatomy
In humans, areas specialized for object vision in the ventral stream have a more inferior location in the temporal cortexTemporal lobe
The temporal lobe is a region of the cerebral cortex that is located beneath the Sylvian fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain....
, whereas areas specialized for spatial vision in the dorsal stream have a more superior location in the parietal cortex. However, this two streams hypothesis although useful is a simplification of the visual system as the two streams maintain intercommunications along their entire rostral course.
Posterior parietal cortex
The posterior parietal cortexPosterior parietal cortex
The posterior parietal cortex plays an important role in producing planned movements. Before an effective movement can be initiated, the nervous system must know the original positions of the body parts that are to be moved, and the positions of any external objects with which the body is going to...
is a portion of the parietal lobe
Parietal lobe
The parietal lobe is a part of the Brain positioned above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe.The parietal lobe integrates sensory information from different modalities, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation. For example, it comprises somatosensory cortex and the...
, which manipulates mental images, and integrates sensory and motor portions of the brain.
A majority of experiments highlights a role of human posterior parietal cortex in visual working memory
Working memory
Working memory has been defined as the system which actively holds information in the mind to do verbal and nonverbal tasks such as reasoning and comprehension, and to make it available for further information processing...
and attention. We therefore have to establish a clear separation of visual memory and attention from processes related to the planning of goal-directed motor behaviors.
We can only hold in mind a minute fraction of the visual scene. These mental representations are stored in visual short-term memory. Activity in the posterior parietal cortex is tightly correlated with the limited amount of scene information that can be stored in visual short-term memory. These results suggest that the posterior parietal cortex is a key neural locus of our impoverished mental representation of the visual world.
The posterior cortex might act as a capacity-limited store for the representation of the visual scene, the frontal/prefrontal cortex might be necessary for the consolidation
Memory consolidation
Memory consolidation is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after the initial acquisition. Consolidation is distinguished into two specific processes, synaptic consolidation, which occurs within the first few hours after learning, and system consolidation, where...
and/or maintenance of this store, especially during extended retention intervals.
Visual cortex
Visual cortex
The visual cortex of the brain is the part of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual information. It is located in the occipital lobe, in the back of the brain....
in each hemisphere
Cerebral hemisphere
A cerebral hemisphere is one of the two regions of the eutherian brain that are delineated by the median plane, . The brain can thus be described as being divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each of these hemispheres has an outer layer of grey matter called the cerebral cortex that is...
of the brain. The left hemisphere visual cortex receives signals mainly from the right visual field and the right visual cortex mainly from the left visual field. The cortical area receives information from subcortical regions, such as the lateral geniculate body
Lateral geniculate nucleus
The lateral geniculate nucleus is the primary relay center for visual information received from the retina of the eye. The LGN is found inside the thalamus of the brain....
. However, ample evidence indicates that object identity and location are preferentially processed in ventral (occipito-temporal) and dorsal (parietal) cortical visual streams.
Comparison of rCBF during performance of the two tasks again revealed differences between the ventral and dorsal pathways.
Dorsal stream pathway
Dorsal stream pathways are mainly involved in visual-spatial location also known as the 'where' pathway.Ventral stream pathway
Ventral stream pathways are mainly involved in object recognition also known as the 'what' pathway.Occipital lobes
Located at the back of the brain, the occipital lobesOccipital lobe
The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex. The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1...
receive and process visual information. The occipital lobes also process colors and shapes. Whereas the right occipital lobe interprets images from the left visual space, the left occipital lobe interprets images from the right visual space. Damage to the occipital lobes can permanently damage visual perception
Occipital lobe injury complications
Damage to the occipital lobe is characterized by loss of visual capability and the inability to identify colors both important processes in visual memory.Short term visual memory
Visual short term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time. Visual short term memory is essential for the execution of a wide array of perceptual and cognitive functions, and is supported by an extensive network of brain regions, its storage capacity is severely limited.Visual short-term memory storage is mediated by distinctive posterior brain mechanisms, such that capacity is determined both by a fixed number of objects and by object complexity.
Long term visual memory
Recall of the patterns from long term visual memory is associated with rCBF increases in different areas of the prefrontal cortexPrefrontal cortex
The prefrontal cortex is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas.This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behaviors, personality expression, decision making and moderating correct social behavior...
and the anterior cingulate cortex
Anterior cingulate cortex
The anterior cingulate cortex is the frontal part of the cingulate cortex, that resembles a "collar" form around the corpus callosum, the fibrous bundle that relays neural signals between the right and left cerebral hemispheres of the brain...
.
Benton visual retention test
The Benton Visual Retention Test is an assessment of visual perceptionVisual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
, and visual memory abilities
Intelligence
Intelligence has been defined in different ways, including the abilities for abstract thought, understanding, communication, reasoning, learning, planning, emotional intelligence and problem solving....
. More than 50 years of proven clinical use is the staple of the Benton Visual Retention Test. This test has proven its sensitivity
Sensitivity and specificity
Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures of the performance of a binary classification test, also known in statistics as classification function. Sensitivity measures the proportion of actual positives which are correctly identified as such Sensitivity and specificity are statistical...
to reading disabilities
Reading disability
A reading disability is a condition in which a sufferer displays difficulty reading resulting primarily from neurological factors. Developmental Dyslexia, Alexia , and Hyperlexia.-Definition:...
, nonverbal learning disabilities
Nonverbal learning disorder
A nonverbal learning disorder or nonverbal learning disability is a condition characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal and lower motor, visuo-spatial, and social skills on an IQ test...
, traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury , also known as intracranial injury, occurs when an external force traumatically injures the brain. TBI can be classified based on severity, mechanism , or other features...
, attention-deficit disorder, alzheimer's
Alzheimer's disease
Alzheimer's disease also known in medical literature as Alzheimer disease is the most common form of dementia. There is no cure for the disease, which worsens as it progresses, and eventually leads to death...
, and other forms of dementia
Dementia
Dementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging...
. During testing participants are presented with 10 cards for 10 seconds with unique designs on each. After the time has passed participants are asked to immediately reproduce the designs from each card using their visual memory. In the second stage participants are asked to copy each of the 10 card designs while the cards are in view. The participants results from each task are then assessed and placed into six categories; omissions, distortions
Distortion
A distortion is the alteration of the original shape of an object, image, sound, waveform or other form of information or representation. Distortion is usually unwanted, and often many methods are employed to minimize it in practice...
, preservations, rotations
Rotation
A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates always around an imaginary line called a rotation axis. If the axis is within the body, and passes through its center of mass the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spin. A rotation...
, misplacements, and sizing errors. The further the participant’s scores
Test score
A test score is a piece of information, usually a number, that conveys the performance of an examinee on a test. One formal definition is that it is "a summary of the evidence contained in an examinee's responses to the items of a test that are related to the construct or constructs being...
varies from the averages
Average
In mathematics, an average, or central tendency of a data set is a measure of the "middle" value of the data set. Average is one form of central tendency. Not all central tendencies should be considered definitions of average....
provided in the Benton Visual Retention Test manual the worse the participant is assessed to be on visual memory ability. The Benton Visual Retention Test has proved to be a generalizable test with the ability to be accurately administered to participants aged 8-adult, and no gender effect. Some studies have suggested a significant gender
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
and education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
interaction
Interaction (statistics)
In statistics, an interaction may arise when considering the relationship among three or more variables, and describes a situation in which the simultaneous influence of two variables on a third is not additive...
indicating that an age-associated decline in visual memory performance may be more prominent for those individuals with a lower education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
level.
Neuroimaging tests
NeuroimagingNeuroimaging
Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/pharmacology of the brain...
studies focus on the neural networks
Neural network
The term neural network was traditionally used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons. The modern usage of the term often refers to artificial neural networks, which are composed of artificial neurons or nodes...
involved in visual memory
Memory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
using methods designed to activate brain areas involved in encoding
Encoding (Memory)
Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the...
, storage
Storage (memory)
Storage in human memory is one of three core process of memory, along with Recall and Encoding. It refers to the retention of information, which has been achieved through the encoding process, in brain for prolonged period of time until it is accessed by the recall process...
, and recall
Recall (memory)
Recall in memory refers to the retrieval of events or information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall...
. These studies involve the use of one or multiple types of brain imaging techniques designed to measure timing or activation within the brain. The data collected from neuroimaging studies gives researchers the ability to visualize which brain regions are activated in specific cognitive visual memory tasks. With the use of brain imaging devices researchers able to further investigate memory performance above and beyond standard tests based on exact response times, and activation.
Control condition
The subjects resting brain activation level is first determined in order to form a control or 'baseline' to measure from. Subjects are blindfolded and instructed to lay motionless while simultaneously eliminating any visual imagery present in their mind's eyeMind's eye
The phrase "mind's eye" refers to the human ability for visualization, i.e., for the experiencing of visual mental imagery; in other words, one's ability to "see" things with the mind.- Physical basis :...
. These instructions are intended to minimize the activation of brain regions involved in visual memory to form a true resting brain state. After the scan is complete a control has been formed which can be compared with activated regions of the brain while performing visual memory tasks.
Activation condition
During encoding participants are typically exposed to 1-10 visual patterns while connected to a brain imaging device. As the subject encodes the visual patterns researchers are able to directly view the activation of areas involved in visual memory encoding. During recall subjects again need to have all visual stimuli removed by means of a dark room or blindfolding to avoid interfering activation of other visual areas in the brain. Subjects are asked to recall each image clearly in their minds eye. While recalling the images researchers are able view the areas activated by the visual memory task. Comparing the control ‘baseline’ state to the activated areas during the visual memory task allows researchers to view which areas are used during visual memory.Visio-spatial sketch pad
The visual spatial sketchpad is part of Baddeley and Hitch’s modelBaddeley's Model of Working Memory
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed a model of working memory in 1974, in an attempt to describe a more accurate model of short-term memory....
of working memory
Working memory
Working memory has been defined as the system which actively holds information in the mind to do verbal and nonverbal tasks such as reasoning and comprehension, and to make it available for further information processing...
. It is responsible for temporarily storing visual
Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
and spatial information, which is currently being used or encoded
Encoding (Memory)
Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the...
. It is thought of as a 3 dimensional cognitive map
Cognitive map
Cognitive maps are a type of mental processing composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual can acquire, code, store, recall, and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday or metaphorical spatial environment.The...
, which contains spatial features about where the person is and visual images of the area, or an object being concentrated
Flow (psychology)
Flow is the mental state of operation in which a person in an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and success in the process of the activity. Proposed by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, the positive psychology concept has been widely referenced across a variety of...
on. It is used in tasks such as mental image
Mental image
A mental image is an experience that, on most occasions, significantly resembles the experience of perceiving some object, event, or scene, but occurs when the relevant object, event, or scene is not actually present to the senses...
manipulation where a person imagines
Imagination
Imagination, also called the faculty of imagining, is the ability of forming mental images, sensations and concepts, in a moment when they are not perceived through sight, hearing or other senses...
how a real object would look if it were changed in some way (rotated
Rotation
A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates always around an imaginary line called a rotation axis. If the axis is within the body, and passes through its center of mass the body is said to rotate upon itself, or spin. A rotation...
, flipped, moved, change of colour
Color
Color or colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, green, blue and others. Color derives from the spectrum of light interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors...
, etc.). It is also responsible for representing how vivid an image is. A vivid image is one which you have a high potential for retrieving
Recall (memory)
Recall in memory refers to the retrieval of events or information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall...
its sensory details. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is responsible for holding onto the visual and spatial qualities of a vivid image
Image
An image is an artifact, for example a two-dimensional picture, that has a similar appearance to some subject—usually a physical object or a person.-Characteristics:...
in your working memory
Working memory
Working memory has been defined as the system which actively holds information in the mind to do verbal and nonverbal tasks such as reasoning and comprehension, and to make it available for further information processing...
, and the degree of vividness is directly affected by the limits of the sketchpad.
Eidetic or photographic memory
An eideticEidetic memory
Eidetic , commonly referred to as photographic memory, is a medical term, popularly defined as the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme precision and in abundant volume. The word eidetic, referring to extraordinarily detailed and vivid recall not limited to, but...
or photographic memory
Eidetic memory
Eidetic , commonly referred to as photographic memory, is a medical term, popularly defined as the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme precision and in abundant volume. The word eidetic, referring to extraordinarily detailed and vivid recall not limited to, but...
refers to a person whose memory
Memory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
is nearly perfect for images
Image
An image is an artifact, for example a two-dimensional picture, that has a similar appearance to some subject—usually a physical object or a person.-Characteristics:...
. They also represent images on their visuo-spatial sketchpad in almost life-like vividness.
Iconic memory
Iconic memoryIconic memory
Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory register pertaining to the visual domain. It is a component of the visual memory system which also includes visual short term memory and long term memory . Iconic memory is described as a very brief . A small decrease in visual persistence occurs with age...
is the visual
Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
part of the sensory memory
Memory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
system
System
System is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated whole....
. Iconic memory
Iconic memory
Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory register pertaining to the visual domain. It is a component of the visual memory system which also includes visual short term memory and long term memory . Iconic memory is described as a very brief . A small decrease in visual persistence occurs with age...
is responsible for visual priming, because it works very quickly and subconsciously
Subconscious
The term subconscious is used in many different contexts and has no single or precise definition. This greatly limits its significance as a definition-bearing concept, and in consequence the word tends to be avoided in academic and scientific settings....
. Iconic memory decays
Decay theory
Decay theory proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. When we learn something new, a neurochemical “memory trace” is created. However, over time this...
very quickly, but contains a very vivid image of the surrounding stimuli.
Spatial memory
Spatial memorySpatial memory
In cognitive psychology and neuroscience, spatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city, just as a rat's spatial memory is...
is a person’s knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
of the space around them, and their whereabouts in it. It also encompasses all memories
Memory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
of areas and places, and how to get to and from them. Spatial memory is distinct from object memory
Memory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
and involves different parts of the brain
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
. Spatial memory involves the dorsal parts of the brain and more specifically the hippocampus
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is a major component of the brains of humans and other vertebrates. It belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory and spatial navigation. Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi, one in...
. However many times both types of memory are used together, such as when trying to remember where you put a lost object
Object
Object may refer to:* Object , a thing, being or concept** Entity, something that is tangible and within the grasp of the senses* As used in object relations theories of psychoanalysis, that to which a subject relates....
. A classic test of spatial memory is the Corsi block-tapping task, where an instructor taps a series of blocks in a random
Random (disambiguation)
Random can refer to:* Randomness, the property of lacking any sort of order.-Science and technology:* Random number* Random variable* /dev/random, a Unix device file* See also :Category:Randomness-Places:* Random Lake, Wisconsin...
order
Order
-Ordinality:*Collation, the sequencing and ordering of text**Alphabetical order**Lexicographical order*Order of precedence-Philosophy:* Natural order * Implicate and explicate order according to David Bohm-Science and mathematics:...
and the participant attempts to imitate
Imitation
Imitation is an advanced behavior whereby an individual observes and replicates another's. The word can be applied in many contexts, ranging from animal training to international politics.-Anthropology and social sciences:...
them. The amount of blocks they can tap before performance
Performance
A performance, in performing arts, generally comprises an event in which a performer or group of performers behave in a particular way for another group of people, the audience. Choral music and ballet are examples. Usually the performers participate in rehearsals beforehand. Afterwards audience...
breaks down on average
Average
In mathematics, an average, or central tendency of a data set is a measure of the "middle" value of the data set. Average is one form of central tendency. Not all central tendencies should be considered definitions of average....
is called their Corsi span. Spatial memory is always being used whenever a person is moving any part of their body; therefore it is generally more vulnerable
Vulnerability
Vulnerability refer to the susceptibility of a person, group, society, sex or system to physical or emotional injury or attack. The term can also refer to a person who lets their guard down, leaving themselves open to censure or criticism...
to decay
Decay theory
Decay theory proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. When we learn something new, a neurochemical “memory trace” is created. However, over time this...
then object memory is.
Object memory
Object memory involves processing features of an object or material such as textureTexture (visual arts)
In the visual arts, texture is the perceived surface quality of a work of art. It is an element of two-dimensional and three-dimensional design and is distinguished by its perceived visual and physical properties...
, color
Color
Color or colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, green, blue and others. Color derives from the spectrum of light interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors...
, size
Dimension
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a space or object is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it. Thus a line has a dimension of one because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it...
, and orientation
Orientation (geometry)
In geometry the orientation, angular position, or attitude of an object such as a line, plane or rigid body is part of the description of how it is placed in the space it is in....
. It is processed mainly in the ventral regions of the brain
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
. A few studies have shown that on average most people can recall up to four items each with a set of four different visual
Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
qualities. It is a separate system from spatial memory
Spatial memory
In cognitive psychology and neuroscience, spatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city, just as a rat's spatial memory is...
and is not affected by interference
Interference theory
-History:Bergström, a German psychologist, is credited as conducting the first study regarding interference in 1892. His experiment was similar to the Stroop task and required subjects to sort two decks of card with words into two piles. When the location was changed for the second pile, sorting...
from spatial tasks.
Accuracy
Visual memory is not always accurate and can be misled by outside conditions. This can be seen in studies carried out by Elizabeth LoftusElizabeth Loftus
Elizabeth F. Loftus is an American psychologist and expert on human memory. She has conducted extensive research on the misinformation effect and the nature of false memories. Loftus has been recognized throughout the world for her work, receiving numerous awards and honorary degrees...
and Gary Wells. In one study by Wells, individuals were exposed to misleading information after witnessing an event; they were then tested on their ability to remember details from this event. Their findings included: when given misinformation that contradicts the witnessed event they were less able to recall those details; and whether misinformation was given before or after the witnessed event did not seem to matter. Furthermore, visual memory can be subjected to various memory errors
Memory errors
Memory gaps and errors refer to the incorrect recall, or complete loss, of information in the memory system for a specific detail and/or event. Memory errors may include remembering events that never occurred, or remembering them differently from the way they actually happened...
which will affect accuracy.
Visual memory in education
Visual memory, in an academicAcademia
Academia is the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research.-Etymology:The word comes from the akademeia in ancient Greece. Outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning...
environment, entails work with pictures, symbols, numbers, letters, and especially words. Students
Student
A student is a learner, or someone who attends an educational institution. In some nations, the English term is reserved for those who attend university, while a schoolchild under the age of eighteen is called a pupil in English...
must be able to look at a word, form an image of that word in their minds and be able to recall the appearance of the word later. When teachers
Teacher
A teacher or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils and students . The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional...
introduce a new vocabulary word, generally they write it on the chalkboard
Chalkboard
A chalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Chalkboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone...
, have the children spell it, read it and then use it in a sentence. The word is then erased from the chalkboard. Students with good visual memory will recognize that same word later in their readers or other texts and will be able to recall the appearance of the word to spell it.
Children
Child
Biologically, a child is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty. Some vernacular definitions of a child include the fetus, as being an unborn child. The legal definition of "child" generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority...
who have not developed their visual memory skills cannot readily reproduce a sequence of visual stimuli. They frequently experience difficulty in remembering the overall visual appearance of words or the letter sequence of words for reading and spelling.
Sleep
Findings surrounding sleep and visual memory have been mixed. Studies have reported performance increases after a bout of sleep compared with the same period of waking. The implications of this are that there is a slow, offline process during sleep that strengthens and enhances the memory trace. Further studies have found that quiet rest has shown the same learning benefits as sleep. Replay has been found to occur during post-training quiet wakefulness as well as sleep. In a recent study where a visual search task was administered quiet rest or sleep is found to be necessary for increasing the amount of associations between configurations and target locations that can be learned within a day. Reactivation in sleep was only observed after extensive training of rodents on familiar tasks. It rapidly dissipates; it also makes up a small proportion of total recorded activity in sleep.It has also been found that there are gender differences between males and females in regards to visual memory and sleep. In a study done testing sleep and memory for pictures it was found that daytime sleep contributed to retention of source memory rather than item memory in females, females did not have recollection or familiarity influenced by daytime sleep, whereas males undergoing daytime sleep had a trend towards increased familiarity. The reasons for this may be linked to different memory traces resulting from different encoding strategies, as well as with different electrophysiological changes during daytime sleep.
Brain Damage
Brain damageBrain damage
"Brain damage" or "brain injury" is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain injuries occur due to a wide range of internal and external factors...
is another factor that has been found to have an effect on visual memory. Memory impairment affects both novel and familiar experiences. Poor memory after damage to the brain is usually considered to result from information being lost or rendered inaccessible. With such impairment it is assumed that it must be due to the incorrect interpretation of previously encountered information as being novel. In experiments testing rats’ object recognition memory it was found that memory impairment can be the opposite, that there was a tendency to treat novel experiences as familiar. A possible solution for this impairment could be the use of a visual-restriction procedure that reduces interference.
Age
Studies have shown that with aging, in terms of short-term visual memory, viewing time and task complexity have an impact on performance. When there is a delay or when the task is complex recall declines. In a study conducted to measure whether visual memory in older adults with age-related visual decline was caused by memory performance or visual functioning, the following were examined: relationships among age, visual activity, and visual and verbal memory in 89 community dwelling volunteers aged 60-87 years. The findings were that the effect of vision was not specific to visual memory. Therefore vision was found to be correlated with general memory function in older adults and is not modality specific.As we age performance in regards to spatial configurations deteriorates. In a task to store and combine two different spatial configurations to form a novel one young people out-performed the elderly. Vision also has an effect on performance. Sighted participants outperformed the visually impaired regardless of testing modality. This suggests that vision tends to shape the general supramodal mechanisms of memory.
Alcohol
Studies have shown that there is an effect of alcoholAlcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
on visual memory. In a recent study visual working memory and its neutral correlates was assessed in university students who partake in binge drinking
Binge drinking
Binge drinking or heavy episodic drinking is the modern epithet for drinking alcoholic beverages with the primary intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time. It is a kind of purposeful drinking style that is popular in several countries worldwide,...
, the intermittent consumption of large amounts of alcohol. The findings revealed that there may be binge-drinking related functional alteration in recognition working memory processes. This suggests that impaired prefrontal cortex
Prefrontal cortex
The prefrontal cortex is the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas.This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behaviors, personality expression, decision making and moderating correct social behavior...
function may occur at an early age in binge drinkers.
Another study conducted in 2004 examined the level of response to alcohol and brain response during visual working memory. This study looked at the neural correlated of the low level of response to alcohol using functional magnetic resonance imaging
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI is a type of specialized MRI scan used to measure the hemodynamic response related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. It is one of the most recently developed forms of neuroimaging...
during a challenging visual memory task. The results were that young people who report having needed more alcohol to feel the effects showed higher levels of brain response during visual working memory, this suggests that the individual’s capacity to adjust to cognitive processing decreases, they are less able to adjust cognitive processing to contextual demands.
Deficits of visual memory
Deficits in visual memoryMemory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
are different and not necessarily associated with deficits in visual perception
Visual perception
Visual perception is the ability to interpret information and surroundings from the effects of visible light reaching the eye. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight, or vision...
. One common group of people that have this problem are children with reading disabilities
Reading disability
A reading disability is a condition in which a sufferer displays difficulty reading resulting primarily from neurological factors. Developmental Dyslexia, Alexia , and Hyperlexia.-Definition:...
. It was often thought that disabilities are caused by failure to perceive the letters
Letter (alphabet)
A letter is a grapheme in an alphabetic system of writing, such as the Greek alphabet and its descendants. Letters compose phonemes and each phoneme represents a phone in the spoken form of the language....
of a written word in the right order. However, studies show it is more likely that it is caused by a failure to encode
Encoding (Memory)
Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the...
and process the correct order of letters within the word. This means that the child perceives the word just as anyone else would, however their brains do not appear to hold onto the visual characteristics of the word. Although initially it was found that children with reading disabilities had comparable visual memory to those without difficulty, a more specific part of the visual memory system has been found to cause reading disabilities.
These parts are the sustained and transient visual processing
Visual processing
Visual processing is the sequence of steps that information takes as it flows from visual sensors to cognitive processing. The sensors may be zoological eyes or they may be cameras or sensor arrays that sense various portions of the electromagnetic spectrum....
systems. The sustained system is responsible for fine detail such as word and letter recognition and is very important in encoding
Encoding (Memory)
Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows the perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the...
words in their correct order. The transient system is responsible for controlling eye movements, and processing the larger visual environment around us. When these two processes do not work in synchronization
Synchronization
Synchronization is timekeeping which requires the coordination of events to operate a system in unison. The familiar conductor of an orchestra serves to keep the orchestra in time....
this can cause reading disabilities
Reading disability
A reading disability is a condition in which a sufferer displays difficulty reading resulting primarily from neurological factors. Developmental Dyslexia, Alexia , and Hyperlexia.-Definition:...
. This has been tested by having children
Child
Biologically, a child is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty. Some vernacular definitions of a child include the fetus, as being an unborn child. The legal definition of "child" generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority...
with and without reading disabilities perform on tasks related to the transient systems, where the children with reading disabilities did very poorly. It has also been found in postmortem examinations
Autopsy
An autopsy—also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy , autopsia cadaverum, or obduction—is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present...
of the brains
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
of people with reading disabilities that they have less neurons
Neuron
A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
and connections in the areas representing the transient visual systems. However there is debate over whether this is the only reason for reading disabilities, scotopic sensitivity syndrome
Scotopic sensitivity syndrome
Scotopic sensitivity syndrome, also known as Irlen Syndrome and Visual Stress Syndrome, approximating in some ways to Meares Irlen syndrome, and 'Visual Stress', refers to visual perceptual disorder affecting primarily reading and writing based activities...
, deficits in verbal memory and orthographic knowledge are other proposed factors.
Deficits in visual memory can also be caused by disease
Disease
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
and/or trauma to the brain
Traumatic brain injury
Traumatic brain injury , also known as intracranial injury, occurs when an external force traumatically injures the brain. TBI can be classified based on severity, mechanism , or other features...
. These can lead to the patient losing their spatial memory
Spatial memory
In cognitive psychology and neuroscience, spatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city, just as a rat's spatial memory is...
, and/or their visual memory
Memory
In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and experiences. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of philosophy, including techniques of artificially enhancing memory....
for specific things. For example a patient “L.E.” suffered brain damage
Brain damage
"Brain damage" or "brain injury" is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain injuries occur due to a wide range of internal and external factors...
and her ability to draw from memory was severely diminished, whilst her spatial memory remained normal. Other patients represent the opposite, where memory for colors
Color
Color or colour is the visual perceptual property corresponding in humans to the categories called red, green, blue and others. Color derives from the spectrum of light interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the light receptors...
and shapes
Shape
The shape of an object located in some space is a geometrical description of the part of that space occupied by the object, as determined by its external boundary – abstracting from location and orientation in space, size, and other properties such as colour, content, and material...
is unaffected but spatial memory for previously known places is greatly impaired. These case studies show that these two types of visual memory are located in different parts of the brain and are somewhat unrelated in terms of functioning in daily life.