Pulp (paper)
Encyclopedia
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres
from wood
, fibre crops or waste paper
. Wood pulp is the most common raw material in papermaking
.
is a fairly recent innovation. In the 1800s, fibre crops such as linen
fibres were the primary material source, and paper was a relatively expensive commodity. The use of wood to make pulp for paper began with the development of mechanical pulping in Germany by F.G. Keller in the 1840s, and by the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty
in Nova Scotia
. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roth's use of sulfurous acid
to treat wood, followed by B. Tilghman's U.S. patent
on the use of calcium bisulfite
, Ca(HSO3)2, to pulp wood in 1867. Almost a decade later the first commercial sulfite pulp mill
was built in Sweden. It used magnesium
as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman
. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, surpassing mechanical pulping methods. The competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate or kraft process
was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879 and the first kraft mill started (in Sweden) in 1890. The invention of the recovery boiler
by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals. This, along with the ability of the kraft process to accept a wider variety of types of wood and produce stronger fibres made the kraft process the dominant pulping process starting in the 1940s.
Global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 160 million tonnes (175 million tons). In the previous year, 57 million tonnes (63 million tons) of market pulp (not made into paper in the same facility) was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21% of the total, followed by the United States at 16%. Chemical pulp made up 93% of market pulp.
resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood
. Wood pulp comes from softwood
trees such as spruce
, pine
, fir
, larch
and hemlock
, and hardwood
s such as eucalyptus
, aspen
and birch
.
A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber source into a thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods (kraft and sulfite processes). The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements.
Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibres (desired for papermaking), lignin
(a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibers together) and hemicellulose
s, (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibers.
Chemical pulping achieves this by degrading the lignin and hemicellulose into small, water-soluble molecules which can be washed away from the cellulose fibers without depolymerizing the cellulose fibres (chemically depolymerizing the cellulose weakens the fibres). The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood (GW) and refiner mechanical (RMP) pulping, physically tear the cellulose fibres one from another. Much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibers. Strength is impaired because the fibres may be cut. There are a number of related hybrid pulping methods that use a combination of chemical and thermal treatment to begin an abbreviated chemical pulping process, followed immediately by a mechanical treatment to separate the fibers. These hybrid methods include thermomechanical pulping, also known as TMP, and chemithermomechanical pulping, also known as CTMP. The chemical and thermal treatments reduce the amount of energy subsequently required by the mechanical treatment, and also reduce the amount of strength loss suffered by the fibers.
Global pulp production by category (2000)
practices in harvesting trees to ensure that they have a sustainable source of raw materials. One of the major complaints about harvesting wood for pulp mills is that it reduces the biodiversity
of the harvested forest. Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 42 percent of world pulp production, old growth forests account for 9 percent, and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the rest. Reforestation
is practiced in most areas, so trees are a renewable resource. The FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certifies paper made from trees harvested according to guidelines meant to ensure good forestry practices.
The number of trees consumed depends on whether mechanical processes or chemical processes are used. It has been estimated that based on a mixture of softwoods and hardwoods 12 metres (40 ft) tall and 15-20 centimetres (6–8 in) in diameter, it would take an average of 24 trees to produce 0.9 tonne (1 ton) of printing and writing paper, using the kraft process
(chemical pulping). Mechanical pulping is about twice as efficient in using trees since almost all of the wood is used to make fibre therefore it takes about 12 trees to make 0.9 tonne (1 ton) of mechanical pulp or newsprint
.
There are roughly 2 short tons in a cord of wood.
products and mulch
. Only the heartwood and sapwood
are useful for making pulp. Bark
contains relatively few useful fibres and is removed and used as fuel to provide steam for use in the pulp mill. Most pulping processes require that the wood be chipped and screened to provide uniform sized chips.
s with embedded silicon carbide
or aluminum oxide can be used to grind small wood logs called "bolts" to make stone groundwood pulp (SGW). If the wood is steamed prior to grinding it is known as pressure groundwood pulp (PGW). Most modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If the chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is called refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) and if the chips are steamed while being refined the pulp is called thermomechanical pulp (TMP). Steam treatment significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage (cutting) to fibres. Mechanical pulps are used for products that require less strength, such as newsprint
and paperboard
s.
) and a mechanical refining movement (thus mechanical). It is a two stage process where the logs are first stripped of their bark
and converted into small chips. These chips have a moisture content of around 25-30% and a mechanical force is applied to the wood chips in a crushing or grinding action which generates heat and water vapour and softens the lignin
thus separating the individual fibres. The pulp is then screened and cleaned, any clumps of fibre are reprocessed. This process gives a high yield of fibre from the timber
(around 95%) and as the lignin has not been removed, the fibres are hard and rigid.
, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfite
and other chemicals prior to refining with equipment similar to a mechanical mill. The conditions of the chemical treatment are much less vigorous (lower temperature, shorter time, less extreme pH
) than in a chemical pulping process since the goal is to make the fibres easier to refine, not to remove lignin as in a fully chemical process. Pulps made using these hybrid processes are known as chemithermomechanical pulps (CTMP).
Chemical pulp is produced by combining wood chips and chemicals in large vessels known as digester
s where heat and the chemicals break down the lignin, which binds the cellulose
fibres together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibres. Chemical pulp is used for materials that need to be stronger or combined with mechanical pulps to give a product different characteristics. The kraft process
is the dominant chemical pulping method, with sulfite process
being second. Historically soda pulping
was the first successful chemical pulping method.
which has been processed by chemicals, thus removing printing inks and other unwanted elements and freed the paper fibres. The process is called deinking
.
DIP is used as raw material in papermaking
. Many newsprint
, toilet paper
and facial tissue
grades commonly contain 100% deinked pulp and in many other grades, such as lightweight coated for offset and printing and writing papers for office and home use, DIP makes up a substantial proportion of the furnish.
that are able to break down the unwanted lignin, but not the cellulose fibres. This could have major environmental benefits
in reducing the pollution associated with chemical pulping. The pulp is bleached using chlorine dioxide stage followed by neutralization and calcium hypochlorite.The oxidizing agent in either case oxidizes and destroys the dyes formed from the tannins of the wood and accentuated (reinforced) by sulfides present in it.
Steam exploded fiber
is a pulping and extraction technique that has been applied to wood and other fibrous organic material.
to produce a white paper
product. The chemicals used to bleach pulp have been a source of environmental concern, and recently the pulp industry has been using alternatives to chlorine
, such as chlorine dioxide
, oxygen
, ozone
and hydrogen peroxide
.
. However, wood is also a renewable resource, with about 90% of pulp coming from plantations or reforested areas. Non-wood fibre sources account for about 5-10% of global pulp production, for a variety of reasons, including seasonal availability, problems with chemical recovery, brightness of the pulp etc. Non-wood pulp processing requires a high use of water and energy.
Nonwovens
are in some applications alternatives to paper made from wood pulp, like filter paper
or tea bag
s.
, dirt levels, viscosity and ash content. In 2004 about it produced about 55 million metric tons of market pulp.
.
is normally shipped on rolls (reels). This pulp is dried to 5 - 6 % moisture content. At the customer this is going to a comminution process to prepare for further processing.
s that are 15–17 m high. Gas fired hot air is the normal heat source. The temperature is well above the char point
of cellulose
, but large amount of moisture in the fibre wall
and lumen
prevents the fibres from being incinerated. It is often not dried down to 10 % moisture (air dry). The bales are not as densely packed as air dry pulp.
practices, using forest management
seek to provide a reliable, renewable source of raw materials for pulp mill
s. The practice of clear cutting is a particularly sensitive issue since it is a very visible effect of logging
. Reforestation
, the planting of tree seedlings on logged areas, has also been criticized for decreasing biodiversity
because reforested areas are monocultures.
Logging of old growth forest
s accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues.
, which guarantees that the effluents are not toxic in the recipient.
Mechanical pulp is not a major cause for environmental concern since most of the organic material is retained in the pulp, and the chemicals used (hydrogen peroxide
and sodium dithionite
) produce benign byproducts (water and sodium sulfate
(finally), respectively).
Chemical pulp mills, especially kraft mills, are energy self-sufficient and very nearly closed cycle with respect to inorganic chemicals.
Bleaching
with chlorine produces large amounts of organochlorine compounds, including dioxins.
, dimethyl sulfide
and dimethyl disulfide
. These compounds have extremely low odor thresholds and disagreeable smells. The same compounds are released in microbial decay, or into e.g. Camembert cheese, although the kraft process is a chemical one and does not involve any microbial degradation.
and board
production. The furnish of pulps used depends on the quality on the finished paper. Important quality paprameters are wood furnish
, brightness
, viscosity, extractives, dirt count and strength.
Chemical pulps are used for making nanocellulose
.
Speciality pulp grades have many other applications. Dissolving pulp
is used in making regenerated cellulose
that is used textile
and cellophane
produciton. It is also used to make cellulose
derivatives. Fluff pulp
is used in diapers, feminine hygiene
products and nonwovens.
, and it has been used in some variation since its conception. It accomplishes all the steps needed to transform a source of wood pulp into a final paper
product.
pulp sold for $650 /ton in the United States. The market had experienced a drop in price due to falling demand when newspapers reduced their size, in part, as a result of the recession.
Cellulose fiber
Cellulose fibers are fibres of cellulose from any source, either natural or manufactured.-Textile:In the textile industry regenerated cellulose is used as fibers such as rayon, . Cellulose fibers are manufactured from dissolving pulp...
from wood
Wood
Wood is a hard, fibrous tissue found in many trees. It has been used for hundreds of thousands of years for both fuel and as a construction material. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression...
, fibre crops or waste paper
Paper recycling
Paper recycling is the process of recovering waste paper and remaking it into new paper products. There are three categories of paper that can be used as feedstocks for making recycled paper: mill broke, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste. Mill broke is paper trimmings and other paper...
. Wood pulp is the most common raw material in papermaking
Papermaking
Papermaking is the process of making paper, a substance which is used universally today for writing and packaging.In papermaking a dilute suspension of fibres in water is drained through a screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is removed from this mat of fibres by...
.
History
Using wood to make paperPaper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
is a fairly recent innovation. In the 1800s, fibre crops such as linen
Linen
Linen is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum. Linen is labor-intensive to manufacture, but when it is made into garments, it is valued for its exceptional coolness and freshness in hot weather....
fibres were the primary material source, and paper was a relatively expensive commodity. The use of wood to make pulp for paper began with the development of mechanical pulping in Germany by F.G. Keller in the 1840s, and by the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty
Charles Fenerty
Charles Fenerty , is a Canadian inventor who invented the wood pulp process for papermaking, which was first adapted into the production of newsprint. Fenerty was also a poet...
in Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roth's use of sulfurous acid
Sulfurous acid
Sulfurous acid is the chemical compound with the formula H2SO3. There is no evidence that sulfurous acid exists in solution, but the molecule has been detected in the gas phase...
to treat wood, followed by B. Tilghman's U.S. patent
United States patent law
United States patent law was established "to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;" as provided by the United States Constitution. Congress implemented these...
on the use of calcium bisulfite
Calcium bisulfite
Calcium bisulfite is an inorganic compound which is the salt of a calcium cation and a bisulfite anion. It may be prepared by reacting lime with an excess of sulfurous acid, essentially a mixture of sulfur dioxide and water. It is a weak reducing agent, as is sulfur dioxide, sulfites, and any...
, Ca(HSO3)2, to pulp wood in 1867. Almost a decade later the first commercial sulfite pulp mill
Sulfite process
The sulfite process produces wood pulp which is almost pure cellulose fibers by using various salts of sulfurous acid to extract the lignin from wood chips in large pressure vessels called digesters. The salts used in the pulping process are either sulfites , or bisulfites , depending on the pH...
was built in Sweden. It used magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman
Carl Daniel Ekman
Carl Daniel Ekman was a Swedish chemical engineer who invented the form of the sulfite process of wood pulp manufacturing which was first established on a firm commercial basis, helping to replace rags as the main raw material of paper with wood pulp...
. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, surpassing mechanical pulping methods. The competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate or kraft process
Kraft process
The kraft process describes a technology for conversion of wood into wood pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibers...
was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879 and the first kraft mill started (in Sweden) in 1890. The invention of the recovery boiler
Recovery boiler
Recovery boiler is the part of Kraft process of pulping where chemicals for white liquor are recovered and reformed from black liquor, which contains lignin from previously processed wood. The black liquor is burned, generating heat, which is usually used in the process or in making electricity,...
by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals. This, along with the ability of the kraft process to accept a wider variety of types of wood and produce stronger fibres made the kraft process the dominant pulping process starting in the 1940s.
Global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 160 million tonnes (175 million tons). In the previous year, 57 million tonnes (63 million tons) of market pulp (not made into paper in the same facility) was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21% of the total, followed by the United States at 16%. Chemical pulp made up 93% of market pulp.
Manufacture of wood pulp
The timberTimber
Timber may refer to:* Timber, a term common in the United Kingdom and Australia for wood materials * Timber, Oregon, an unincorporated community in the U.S...
resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood
Pulpwood
Pulpwood refers to timber with the principal use of making wood pulp for paper production.-Applications:* Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance...
. Wood pulp comes from softwood
Softwood
The term softwood is used to describe wood from trees that are known as gymnosperms.Conifers are an example. It may also be used to describe trees, which tend to be evergreen, notable exceptions being bald cypress and the larches....
trees such as spruce
Spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...
, pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
, fir
Fir
Firs are a genus of 48–55 species of evergreen conifers in the family Pinaceae. They are found through much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occurring in mountains over most of the range...
, larch
Larch
Larches are conifers in the genus Larix, in the family Pinaceae. Growing from 15 to 50m tall, they are native to much of the cooler temperate northern hemisphere, on lowlands in the north and high on mountains further south...
and hemlock
Tsuga
Tsuga is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. The common name hemlock is derived from a perceived similarity in the smell of its crushed foliage to that of the unrelated plant poison hemlock....
, and hardwood
Hardwood
Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees . It may also be used for those trees themselves: these are usually broad-leaved; in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen.Hardwood contrasts with softwood...
s such as eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia...
, aspen
Aspen
Populus section Populus, of the Populus genus, includes the aspen trees and the white poplar Populus alba. The five typical aspens are all native to cold regions with cool summers, in the north of the Northern Hemisphere, extending south at high altitudes in the mountains. The White Poplar, by...
and birch
Birch
Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
.
A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber source into a thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods (kraft and sulfite processes). The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements.
Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibres (desired for papermaking), lignin
Lignin
Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae. The term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood...
(a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibers together) and hemicellulose
Hemicellulose
A hemicellulose is any of several heteropolymers , such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all plant cell walls. While cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous structure with little strength...
s, (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibers.
Chemical pulping achieves this by degrading the lignin and hemicellulose into small, water-soluble molecules which can be washed away from the cellulose fibers without depolymerizing the cellulose fibres (chemically depolymerizing the cellulose weakens the fibres). The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood (GW) and refiner mechanical (RMP) pulping, physically tear the cellulose fibres one from another. Much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibers. Strength is impaired because the fibres may be cut. There are a number of related hybrid pulping methods that use a combination of chemical and thermal treatment to begin an abbreviated chemical pulping process, followed immediately by a mechanical treatment to separate the fibers. These hybrid methods include thermomechanical pulping, also known as TMP, and chemithermomechanical pulping, also known as CTMP. The chemical and thermal treatments reduce the amount of energy subsequently required by the mechanical treatment, and also reduce the amount of strength loss suffered by the fibers.
Global pulp production by category (2000)
| Pulp category | Production [M ton Tonne The tonne, known as the metric ton in the US , often put pleonastically as "metric tonne" to avoid confusion with ton, is a metric system unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. The tonne is not an International System of Units unit, but is accepted for use with the SI... ] |
| Chemical | 131.2 |
| -Kraft | 117.0 |
| -Sulfite | 7.0 |
| -Semichemical | 7.2 |
| Mechanical | 37.8 |
| Nonwood | 18.0 |
| Total virgin fibres | 187.0 |
| Recovered fibres | 147.0 |
| Total pulp | 334.0 |
Harvesting trees
All kinds of paper are made out of 100% wood with nothing else mixed into them (with some exceptions, like fancy resume paper, which may include cotton). This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper. Most pulp mills use good forest managementForest management
200px|thumb|right|[[Sustainable development|Sustainable]] forest management carried out by [[Complejo Forestal y Maderero Panguipulli|Complejo Panguipulli]] has contributed to the preservation of the forested landscape around [[Neltume]], a sawmill town in Chile...
practices in harvesting trees to ensure that they have a sustainable source of raw materials. One of the major complaints about harvesting wood for pulp mills is that it reduces the biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
of the harvested forest. Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 42 percent of world pulp production, old growth forests account for 9 percent, and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the rest. Reforestation
Reforestation
Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through deforestation....
is practiced in most areas, so trees are a renewable resource. The FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certifies paper made from trees harvested according to guidelines meant to ensure good forestry practices.
The number of trees consumed depends on whether mechanical processes or chemical processes are used. It has been estimated that based on a mixture of softwoods and hardwoods 12 metres (40 ft) tall and 15-20 centimetres (6–8 in) in diameter, it would take an average of 24 trees to produce 0.9 tonne (1 ton) of printing and writing paper, using the kraft process
Kraft process
The kraft process describes a technology for conversion of wood into wood pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibers...
(chemical pulping). Mechanical pulping is about twice as efficient in using trees since almost all of the wood is used to make fibre therefore it takes about 12 trees to make 0.9 tonne (1 ton) of mechanical pulp or newsprint
Newsprint
Newsprint is a low-cost, non-archival paper most commonly used to print newspapers, and other publications and advertising material. It usually has an off-white cast and distinctive feel. It is designed for use in printing presses that employ a long web of paper rather than individual sheets of...
.
There are roughly 2 short tons in a cord of wood.
Preparation for pulping
Woodchipping is the act and industry of chipping wood for pulp, but also for other processed woodWood processing
Wood processing is an engineering discipline comprising the production of forest products, such as pulp and paper, construction materials, and tall oil...
products and mulch
Mulch
In agriculture and gardening, is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and seed germination. Mulching in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors....
. Only the heartwood and sapwood
Sapwood
Sapwood may refer to:* Sapwood, the part of living wood where sap flows, as distinct from the heartwood, where it doesn't* SS-6 Sapwood, the NATO reporting name for the R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile...
are useful for making pulp. Bark
Bark
Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner...
contains relatively few useful fibres and is removed and used as fuel to provide steam for use in the pulp mill. Most pulping processes require that the wood be chipped and screened to provide uniform sized chips.
Pulping
There are a number of different processes which can be used to separate the wood fibres:Mechanical pulp
Manufactured grindstoneGrindstone
Grindstone may refer to:*Grindstone , a tool used for sharpening*Grindstone, a type of millstone used to grind grains such as wheat*Grindstone , 1996 Kentucky Derby winner and sire of the racehorse Birdstone...
s with embedded silicon carbide
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide , also known as carborundum, is a compound of silicon and carbon with chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Silicon carbide powder has been mass-produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive...
or aluminum oxide can be used to grind small wood logs called "bolts" to make stone groundwood pulp (SGW). If the wood is steamed prior to grinding it is known as pressure groundwood pulp (PGW). Most modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If the chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is called refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) and if the chips are steamed while being refined the pulp is called thermomechanical pulp (TMP). Steam treatment significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage (cutting) to fibres. Mechanical pulps are used for products that require less strength, such as newsprint
Newsprint
Newsprint is a low-cost, non-archival paper most commonly used to print newspapers, and other publications and advertising material. It usually has an off-white cast and distinctive feel. It is designed for use in printing presses that employ a long web of paper rather than individual sheets of...
and paperboard
Paperboard
Paperboard is a thick paper based material. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a basis weight above 224 g/m2, but there are exceptions. Paperboard can be single...
s.
Thermomechanical pulp
Thermomechanical pulp is pulp produced by processing wood chips using heat (thus thermoThermo
Thermo, descended from , meaning heat, is a prefix referring to heat or temperature, e.g.,* thermodynamics, the physics of energy, heat, work, and entropy, which is also discussed in the article heat...
) and a mechanical refining movement (thus mechanical). It is a two stage process where the logs are first stripped of their bark
Bark
Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner...
and converted into small chips. These chips have a moisture content of around 25-30% and a mechanical force is applied to the wood chips in a crushing or grinding action which generates heat and water vapour and softens the lignin
Lignin
Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae. The term was introduced in 1819 by de Candolle and is derived from the Latin word lignum, meaning wood...
thus separating the individual fibres. The pulp is then screened and cleaned, any clumps of fibre are reprocessed. This process gives a high yield of fibre from the timber
Timber
Timber may refer to:* Timber, a term common in the United Kingdom and Australia for wood materials * Timber, Oregon, an unincorporated community in the U.S...
(around 95%) and as the lignin has not been removed, the fibres are hard and rigid.
Chemithermomechanical pulp
Wood chips can be pretreated with sodium carbonateSodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate. Sodium carbonate is domestically well-known for its everyday use as a water softener. It can be extracted from the...
, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfite
Sodium sulfite
Sodium sulfite is a soluble sodium salt of sulfurous acid. It is a product of sulfur dioxide scrubbing, a part of the flue gas desulfurization process...
and other chemicals prior to refining with equipment similar to a mechanical mill. The conditions of the chemical treatment are much less vigorous (lower temperature, shorter time, less extreme pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
) than in a chemical pulping process since the goal is to make the fibres easier to refine, not to remove lignin as in a fully chemical process. Pulps made using these hybrid processes are known as chemithermomechanical pulps (CTMP).
Chemical pulp
Digester
A digester is a huge vessel where chemical or biological reactions are carried out. These are used in different types of process industries.Digester may also refer to :* Digester-Processes where digesters are used:* Anaerobic digestion...
s where heat and the chemicals break down the lignin, which binds the cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
fibres together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibres. Chemical pulp is used for materials that need to be stronger or combined with mechanical pulps to give a product different characteristics. The kraft process
Kraft process
The kraft process describes a technology for conversion of wood into wood pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibers...
is the dominant chemical pulping method, with sulfite process
Sulfite process
The sulfite process produces wood pulp which is almost pure cellulose fibers by using various salts of sulfurous acid to extract the lignin from wood chips in large pressure vessels called digesters. The salts used in the pulping process are either sulfites , or bisulfites , depending on the pH...
being second. Historically soda pulping
Soda pulping
Soda pulping is a chemical process for making wood pulp with sodium hydroxide as cooking chemical. In the Soda-AQ process, anthraquinone may be used as a pulping additive to decrease the carbohydrate degradation...
was the first successful chemical pulping method.
Recycled pulp
Recycled pulp is also called deinked pulp (DIP). DIP is recycled paperPaper recycling
Paper recycling is the process of recovering waste paper and remaking it into new paper products. There are three categories of paper that can be used as feedstocks for making recycled paper: mill broke, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste. Mill broke is paper trimmings and other paper...
which has been processed by chemicals, thus removing printing inks and other unwanted elements and freed the paper fibres. The process is called deinking
Deinking
Deinking is the industrial process of removing printing ink from paperfibers of recycled paper to make deinked pulp.The key in the deinking process is the ability to detach ink from the fibers. This is achieved by a combination of mechanical action and chemical means. In Europe the most common...
.
DIP is used as raw material in papermaking
Papermaking
Papermaking is the process of making paper, a substance which is used universally today for writing and packaging.In papermaking a dilute suspension of fibres in water is drained through a screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is removed from this mat of fibres by...
. Many newsprint
Newsprint
Newsprint is a low-cost, non-archival paper most commonly used to print newspapers, and other publications and advertising material. It usually has an off-white cast and distinctive feel. It is designed for use in printing presses that employ a long web of paper rather than individual sheets of...
, toilet paper
Toilet paper
Toilet paper is a soft paper product used to maintain personal hygiene after human defecation or urination. However, it can also be used for other purposes such as blowing one's nose when one has a cold or absorbing common spills around the house, although paper towels are more used for the latter...
and facial tissue
Facial tissue
Facial tissue and paper handkerchief refers to a class of soft, absorbent, disposable papers that is suitable for use on the face. They are disposable alternatives for cloth handkerchiefs...
grades commonly contain 100% deinked pulp and in many other grades, such as lightweight coated for offset and printing and writing papers for office and home use, DIP makes up a substantial proportion of the furnish.
Organosolv pulping
Organosolv pulping uses organic solvents at temperatures above 140 °C to break down lignin and hemicellulose into soluble fragments. The pulping liquor is easily recovered by distillation.Alternative pulping methods
Research is under way to develop biological pulping, similar to chemical pulping but using certain species of fungiFungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
that are able to break down the unwanted lignin, but not the cellulose fibres. This could have major environmental benefits
Environmentally friendly
Environmentally friendly are terms used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment....
in reducing the pollution associated with chemical pulping. The pulp is bleached using chlorine dioxide stage followed by neutralization and calcium hypochlorite.The oxidizing agent in either case oxidizes and destroys the dyes formed from the tannins of the wood and accentuated (reinforced) by sulfides present in it.
Steam exploded fiber
Steam exploded fiber
Steam exploded fiber is a pulping and extraction technique that has been applied to wood and other fibrous organic material. The resulting fibers can be combined with organic polymers to produce fiber composite materials...
is a pulping and extraction technique that has been applied to wood and other fibrous organic material.
Bleaching
The pulp produced up to this point in the process can be bleachedBleaching of wood pulp
Bleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing carried out on various types of wood pulp to decrease the color of the pulp, so that it becomes whiter. The main use of wood pulp is to make paper where whiteness is an important characteristic...
to produce a white paper
White paper
A white paper is an authoritative report or guide that helps solve a problem. White papers are used to educate readers and help people make decisions, and are often requested and used in politics, policy, business, and technical fields. In commercial use, the term has also come to refer to...
product. The chemicals used to bleach pulp have been a source of environmental concern, and recently the pulp industry has been using alternatives to chlorine
Chlorine
Chlorine is the chemical element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is the second lightest halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17. The element forms diatomic molecules under standard conditions, called dichlorine...
, such as chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula ClO2. This yellowish-green gas crystallizes as bright orange crystals at −59 °C. As one of several oxides of chlorine, it is a potent and useful oxidizing agent used in water treatment and in bleaching....
, oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
, ozone
Ozone
Ozone , or trioxygen, is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope...
and hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and an oxidizer. Hydrogen peroxide is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water. In dilute solution, it appears colorless. With its oxidizing properties, hydrogen peroxide is often used as a bleach or cleaning agent...
.
Alternatives to wood pulp
Today, some people and groups advocate using field crop fibre or agricultural residues instead of wood fibre as being more sustainableSustainability
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of union, an interdependent relationship and mutual responsible position with all living and non...
. However, wood is also a renewable resource, with about 90% of pulp coming from plantations or reforested areas. Non-wood fibre sources account for about 5-10% of global pulp production, for a variety of reasons, including seasonal availability, problems with chemical recovery, brightness of the pulp etc. Non-wood pulp processing requires a high use of water and energy.
Nonwovens
Nonwovens
Nonwoven fabric is a fabric-like material made from long fibres, bonded together by chemical, mechanical, heat or solvent treatment. The term is used in the textile manufacturing industry to denote fabrics, such as felt, which are neither woven nor knitted. Nonwoven materials typically lack...
are in some applications alternatives to paper made from wood pulp, like filter paper
Filter paper
Filter paper is a semi-permeable paper barrier placed perpendicular to a liquid or air flow. It is used to separate fine solids from liquids or air.-Properties:Filter paper comes in various porosities and grades depending on the applications it is meant for...
or tea bag
Tea bag
A tea bag is a small, porous sealed bag containing tea leaves and used for brewing tea. Tea bags are commonly made of paper, silk or plastic. The bag contains the tea leaves while the tea is brewed, making it easier to dispose of the leaves, and performs the same function as a tea infuser...
s.
| Component | Wood | Nonwood |
|---|---|---|
| Carbohydrates | 65-80 % | 50-80 % |
|
40-45 % | 30-45 % |
|
|
23-35 % | 20-35 % |
| Lignin | 20-30 % | 10-25 % |
| Extractives | 2-5 % | 5-15 % |
| Proteins | < 0.5 % | 5-10 % |
| Inorganics | 0.1-1 % | 0.5-10 % |
|
|
< 0.1 % | 0.5-7 % |
Market pulp
Market pulp is any variety of pulp that is produced in one location, dried and shipped to another location for further processing. Important quality parameters for pulp not directly related to the fibres are brightnessBrightness
Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or reflecting light. In other words, brightness is the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target...
, dirt levels, viscosity and ash content. In 2004 about it produced about 55 million metric tons of market pulp.
Air dry pulp
Air dry pulp is the most common form to sell pulp. This is pulp dried to about 10 % moisture content. It is normally delivered as sheeted bales of 250 kg. The reason to leave 10 % moisture in the pulp is that this minimizes the fibre to fibre bonding and makes it easier to disperse the pulp in water for further processing to paperPaper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
.
Roll pulp
Roll pulp or reel pulp is the most common delivery form of pulp to non tradtitional pulp markets. Fluff pulpFluff pulp
Fluff pulp is a type of chemical pulp made from long fibre softwoods. Important parameters for fluff pulp are bulk and water absorbency.-Manufacture:...
is normally shipped on rolls (reels). This pulp is dried to 5 - 6 % moisture content. At the customer this is going to a comminution process to prepare for further processing.
Flash dried pulp
Some pulps are flash dried. This is done by pressing the pulp to about 50% moisture content and then let it fall trough siloSilo
A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials.Silo may also refer to:* Silo , a 3D modeling software* Silo , a defunct chain of retail electronics stores* SILO , used in Linux...
s that are 15–17 m high. Gas fired hot air is the normal heat source. The temperature is well above the char point
Charring
Charring is a chemical process of incomplete combustion of certain solids when subjected to high heat. The resulting residue matter is called Char. By the action of heat, charring removes hydrogen and oxygen from the solid, so that the remaining char is composed primarily of carbon...
of cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
, but large amount of moisture in the fibre wall
Cell wall
The cell wall is the tough, usually flexible but sometimes fairly rigid layer that surrounds some types of cells. It is located outside the cell membrane and provides these cells with structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. A major function of the cell wall is to...
and lumen
Lumen (anatomy)
A lumen in biology is the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine...
prevents the fibres from being incinerated. It is often not dried down to 10 % moisture (air dry). The bales are not as densely packed as air dry pulp.
Environmental concerns
The major environmental impacts of producing wood pulp come from its impact on forest sources and from its waste products.Forest resources
The impact of logging to provide the raw material for wood pulp is an area of intense debate. Modern loggingLogging
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks.In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard...
practices, using forest management
Forest management
200px|thumb|right|[[Sustainable development|Sustainable]] forest management carried out by [[Complejo Forestal y Maderero Panguipulli|Complejo Panguipulli]] has contributed to the preservation of the forested landscape around [[Neltume]], a sawmill town in Chile...
seek to provide a reliable, renewable source of raw materials for pulp mill
Pulp mill
A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fibre board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods...
s. The practice of clear cutting is a particularly sensitive issue since it is a very visible effect of logging
Logging
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks.In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard...
. Reforestation
Reforestation
Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted, usually through deforestation....
, the planting of tree seedlings on logged areas, has also been criticized for decreasing biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
because reforested areas are monocultures.
Logging of old growth forest
Old growth forest
An old-growth forest is a forest that has attained great age , and thereby exhibits unique ecological features. An old growth forest has also usually reached a climax community...
s accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues.
Effluents from pulp mills
The process effluents are treated in a biological effluent treatment plantIndustrial wastewater treatment
Industrial wastewater treatment covers the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been contaminated in some way by anthropogenic industrial or commercial activities prior to its release into the environment or its re-use....
, which guarantees that the effluents are not toxic in the recipient.
Mechanical pulp is not a major cause for environmental concern since most of the organic material is retained in the pulp, and the chemicals used (hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and an oxidizer. Hydrogen peroxide is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water. In dilute solution, it appears colorless. With its oxidizing properties, hydrogen peroxide is often used as a bleach or cleaning agent...
and sodium dithionite
Sodium dithionite
Sodium dithionite is a white crystalline powder with a weak sulfurous odor. It is a sodium salt of dithionous acid. Although it is stable under most conditions, it will decompose in hot water and in acid solutions...
) produce benign byproducts (water and sodium sulfate
Sodium sulfate
Sodium sulfate is the sodium salt of sulfuric acid. When anhydrous, it is a white crystalline solid of formula Na2SO4 known as the mineral thenardite; the decahydrate Na2SO4·10H2O has been known as Glauber's salt or, historically, sal mirabilis since the 17th century. Another solid is the...
(finally), respectively).
Chemical pulp mills, especially kraft mills, are energy self-sufficient and very nearly closed cycle with respect to inorganic chemicals.
Bleaching
Bleaching of wood pulp
Bleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing carried out on various types of wood pulp to decrease the color of the pulp, so that it becomes whiter. The main use of wood pulp is to make paper where whiteness is an important characteristic...
with chlorine produces large amounts of organochlorine compounds, including dioxins.
Odor problems
The kraft pulping reaction in particular releases foul-smelling compounds. The hydrogen sulfide reagent that degrades lignin structure also causes some demethylation to produce methanethiolMethanethiol
Methanethiol is a colorless gas with a smell like rotten cabbage. It is a natural substance found in the blood and brain of humans and other animal as well as plant tissues. It is disposed of through animal feces. It occurs naturally in certain foods, such as some nuts and cheese...
, dimethyl sulfide
Dimethyl sulfide
Dimethyl sulfide or methylthiomethane is an organosulfur compound with the formula 2S. Dimethyl sulfide is a water-insoluble flammable liquid that boils at and has a characteristic disagreeable odor. It is a component of the smell produced from cooking of certain vegetables, notably maize,...
and dimethyl disulfide
Dimethyl disulfide
Dimethyl disulfide is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula CH3SSCH3 which is the simplest disulfide. It is a flammable liquid with an unpleasant odor.DMDS can be produced by the reaction of methanethiol with sulfur:-Uses:...
. These compounds have extremely low odor thresholds and disagreeable smells. The same compounds are released in microbial decay, or into e.g. Camembert cheese, although the kraft process is a chemical one and does not involve any microbial degradation.
Applications
The main applications for pulp are paperPaper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
and board
Paperboard
Paperboard is a thick paper based material. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker than paper. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a basis weight above 224 g/m2, but there are exceptions. Paperboard can be single...
production. The furnish of pulps used depends on the quality on the finished paper. Important quality paprameters are wood furnish
Pulpwood
Pulpwood refers to timber with the principal use of making wood pulp for paper production.-Applications:* Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance...
, brightness
Bleaching of wood pulp
Bleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing carried out on various types of wood pulp to decrease the color of the pulp, so that it becomes whiter. The main use of wood pulp is to make paper where whiteness is an important characteristic...
, viscosity, extractives, dirt count and strength.
Chemical pulps are used for making nanocellulose
Nanocellulose
Nanocellulose or microfibrillated cellulose , is a material composed of nanosized cellulose fibrils with a high aspect ratio . Typical dimensions are 5–20 nanometers width and length up to 2000 nanometers. It is pseudo-plastic...
.
Speciality pulp grades have many other applications. Dissolving pulp
Dissolving pulp
Dissolving pulp is a bleached wood pulp that has a high cellulose content . It is produced chemically from the pulpwood, in a process that has a low yield...
is used in making regenerated cellulose
Viscose
Viscose is a viscous organic liquid used to make rayon and cellophane. Viscose is becoming synonymous with rayon, a soft material commonly used in shirts, shorts, coats, jackets, and other outer wear.-Manufacture:...
that is used textile
Rayon
Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. Because it is produced from naturally occurring polymers, it is neither a truly synthetic fiber nor a natural fiber; it is a semi-synthetic or artificial fiber. Rayon is known by the names viscose rayon and art silk in the textile industry...
and cellophane
Cellophane
Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose. Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, bacteria and water makes it useful for food packaging...
produciton. It is also used to make cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β linked D-glucose units....
derivatives. Fluff pulp
Fluff pulp
Fluff pulp is a type of chemical pulp made from long fibre softwoods. Important parameters for fluff pulp are bulk and water absorbency.-Manufacture:...
is used in diapers, feminine hygiene
Feminine hygiene
Feminine hygiene is a general euphemism used to describe personal care products used by women during menstruation, vaginal discharge, and other bodily functions related to the vulva...
products and nonwovens.
Paper production
The Fourdrinier Machine is the basis for most modern papermakingPapermaking
Papermaking is the process of making paper, a substance which is used universally today for writing and packaging.In papermaking a dilute suspension of fibres in water is drained through a screen, so that a mat of randomly interwoven fibres is laid down. Water is removed from this mat of fibres by...
, and it has been used in some variation since its conception. It accomplishes all the steps needed to transform a source of wood pulp into a final paper
Paper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
product.
Economics
In 2009, NBSKNBSK
NBSK is an acronym for Northern bleached softwood kraft, the paper industry's benchmark grade of pulp. Market NBSK is produced mainly in Canada and the Nordic countries. Some NBSK is also produced in north-western USA and in Russia. NBSK futures are traded on the Chicago Mercantile...
pulp sold for $650 /ton in the United States. The market had experienced a drop in price due to falling demand when newspapers reduced their size, in part, as a result of the recession.
See also
- NanocelluloseNanocelluloseNanocellulose or microfibrillated cellulose , is a material composed of nanosized cellulose fibrils with a high aspect ratio . Typical dimensions are 5–20 nanometers width and length up to 2000 nanometers. It is pseudo-plastic...
- Pulp & Paper chemicals
- Pulp millPulp millA pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fibre board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods...
- PulpwoodPulpwoodPulpwood refers to timber with the principal use of making wood pulp for paper production.-Applications:* Trees raised specifically for pulp production account for 16% of world pulp production, old growth forests 9% and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the balance...
- Johan RichterJohan Richter (inventor)Johan Richter was an engineer and industrialist, but above all a groundbreaking inventor in the area of pulp and paper production. A global company – Kamyr in Karlstad Sweden – was created solely on his inventions...
. Developed the process for continuous cooking of pulp. - World Forestry CongressWorld Forestry CongressThe World Forestry Congress is the largest and most significant gathering of the world's forestry sector and it has been held every six years since 1926 under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , organized by the government of the host country...