Mahmud Ghazan
Encyclopedia
Mahmud Ghazan was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire
's Ilkhanate
division in modern-day Iran
from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun
and Quthluq Khatun, continuing a line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan
. Considered the most prominent of the Ilkhans, he is best known for making a political conversion to Islam in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of Mongols in Central Asia. His principal wife was Kokechin, a Mongol princess sent by Kublai Khan
, and escorted from the Mongol capital to the Ilkhanate by Marco Polo
.
Military conflicts during Ghazan's reign included war with the Egyptian Mamluks for control of Syria
, and battles with the Mongol Chagatai Khanate
. Ghazan also pursued diplomatic contacts with Europe, continuing his predecessors' unsuccessful attempts at forming a Franco-Mongol alliance
. A man of high culture, Ghazan spoke multiple languages, had many hobbies, and reformed many elements of the Ilkhanate, especially in the matter of standardizing currency and fiscal policy.
, his grandfather. Ghazan's father Arghun
was viceroy
(crown prince) in Khorasan
for Abaqa. Ghazan was the eldest son of Arghun, and Qutlugh of the Dorben clan, though he was raised in the Ordo (nomadic palace-tent) of his grandfather Abaqa's favorite wife, Buluqhan Khatun
, who herself was childless.
Ghazan was baptized and raised a Christian, as was his brother Oljeitu. The Mongols were traditionally tolerant of multiple religions, and during Ghazan's youth, he was educated by a Chinese monk, who taught him Buddhism
, as well as the Mongolian
and Uighur scripts.
After Abaqa's death in 1282, Ghazan's father Arghun was crowned as Ilkhan, the 11-year-old Ghazan became Viceroy, and he moved to the capital of Khorasan
with the others of Bulughan's Ordo.
In 1289, conflict with other Mongols ensued when a revolt was led against Arghun by Nawruz, a young noble of the Oirat
clan, whose father had been governor of Persia before the arrival of Hulagu. When Nawruz was defeated, he fled the Ilkhanate and joined the alliance of Kaidu
, another descendant of Genghis Khan who was the ruler of both the House of Ogedei
and the neighboring Chagatai Khanate
. Ghazan spent the next ten years defending the frontier of the Ilkhanate against incursions by the Chagatai Mongols of Central Asia
.
When his father Arghun died in 1291, Ghazan was prevented from pursuing his claim of leadership in the capital, because he was engaged both with Nawruz's raids, and dealing with rebellion and famine in Khorasan and Nishapur
. Taghachar
, an army commander who had served the previous three generations of Ilkhan, was probably behind the death of Arghun, and supported Ghazan's uncle Gaykhatu
as the new Ilkhan. Ghazan was loyal to his uncle, though he refused to follow Gaykhatu's lead in introducing paper currency to his province, explaining that the weather of Khorasan was too humid to handle paper. In 1294/1295, Ghazan forced Nawruz to surrender at Nishapur
, and Nawruz then became one of Ghazan's lieutenants.
During Gaykhatu's reign, Ghazan's principal wife during his lifetime became Kökechin, who had been brought from the Yuan Dynasty
from the east by Marco Polo
. She had originally been betrothed to Ghazan's father, the Ilkhan Arghun, but since he had died during her months-long journey from the capital, she instead married Ghazan, his son.
In 1295, Taghachar and his conspirators, who had been behind the death of Arghun, had his successor Gaykhatu killed as well. They then placed the controllable Baydu
, a cousin of Ghazan, on the throne. Baydu was primarily a figurehead, allowing the conspirators to divide the Ilkhanate among themselves. Within a few months, Ghazan challenged Baydu for the throne, having him executed on October 5, 1295. Ghazan was assisted in this by his earlier enemy, the prominent Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz, Ghazan converted to Sunni branch of Islam
, on June 16, 1295, as a condition for Nawruz's military support. Another who assisted Ghazan was Taghachar, but Ghazan deemed him unreliable, exiled him to Anatolia
, and later had him discreetly murdered.
As part of his conversion to Islam, Ghazan changed his first name to the Arab Mahmud, and Islam gained popularity within Mongol territories. Privately, Ghazan still practiced Mongol Shamanism and worshipped Tengri
, honoring his ancestors' worship of heaven as a kind of proto-Islamic monotheism
. He showed tolerance for multiple religions, encouraged the original archaic Mongol culture to flourish, tolerated the Shiites, and respected the religions of his Georgian
and Armenian client kings. Ghazan therefore continued his non-Muslim forefather's approach toward religious tolerance. When Ghazan learned that some Buddhism monks feigned conversion to Islam due to their temples being earlier destroyed, he granted permission to all who wish to return to Tibet
where they can freely follow their faith and be among other Buddhists. The Mongol Yassa
code remained in place and Mongol Shamans remained politically influential throughout the reign of both Ghazan and his brother and successor Oljeitu, but ancient Mongol traditions eventually went into decline after Oljeitu's demise. Other religious upheaval in the Ilkhanate during Ghazan's reign was instigated by Nawruz, who issued a formal edict in opposition to other religions in the Ilkhanate. Nawruz loyalists persecuted Buddhists and Christians to such an extent that Iranian Buddhism never recovered, the Christian cathedral in the Mongol capital of Maragha was looted, and churches in Tabriz and Hamadan
were destroyed. Ghazan put a stop to these exactions by issuing an edict exempting the Christians from the jizya
(tax on non-Muslims), and re-established the Christian Patriarch Mar Yaballaha III in 1296. In May 1297, Ghazan arrested the Nawrūz partisans for treason, and then later that year marched against Nawrūz himself, who at the time was the commander of the army of Khorassan
. Ghazan's forces were victorious at a battle near Nishapur. Nawrūz took refuge at the court of the Malik (king) of Herat
in northern Afghanistan
, but the Malik betrayed him and delivered Nawruz to Ghazan, who had Nawruz executed immediately on August 13.
Ghazan thereafter attempted to control the situation, and in 1298 nominated a Jewish convert to Islam Rashid-al-Din Hamadani as prime minister, a post which Rashid held for the next 20 years, until 1318. Ghazan also commissioned Rashid-al-Din to produce a history of the Mongols and their dynasty, the Jami' al-tawarikh "Compendium of Chronicles" or Universal History. Over several years of expansion, the work grew to cover the entire history of the world since the time of Adam
, and was completed during the reign of Ghazan's successor, Oljeitu. Many copies were made, a few of which survive to the modern day.
Ghazan eased the troubles with the Golden Horde
, but the Ogedeids and Chagataids in Central Asia
continued to pose a serious threat to both the Ilkhanate and his overlord and ally the Great Khan in China. When Ghazan was crowned, the Chagatayid Khan Duwa
invaded Khorasan in 1295. Ghazan sent two of his relatives against the army of Chagatai Khanate but they deserted. When the traitors were captured and executed, some other notable Mongol nobles began to leave his side. Baltu of the Jalayir
and Sulemish of the Oirat
revolted against the Ilkhan's rule in Turkey in 1296 and 1299. Sulemish welcomed the Egyptian Mamluks to Anatolia, which postponed Ghazan's plan to invade Syria, though two Mongol rebels were defeated by Ghazan. A large group of the Oirats fled Syria, defeating the contingent sent by Ghazan in 1299. Along with those rebellions, invasions of the Neguderis of the Chagatai Khanate caused difficulties to Ghazan's military operations in Syria.
Ghazan maintained strong ties with the Great Khan of the Yuan and the Golden Horde. In 1296 Temur Khan, the successor of the Kublai Khan, dispatched a military commander Baiju
to Mongol Persia. Five years later Ghazan sent his Mongolian and Persian retainers to collect income from Hulegu's holdings in China. While there, they presented tribute to Temur and were involved in cultural exchanges across Mongol Eurasia. Ghazan also called upon other Mongol Khans to unite their will under the Temur Khan, in which he was supported by Kaidu's enemy Bayan Khan of the White Horde.
Chinese physicians were present at Ghazan's court.
Ghazan was one of a long line of Mongol leaders who engaged in diplomatic communications with the Europeans and Crusaders
in attempts to form a Franco-Mongol alliance
against their common enemy, primarily the Egyptian Mamluks. He already had the use of forces from Christian vassal countries such as Cilician Armenia and Georgia
. The plan was to coordinate actions between Ghazan's forces, the Christian military orders, and the aristocracy of Cyprus to defeat the Egyptians, after which Jerusalem would be returned to the Europeans. Many Europeans are known to have worked for Ghazan, such as Isol the Pisan
or Buscarello de Ghizolfi
, often in high positions. Hundreds such Western adventurers entered into the service of Mongol rulers. According to historian Peter Jackson
, the 14th century saw such a vogue of Mongol things in the West that many new-born children in Italy were named after Mongol rulers, including Ghazan: names such as Can Grande ("Great Khan"), Alaone (Hulagu, Ghazan's great-grandfather), Argone (Arghun
, Ghazan's grandfather) or Cassano (Ghazan) were recorded with a high frequency.
In October 1299, Ghazan marched with his forces towards Syria and invited the Christians to join him. His army took the city of Aleppo
, and was there joined by his vassal King Hethum II of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
, whose forces included some Templars
and Hospitallers
, and who participated in the rest of the offensive. The Mongols and their allies defeated the Mamluks in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
, on December 23 or 24, 1299. One group of Mongols then split off from Ghazan's army and pursued the retreating Mamluk troops as far as Gaza
, pushing them back to Egypt. The bulk of Ghazan's forces proceeded to Damascus
, which surrendered somewhere between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted. Most of Ghazan's forces then retreated in February, probably because their horses needed fodder. He promised to return in the winter of 1300-1301 to attack Egypt. About 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general Mulay
were left to briefly rule Syria, before they too retreated.
He was indeed feared and despised by the Mamluk
, who sent a delegation of leading scholars and Imam
s including Ibn Taymiyya, to Maragheh
. In order to persuade Ghazan Khan, the Khan of the Mongol Ilkhans in occupied-Iran
, to stop his attack on the Muslims. There it is reported that not one of the scholars dared to say anything to Ghazan except Ibn Taymiyyah who said:
"You claim that you are Muslim and you have with you Mu'adhdhins, Mufti
s, Imam
s and Shaykhs but you invaded us and reached our country for what? Although your father and your grandfather, Hulagu were non-believers, they did not attack us and they kept their promise. But you promised and broke your promise."
In July 1300, the Crusaders formed a small fleet of sixteen galleys with some smaller vessels to raid the coast, and Ghazan's ambassador traveled with them. The Crusader forces also attempted to establish a base at the small island of Ruad, from which raids were launched on Tartus while awaiting Ghazan's forces. However, the Mongol army was delayed, and the Crusader forces retreated to Cyprus, leaving a garrison on Ruad which was besieged and captured by Mamluks by 1303 (see Siege of Ruad).
In February 1301, the Mongols advanced again with a force of 60,000, but could do little else than engage in some raids around Syria. Ghazan's general Kutlushah
stationed 20,000 horsemen in the Jordan valley
to protect Damas, where a Mongol governor was stationed. But again, they were soon forced to withdraw.
Plans for combined operations with the Crusaders were again made for the following winter offensive, and in late 1301, Ghazan asked Pope Boniface VIII to send troops, priests, and peasants, in order to make the Holy Land a Frank state again. But again, Ghazan did not appear with his own troops. He wrote again to the Pope in 1302, and his ambassadors also visited the court of Charles II of Anjou, who on April 27, 1303 sent Gualterius de Lavendel
as his own ambassador back to Ghazan's court.
In 1303, Ghazan sent another letter to Edward I via Buscarello de Ghizolfi
, reiterating his great-grandfather Hulagu Khan
's promise that the Mongols would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Mamluks. The Mongols, along with their Armenian vassals, had mustered a force of about 80,000 to repel the raiders of the Chagatai Khanate
, which was under the leadership of Qutlugh Khwaja
. After their success there, they advanced again towards Syria. However, Ghazan's forces were defeated by the Mamluks just south of Damascus at the decisive Battle of Marj al-Saffar in April 1303. It was to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.
Ghazan was a man of high culture, with many hobbies including linguistics, agro-techniques, painting, and chemistry. According to the Byzantine
historian Pachymeres (1242–1310): "No one surpassed him, in making saddles, bridles, spurs, greaves and helmets; he could hammer, stitch and polish, and in such occupations employed the hours of his leisure from war." Ghazan spoke numerous languages, including Chinese, Arabic, and "Frank" (probably Latin), as well as his own native language Mongolian.
In addition to his religious deep impact on Persia, Ghazan unified measure
s, coinage
and weights in the Ilkhanate. He ordered a new census
in Persia to define the Dynasty's fiscal policy
. He began to reuse wilderness or abandoned lands to raise crops, strongly supporting the introduction of Eastern Asian crops in Persia, and improved the yam
. He constructed hostels, hospitals, schools, and posts. Envoys from the court received a per diem stipend
, and those of the nobility traveled at their own expense. Ghazan ordered only envoys bearing urgent military intelligence to use the staffed postal relay service. Mongol soldiers were given iqtas by the Ilkhanid court, where they were allowed to gather revenue provided by a piece of land.
Ghazan reformed the issuance of jarliq
s (edicts), creating set forms and graded seals, ordering that all jarliqs be kept on file at court. Jarliqs older than 30 years were to be cancelled, along with old paiza
s (Mongol seals of authority). He fashioned new paizas into two ranks, which contained the names of the bearers on them to prevent them from being transferred. Old paizas were also to be turned in at the end of the official's term.
In fiscal policy, Ghazan introduced a unified bi-metallic currency including Ghazani dinars, and reformed purchasing procedures, replacing the traditional Mongol policy on craftsmen in the Ilkhanate, such as organizing purchases of raw materials and payment to artisans. He also opted to purchase most weapons on the open market.
On coins, Ghazan omitted the name of the Great Khan, instead inscribing his own name upon his coins in Iran
and Anatolia
. In Georgia
, he minted coins with the traditional Mongolian formula "Struck by the Ilkhan Ghazan in the name of Khagan" because he wanted to secure his claim on Caucasus
with the help of the Great Khans of the Yuan Dynasty
. He also continued to use the Great Khan's Chinese seal which declared him to be a wang (prince) below the Great Khan.
His reforms also extended to the military, as several new guard units, mostly Mongols, were created by Ghazan for his army center. However, he restricted new guards’ political significance. Seeing Mongol commoners selling their children into slavery as damaging to both the manpower and the prestige of the Mongol army, Ghazan budgeted funds to redeem Mongol slave boys, and made his minister Bolad
(the ambassador of the Great Khan Kublai) commander of a military unit of redeemed Mongol slaves.
Ghazan died on May 10, 1304. In his final illness, as he had no surviving son, he nominated his brother Oljeitu as his successor.
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
's Ilkhanate
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Azerbaijan and Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
division in modern-day Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun
Arghun
Arghun Khan aka Argon was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist...
and Quthluq Khatun, continuing a line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
. Considered the most prominent of the Ilkhans, he is best known for making a political conversion to Islam in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of Mongols in Central Asia. His principal wife was Kokechin, a Mongol princess sent by Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
, and escorted from the Mongol capital to the Ilkhanate by Marco Polo
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently...
.
Military conflicts during Ghazan's reign included war with the Egyptian Mamluks for control of Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
, and battles with the Mongol Chagatai Khanate
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
. Ghazan also pursued diplomatic contacts with Europe, continuing his predecessors' unsuccessful attempts at forming a Franco-Mongol alliance
Franco-Mongol alliance
Franco-Mongol relations were established in the 13th century, as attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the Christian Crusaders and the Mongol Empire against various Muslim empires. Such an alliance would have seemed a logical choice: the Mongols were sympathetic to...
. A man of high culture, Ghazan spoke multiple languages, had many hobbies, and reformed many elements of the Ilkhanate, especially in the matter of standardizing currency and fiscal policy.
Childhood
At the time of Ghazan's birth, the leader of the Ilkhanate was Abaqa KhanAbaqa Khan
Abaqa Khan , also Abaga , or Abagha Khan, was the second Mongol ruler of the Persian Ilkhanate. The son of Hulagu Khan and Yesuncin Khatun, he reigned from 1265–1282 and was succeeded by his brother Tekuder Khan...
, his grandfather. Ghazan's father Arghun
Arghun
Arghun Khan aka Argon was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist...
was viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
(crown prince) in Khorasan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
for Abaqa. Ghazan was the eldest son of Arghun, and Qutlugh of the Dorben clan, though he was raised in the Ordo (nomadic palace-tent) of his grandfather Abaqa's favorite wife, Buluqhan Khatun
Buluqhan Khatun
Buluqhan Khatun , also Bulughan, Bulukhan, Bolgana, Bulugan, or Zibeline for Marco Polo , was a 13th century Mongol princess, and the principal wife of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Abagha...
, who herself was childless.
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, as well as the Mongolian
Mongolian script
The classical Mongolian script , also known as Uyghurjin, was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most successful until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946...
and Uighur scripts.
After Abaqa's death in 1282, Ghazan's father Arghun was crowned as Ilkhan, the 11-year-old Ghazan became Viceroy, and he moved to the capital of Khorasan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
with the others of Bulughan's Ordo.
Viceroy
The young Ghazan participated in the traditional Mongol activities of hunting and riding. His companions were Qutlughshah of the Manghud, Nurin agha of the Jurkhin, and Sad-ud-Din Savaji.Oirats
Oirats are the westernmost group of the Mongols who unified several tribes origin whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal...
clan, whose father had been governor of Persia before the arrival of Hulagu. When Nawruz was defeated, he fled the Ilkhanate and joined the alliance of Kaidu
Kaidu
Kaidu was the leader of the House of Ogedei and the de facto khan of the Chagatai Khanate. He ruled part of modern-day Xinjiang and Central Asia during the 13th century, and actively opposed his uncle, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China until his death in 1301...
, another descendant of Genghis Khan who was the ruler of both the House of Ogedei
House of Ogedei
The House of Ogedei, sometimes called the Ogedeids were an influential family of Mongol Borjigin from the 12th to 14th centuries. They were descended from Ogedei Khan , a son of Genghis Khan who had become his father's successor, second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Ogedei continued the...
and the neighboring Chagatai Khanate
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
. Ghazan spent the next ten years defending the frontier of the Ilkhanate against incursions by the Chagatai Mongols of Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
.
When his father Arghun died in 1291, Ghazan was prevented from pursuing his claim of leadership in the capital, because he was engaged both with Nawruz's raids, and dealing with rebellion and famine in Khorasan and Nishapur
Nishapur
Nishapur or Nishabur , is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains, near the regional capital of Mashhad...
. Taghachar
Taghachar
Taghachar, also spelled Tajir, Ta'achar was a commander in the army of the Mongol Empire. He was one of the conspirators involved in the overthrow of three Ilkhanate khans, and placed the short-lived Baidu on the throne in 1295...
, an army commander who had served the previous three generations of Ilkhan, was probably behind the death of Arghun, and supported Ghazan's uncle Gaykhatu
Gaykhatu
Gaykhatu was the fifth Ilkhanate ruler in Iran. He reigned from 1291 to 1295. During his reign, Gaykhatu was a noted dissolute who was addicted to wine, women, and sodomy...
as the new Ilkhan. Ghazan was loyal to his uncle, though he refused to follow Gaykhatu's lead in introducing paper currency to his province, explaining that the weather of Khorasan was too humid to handle paper. In 1294/1295, Ghazan forced Nawruz to surrender at Nishapur
Nishapur
Nishapur or Nishabur , is a city in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains, near the regional capital of Mashhad...
, and Nawruz then became one of Ghazan's lieutenants.
During Gaykhatu's reign, Ghazan's principal wife during his lifetime became Kökechin, who had been brought from the Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
from the east by Marco Polo
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently...
. She had originally been betrothed to Ghazan's father, the Ilkhan Arghun, but since he had died during her months-long journey from the capital, she instead married Ghazan, his son.
Conversion to Islam
Baydu
Baydu was the sixth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division in Iran. He succeeded his cousin Gaykhatu as khan of the Ilkhanate state in 1295....
, a cousin of Ghazan, on the throne. Baydu was primarily a figurehead, allowing the conspirators to divide the Ilkhanate among themselves. Within a few months, Ghazan challenged Baydu for the throne, having him executed on October 5, 1295. Ghazan was assisted in this by his earlier enemy, the prominent Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz, Ghazan converted to Sunni branch of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, on June 16, 1295, as a condition for Nawruz's military support. Another who assisted Ghazan was Taghachar, but Ghazan deemed him unreliable, exiled him to Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
, and later had him discreetly murdered.
As part of his conversion to Islam, Ghazan changed his first name to the Arab Mahmud, and Islam gained popularity within Mongol territories. Privately, Ghazan still practiced Mongol Shamanism and worshipped Tengri
Tengri
Tengri or Tengger Tengri or Tengger Tengri or Tengger (Old Turkic: ; Mongolian: Тэнгэр, Tenger; Chinese: 腾格里, Mandarin: Ténggélǐ, Hungarian: Tengri, Turkish: Tanrı, Bulgarian: Tangra (Тангра) is a sky god, formerly the chief deity of the early Turkic peoples, including the Xiongnu, Huns, Bulgars,...
, honoring his ancestors' worship of heaven as a kind of proto-Islamic monotheism
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one and only one god. Monotheism is characteristic of the Baha'i Faith, Christianity, Druzism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.While they profess the existence of only one deity, monotheistic religions may still...
. He showed tolerance for multiple religions, encouraged the original archaic Mongol culture to flourish, tolerated the Shiites, and respected the religions of his Georgian
Georgian people
The Georgians are an ethnic group that have originated in Georgia, where they constitute a majority of the population. Large Georgian communities are also present throughout Russia, European Union, United States, and South America....
and Armenian client kings. Ghazan therefore continued his non-Muslim forefather's approach toward religious tolerance. When Ghazan learned that some Buddhism monks feigned conversion to Islam due to their temples being earlier destroyed, he granted permission to all who wish to return to Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
where they can freely follow their faith and be among other Buddhists. The Mongol Yassa
Yassa
Yassa was a secret written code of law created by Genghis Khan. It was the principal law under the Mongol Empire even though no copies were made available...
code remained in place and Mongol Shamans remained politically influential throughout the reign of both Ghazan and his brother and successor Oljeitu, but ancient Mongol traditions eventually went into decline after Oljeitu's demise. Other religious upheaval in the Ilkhanate during Ghazan's reign was instigated by Nawruz, who issued a formal edict in opposition to other religions in the Ilkhanate. Nawruz loyalists persecuted Buddhists and Christians to such an extent that Iranian Buddhism never recovered, the Christian cathedral in the Mongol capital of Maragha was looted, and churches in Tabriz and Hamadan
Hamadan
-Culture:Hamadan is home to many poets and cultural celebrities. The city is also said to be among the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities.Handicrafts: Hamadan has always been well known for handicrafts like leather, ceramic, and beautiful carpets....
were destroyed. Ghazan put a stop to these exactions by issuing an edict exempting the Christians from the jizya
Jizya
Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah is a per capita tax levied on a section of an Islamic state's non-Muslim citizens, who meet certain criteria...
(tax on non-Muslims), and re-established the Christian Patriarch Mar Yaballaha III in 1296. In May 1297, Ghazan arrested the Nawrūz partisans for treason, and then later that year marched against Nawrūz himself, who at the time was the commander of the army of Khorassan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
. Ghazan's forces were victorious at a battle near Nishapur. Nawrūz took refuge at the court of the Malik (king) of Herat
Herat
Herāt is the capital of Herat province in Afghanistan. It is the third largest city of Afghanistan, with a population of about 397,456 as of 2006. It is situated in the valley of the Hari River, which flows from the mountains of central Afghanistan to the Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan...
in northern Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
, but the Malik betrayed him and delivered Nawruz to Ghazan, who had Nawruz executed immediately on August 13.
Ghazan thereafter attempted to control the situation, and in 1298 nominated a Jewish convert to Islam Rashid-al-Din Hamadani as prime minister, a post which Rashid held for the next 20 years, until 1318. Ghazan also commissioned Rashid-al-Din to produce a history of the Mongols and their dynasty, the Jami' al-tawarikh "Compendium of Chronicles" or Universal History. Over several years of expansion, the work grew to cover the entire history of the world since the time of Adam
Adam
Adam is a figure in the Book of Genesis. According to the creation myth of Abrahamic religions, he is the first human. In the Genesis creation narratives, he was created by Yahweh-Elohim , and the first woman, Eve was formed from his rib...
, and was completed during the reign of Ghazan's successor, Oljeitu. Many copies were made, a few of which survive to the modern day.
Relationship with other Mongol khanates
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
, but the Ogedeids and Chagataids in Central Asia
Central Asia
Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
continued to pose a serious threat to both the Ilkhanate and his overlord and ally the Great Khan in China. When Ghazan was crowned, the Chagatayid Khan Duwa
Duwa
Duwa , also known as Du'a, was khan of the Chagatai Khanate . He was the second son of Baraq. He was the longest reigning monarch of the Chagatayid Khanate and accepted the Great Khan's supremacy...
invaded Khorasan in 1295. Ghazan sent two of his relatives against the army of Chagatai Khanate but they deserted. When the traitors were captured and executed, some other notable Mongol nobles began to leave his side. Baltu of the Jalayir
Jalayir
Jalayir is one of the Darliqin Mongol tribes according to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's Jami' al-tawarikh. After the Mongol conquest in the 13th century many Jalayirs spread over Central Asia and the Middle East. Jalayirs are one of the founding tribes of Mongolia's largest ethnic group Khalkha....
and Sulemish of the Oirat
Oirats
Oirats are the westernmost group of the Mongols who unified several tribes origin whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal...
revolted against the Ilkhan's rule in Turkey in 1296 and 1299. Sulemish welcomed the Egyptian Mamluks to Anatolia, which postponed Ghazan's plan to invade Syria, though two Mongol rebels were defeated by Ghazan. A large group of the Oirats fled Syria, defeating the contingent sent by Ghazan in 1299. Along with those rebellions, invasions of the Neguderis of the Chagatai Khanate caused difficulties to Ghazan's military operations in Syria.
Ghazan maintained strong ties with the Great Khan of the Yuan and the Golden Horde. In 1296 Temur Khan, the successor of the Kublai Khan, dispatched a military commander Baiju
Baiju
Baiju was a Mongol commander in Persia appointed by Ögedei Khan to succeed Chormagan, and expand Mongol power further in that area....
to Mongol Persia. Five years later Ghazan sent his Mongolian and Persian retainers to collect income from Hulegu's holdings in China. While there, they presented tribute to Temur and were involved in cultural exchanges across Mongol Eurasia. Ghazan also called upon other Mongol Khans to unite their will under the Temur Khan, in which he was supported by Kaidu's enemy Bayan Khan of the White Horde.
Chinese physicians were present at Ghazan's court.
Mamluk-Ilkhanid War
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
in attempts to form a Franco-Mongol alliance
Franco-Mongol alliance
Franco-Mongol relations were established in the 13th century, as attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the Christian Crusaders and the Mongol Empire against various Muslim empires. Such an alliance would have seemed a logical choice: the Mongols were sympathetic to...
against their common enemy, primarily the Egyptian Mamluks. He already had the use of forces from Christian vassal countries such as Cilician Armenia and Georgia
Georgia (country)
Georgia is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of...
. The plan was to coordinate actions between Ghazan's forces, the Christian military orders, and the aristocracy of Cyprus to defeat the Egyptians, after which Jerusalem would be returned to the Europeans. Many Europeans are known to have worked for Ghazan, such as Isol the Pisan
Isol the Pisan
Isol the Pisan, also known as Ciolo Bofeti di Anastasio or Zolus Bofeti de Anestasio , was an Italian merchant, diplomat, and military leader. For some time he resided at the court of the Mongol Ilkhan, Ghazan, in Persia, rising to become his ambassador or liaison to the Kingdom of Cyprus...
or Buscarello de Ghizolfi
Buscarello de Ghizolfi
Buscarello de Ghizolfi, or Buscarel of Gisolfe was a European who settled in Persia in the 13th century while it was part of the Mongol Ilkhanate. He was a Mongol ambassador to Europe from 1289 to 1305, serving the Mongol rulers Arghun, Ghazan and then Oljeitu...
, often in high positions. Hundreds such Western adventurers entered into the service of Mongol rulers. According to historian Peter Jackson
Peter Jackson (historian)
Peter Jackson is a scholar and historian, specializing on the Crusades, particularly the contacts between the Europeans and the Mongols as well as medieval Muslim India...
, the 14th century saw such a vogue of Mongol things in the West that many new-born children in Italy were named after Mongol rulers, including Ghazan: names such as Can Grande ("Great Khan"), Alaone (Hulagu, Ghazan's great-grandfather), Argone (Arghun
Arghun
Arghun Khan aka Argon was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist...
, Ghazan's grandfather) or Cassano (Ghazan) were recorded with a high frequency.
In October 1299, Ghazan marched with his forces towards Syria and invited the Christians to join him. His army took the city of Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
, and was there joined by his vassal King Hethum II of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia , also known as the Cilician Armenia, Kingdom of Cilician Armenia or New Armenia, was an independent principality formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia...
, whose forces included some Templars
Knights Templar
The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon , commonly known as the Knights Templar, the Order of the Temple or simply as Templars, were among the most famous of the Western Christian military orders...
and Hospitallers
Knights Hospitaller
The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta , also known as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , Order of Malta or Knights of Malta, is a Roman Catholic lay religious order, traditionally of military, chivalrous, noble nature. It is the world's...
, and who participated in the rest of the offensive. The Mongols and their allies defeated the Mamluks in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
The Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar, also known as the Third Battle of Homs, was a Mongol victory over the Mamluks in 1299.-Background:In 1260, Hulagu Khan had invaded the Middle East all the way to Palestine. Before he could follow up with an invasion of Egypt, he was called back to Mongolia. He left...
, on December 23 or 24, 1299. One group of Mongols then split off from Ghazan's army and pursued the retreating Mamluk troops as far as Gaza
Gaza
Gaza , also referred to as Gaza City, is a Palestinian city in the Gaza Strip, with a population of about 450,000, making it the largest city in the Palestinian territories.Inhabited since at least the 15th century BC,...
, pushing them back to Egypt. The bulk of Ghazan's forces proceeded to Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
, which surrendered somewhere between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted. Most of Ghazan's forces then retreated in February, probably because their horses needed fodder. He promised to return in the winter of 1300-1301 to attack Egypt. About 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general Mulay
Mulay
Mulay, Mûlay, Bulay, or Molay for the Franks, was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end the 13th century. Mulay was part of the 1299–1300 Mongol offensive in Syria and Palestine, and remained with a small force to occupy the land after the departure of Ghazan. He also...
were left to briefly rule Syria, before they too retreated.
He was indeed feared and despised by the Mamluk
Mamluk
A Mamluk was a soldier of slave origin, who were predominantly Cumans/Kipchaks The "mamluk phenomenon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior...
, who sent a delegation of leading scholars and Imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
s including Ibn Taymiyya, to Maragheh
Maragheh
Maragheh also Romanized as Marāgheh and Marāghen) is a city in and the capital of Maragheh County, East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 146,405, in 38,891 families....
. In order to persuade Ghazan Khan, the Khan of the Mongol Ilkhans in occupied-Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, to stop his attack on the Muslims. There it is reported that not one of the scholars dared to say anything to Ghazan except Ibn Taymiyyah who said:
"You claim that you are Muslim and you have with you Mu'adhdhins, Mufti
Mufti
A mufti is a Sunni Islamic scholar who is an interpreter or expounder of Islamic law . In religious administrative terms, a mufti is roughly equivalent to a deacon to a Sunni population...
s, Imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
s and Shaykhs but you invaded us and reached our country for what? Although your father and your grandfather, Hulagu were non-believers, they did not attack us and they kept their promise. But you promised and broke your promise."
In July 1300, the Crusaders formed a small fleet of sixteen galleys with some smaller vessels to raid the coast, and Ghazan's ambassador traveled with them. The Crusader forces also attempted to establish a base at the small island of Ruad, from which raids were launched on Tartus while awaiting Ghazan's forces. However, the Mongol army was delayed, and the Crusader forces retreated to Cyprus, leaving a garrison on Ruad which was besieged and captured by Mamluks by 1303 (see Siege of Ruad).
Kutlushah
Kutlushah, Kutluka , , was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end the 13th century...
stationed 20,000 horsemen in the Jordan valley
Jordan Valley (Middle East)
The Jordan Valley forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. It is 120 kilometers long and 15 kilometers wide, where it runs from Lake Tiberias in the north to northern Dead Sea in the south. It runs for an additional 155 kilometer south of the Dead Sea to Aqaba, an area also known as Wadi...
to protect Damas, where a Mongol governor was stationed. But again, they were soon forced to withdraw.
Plans for combined operations with the Crusaders were again made for the following winter offensive, and in late 1301, Ghazan asked Pope Boniface VIII to send troops, priests, and peasants, in order to make the Holy Land a Frank state again. But again, Ghazan did not appear with his own troops. He wrote again to the Pope in 1302, and his ambassadors also visited the court of Charles II of Anjou, who on April 27, 1303 sent Gualterius de Lavendel
Gualterius de Lavendel
Gualterius de Lavendel was an ambassador of the king Charles II of Anjou to the Mongol ruler Ghazan. He went to Persia to visit Ghazan, and arrived there after April 27, 1303...
as his own ambassador back to Ghazan's court.
In 1303, Ghazan sent another letter to Edward I via Buscarello de Ghizolfi
Buscarello de Ghizolfi
Buscarello de Ghizolfi, or Buscarel of Gisolfe was a European who settled in Persia in the 13th century while it was part of the Mongol Ilkhanate. He was a Mongol ambassador to Europe from 1289 to 1305, serving the Mongol rulers Arghun, Ghazan and then Oljeitu...
, reiterating his great-grandfather Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu , was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia...
's promise that the Mongols would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Mamluks. The Mongols, along with their Armenian vassals, had mustered a force of about 80,000 to repel the raiders of the Chagatai Khanate
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate was a Turko-Mongol khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan , second son of the Great Khan Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors...
, which was under the leadership of Qutlugh Khwaja
Qutlugh Khwaja
Qutlugh Khwaja was a son of Duwa, the Mongolian khan of Chagatai Khanate in the Mongol Empire. He became a chief of the Qara'unas in Afghanistan after Abdullah was recalled by the Khan to Central Asia in around 1298-1299...
. After their success there, they advanced again towards Syria. However, Ghazan's forces were defeated by the Mamluks just south of Damascus at the decisive Battle of Marj al-Saffar in April 1303. It was to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.
Reform
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
historian Pachymeres (1242–1310): "No one surpassed him, in making saddles, bridles, spurs, greaves and helmets; he could hammer, stitch and polish, and in such occupations employed the hours of his leisure from war." Ghazan spoke numerous languages, including Chinese, Arabic, and "Frank" (probably Latin), as well as his own native language Mongolian.
In addition to his religious deep impact on Persia, Ghazan unified measure
Measure
- Legal :* Measure of the Church of England is a law passed by the General Synod and the UK Parliament equivalent of an Act* Measure of the National Assembly for Wales, a law specific to Wales passed by the Welsh Assembly between 2007 and 2011...
s, coinage
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
and weights in the Ilkhanate. He ordered a new census
Census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
in Persia to define the Dynasty's fiscal policy
Fiscal policy
In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government expenditure and revenue collection to influence the economy....
. He began to reuse wilderness or abandoned lands to raise crops, strongly supporting the introduction of Eastern Asian crops in Persia, and improved the yam
Yam (vegetable)
Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea . These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania...
. He constructed hostels, hospitals, schools, and posts. Envoys from the court received a per diem stipend
Stipend
A stipend is a form of salary, such as for an internship or apprenticeship. It is often distinct from a wage or a salary because it does not necessarily represent payment for work performed, instead it represents a payment that enables somebody to be exempt partly or wholly from waged or salaried...
, and those of the nobility traveled at their own expense. Ghazan ordered only envoys bearing urgent military intelligence to use the staffed postal relay service. Mongol soldiers were given iqtas by the Ilkhanid court, where they were allowed to gather revenue provided by a piece of land.
Ghazan reformed the issuance of jarliq
Jarliq
In the Mongol Empire, Jarlig was one of three types of non-fundamental law pronouncements that had the effect of a regulation or ordinance, the other two being debter and bilig In the Mongol Empire, Jarlig (Mongolian: зарлиг; Russian: iarlyk, also transliterated yarlyk and the Tartar: yarligh)...
s (edicts), creating set forms and graded seals, ordering that all jarliqs be kept on file at court. Jarliqs older than 30 years were to be cancelled, along with old paiza
Paiza
Paiza or Gerege is a tablet of authority for the Mongol officials and envoys...
s (Mongol seals of authority). He fashioned new paizas into two ranks, which contained the names of the bearers on them to prevent them from being transferred. Old paizas were also to be turned in at the end of the official's term.
On coins, Ghazan omitted the name of the Great Khan, instead inscribing his own name upon his coins in Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
and Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
. In Georgia
Georgia (country)
Georgia is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the southwest by Turkey, to the south by Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of...
, he minted coins with the traditional Mongolian formula "Struck by the Ilkhan Ghazan in the name of Khagan" because he wanted to secure his claim on Caucasus
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...
with the help of the Great Khans of the Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
. He also continued to use the Great Khan's Chinese seal which declared him to be a wang (prince) below the Great Khan.
His reforms also extended to the military, as several new guard units, mostly Mongols, were created by Ghazan for his army center. However, he restricted new guards’ political significance. Seeing Mongol commoners selling their children into slavery as damaging to both the manpower and the prestige of the Mongol army, Ghazan budgeted funds to redeem Mongol slave boys, and made his minister Bolad
Bolad
Bolad, also known as Bolad chingsang , was a Mongol minister of the Yuan Dynasty, and later served in the Ilkhanate as an ambassador of the Yuan emperor and adviser to the Ilkhans...
(the ambassador of the Great Khan Kublai) commander of a military unit of redeemed Mongol slaves.
Ghazan died on May 10, 1304. In his final illness, as he had no surviving son, he nominated his brother Oljeitu as his successor.