First East Turkestan Republic
Encyclopedia
The First Eastern Turkestan Republic (ETR), or Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan (TIRET), or, Republic of Uyghurstan, (Sherqiy Türkistan Yislam Jumuhuriyiti or Sarki Turk Islam Cumhuriyeti) was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic
founded in 1933. It was centered on the city of Kashgar
in what is today the People's Republic of China
-administered Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Although primarily the product of independence movement of the Uyghur
population living there, the ETR was Turkish-ethnic in character, including Kazakh
, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic
Turkish in its government and its population.
With the sacking of Kashgar in 1934 by Hui
warlords nominally allied with the Kuomintang
government in Nanjing
, the first ETR was effectively eliminated. Its example, however, served to some extent as inspiration for the founding of a Second East Turkestan Republic
a decade later, and continues to influence modern Uyghur nationalist support for the creation of an independent East Turkestan
. Isa Alptekin
was the General Secretary of the First East Turkestan Republic.
, East Turkestan independence movement
The stirrings of Uyghur separatism during the early 20th century were greatly influenced by the Turkish jadidist movement, which spread as wealthier Uyghurs, inspired by notions of Pan-Turkism
, traveled abroad to Turkey, Europe, and Russia, and returned home determined to modernize and develop the educational system in Xinjiang
. The first major school founded on the European model was located outside of Kashgar
and, unlike the traditional curricula of the madrassah, focused on more technical areas of study such as science, mathematics, history, and language studies. Jadidism emphasized the power of education as a tool for personal and national self-advancement, a development sure to disturb the traditional status quo in Xinjiang. The ruler of Xinjiang, Governor Yang Zengxin
(楊增新), responded by closing down or interfering with the operations of several of the new schools.
The birth of the Soviet Union
and the socialist Central Asian Republics also influenced the Uyghurs, increasing the popularity of nationalist separatist movements and the spread of the communist message. Although a local Communist revolutionary organization was established in Xinjiang in 1921, the area also served as a refuge for many intellectuals fleeing the advent of Soviet Communism in Central Asia, which formed a division within the Xinjiang Turkic nationalist movement.
The situation in Xinjiang deteriorated with the assassination of Yang Zengxin in 1928 and the rise to power of his deputy, Jin Shuren
(金樹仁), who declared himself governor after arresting and executing Yang's assassin, a rival official named Fan Yaonan (樊耀南) who had planned to assume the position for himself. Autocratic, corrupt, and ineffective at managing the province's development, Jin further antagonized the populace by reinstituting Sinicization
policies, increasing taxes, prohibiting participation in the hajj
and bringing in Han Chinese
officials to replace local leaders.
of Kumul Prefecture (Hami) in eastern Xinjiang
, Shah Mexsut, died. In policies carried over from the Qing era, the khan had been allowed to continue his hereditary rule over the area consistent with the principles of feudalism
or satrapy. The importance of Hami territory, strategically located straddling the main road linking the province to eastern China and rich in undeveloped farmland, together with a desire by the government to consolidate power and eliminate the old practice of indirect rule, led Jin to abolish the khanate and assert direct rule upon Shah Mexsut's death.
Jin Shuren then proceeded to double agricultural taxes upon the local Uyghur population, expropriated choice farmland, and distributed it among Han Chinese
refugees from neighboring Gansu
province, subsidizing their efforts and resettling displaced Uyghurs on poor-quality land near the desert. The new garrison
stationed in Hami proved even more antagonizing, and by 1931, scattered revolts, mobs, and resistance movements were emerging throughout the area. The final straw was in February 1931 when an ethnic Chinese officer named Chieng wished to marry a Uyghur girl from a village outside Hami. Uyghur accounts usually claim that the girl was raped or the family coerced, but as Islamic law forbids Muslim girls to marry non-Muslim men it was clearly offensive to the Uyghur community.
Rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931 with a massacre of Chieng and his 33 soldiers at the wedding ceremony; 120 Han Chinese refugees from Gansu also were killed. It was not confined to the ethnic Uyghur population alone; Kazaks
, Kyrgyz, Han Chinese
and Hui
commanders all joined in revolt against Jin's rule, though they would occasionally break to fight one another.
The Kuomintang
(KMT) and Soviet
governments further complicated the situation by dispatching troops to come to the aid of Jin and his military commander Sheng Shicai
(盛世才), as did White Russian
refugees from the Soviet Union living in the Ili River
valley region.
The main fighting initially centered around Urumchi, which Uyghur and Hui forces laid under siege until Sheng Shicai
's troops were reinforced by White Russian and Manchuria
n soldiers who had previously fled the Japanese invasion of northeast China. In April 1933, Jin was deposed by a combination of these forces and succeeded by Sheng, who enjoyed Soviet support. Newly bolstered, Sheng split the opposing forces around Urumchi by offering several Uyghur commanders (led by Xoja Niyaz Hajji
, an advisor to the recently deceased Hami khan
) positions of power in southern Xinjiang if they would agree to turn against the Hui armies in the north, led by Ma Zhongying
(馬仲英).
Another Hui faction in southern Xinjiang, meanwhile, had struck an alliance with Uyghur forces located around Kucha
under the leadership of Timur Beg
and proceeded to march towards Kashgar
. The joint Uyghur and Hui force surrounding the city split again, as Hui commander Ma Zhancang
(馬占倉) allied with the local provincial authority representative, a fellow Hui named Ma Shaowu
(馬紹武), and attacked the Uyghur forces, killing Timur Beg.
A Kirghiz rebellion
had earlier broken out in Xinjiang, led by the Kirghiz leader Id Mirab
. Ma Shaowu had crushed and defeated the Kirghiz rebels. The Soviet Union had been involved in also fighting against the rebels, who had spilled over to the Soviet side.
city of Khotan
, three brothers of rich Bughra family, Muhammad Amin Bughra
, Abdullah Bughra
and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
, educated in the jadidist tradition, had led a rebellion of gold miners who worked in Surghak mines near Keriya
city, also in Yurunkash and Karakash
mountain rivers, and established themselves as emirs of the city, having declared the Khotan Emirate
and independence from China on March 16, 1933.
Leader of Karakash gold miners Ismail Khan Khoja sent message to Governor Jin Shuren
: "Foolish infidels like you are not fit to rule.... You infidels think that because you have rifles, guns... and money, you can depend on them, but we depend of God in whose hands are our lives."
Local provincial authorities and troops were annihilated by the miners throughout Khotan vilayet, rare Chinese
population in most cases saved their lives and property, but was forced to accept Islam
under the threat of execution. During successful storming of Khotan New City on March 16, 1933 both the Treasury and Arsenal were captured by rebels, delivering to their hands several thousands of rifles and more than a ton
of gold. The Khotan Emirate dispatched one of the three brothers, Shahmansur, known also as Emir Abdullah
, and a former publisher named Sabit Damolla
to Kashgar, where they established the Kashgar Affairs Office of the Khotan Government, led by Muhammad Amin Bughra
, in July 1933. By the fall of that year, the office had shed many of its links to the Khotan government and reformed itself into the multi-ethnic, quasi-nationalist East Turkestan Independence Association, which drew heavily on ideas of Islamic reformism, nationalism and jadidism.
In September 1933, Sabit Damolla declared the establishment of the East Turkistan Republic with Hoja-Niyaz
as its president — despite the fact that the respected commander was engaged in fighting in northern Xinjiang and had actually allied his forces with those of Sheng Shicai
. Original proclamation was extremely anti-Tungan and ani-Han and contained such words:
Tungan, Dungan, and Hui all mean the same thing. They mean Chinese speaking Muslims, Hui people
.
On November 12, 1933 an independent republic (Turkish Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan (TIRET) or Republic of Uyghurstan, both names were used at the same time) was proclaimed. This event was organized on Sunday morning in a mass rally on the shore of Tuman river outside of Kashgar with participating of about 7,000 troops and 13,000 civilians, including teachers and students of schools, who delivered speeches alongside with appointed "Ministers" of the independent republic. On noon cannon fired 41 times and crowd proceeded to the Old City of Kashgar, waving blue banners of Independence, where rally continued on the square in front of Idgah Mosque and more speeches were delivered from Mosque's front, where Sabit Damulla appeared as a main speaker.
Established distinct from the Khotan Emirate, the ETR claimed authority over territory stretching from Aksu along the northern rim of the Tarim Basin
to Khotan
in the south. In fact, the government in Kashgar
was strapped for resources, plagued by rapid inflation
, and surrounded by hostile powers — including the Hui
forces under Ma Zhancang
. Although established as a multiethnic republic, as reflected in the choice of the "East Turkestan" name used in its founding constitution
, the first coins of the new government were initially minted
under the name "Republic of Uyghurstan" (Uyghurstan Jumhuriyiti). In some sources, it is known as the "East Turkestan Islamic Republic", suggesting a greater role for Islam
in its founding character. The extent of Islam's influence in the foundation of the ETR is disputed; while the constitution endorses sharia
as the guiding law, the jadidist modernizing tradition places much greater emphases on reform and development, which is reflected in subsequent passages of the constitution that focus on health, education, and economic reforms. The Turkestan Declaration of Independence put political platform of the self-proclaimed Republic based on nine main principles:
1. End the Chinese dictatorial rule in the Land of Eastern Turkestan.
2. Establish a free and independent Eastern Turkestan Republic, based on equality of all nationalities.
3. In order to fully develop the economy of Eastern Turkestan, promote industry, agriculture and animal husbandry as well as private businesses. Increase people's living standards.
4. Since the majority of people of Eastern Turkestan believe in Islam
, so the Government particularly advocates this religion. At the same time it promotes religious freedom for other religions.
5. Develop education, culture and health standards in Eastern Turkestan.
6. Establish friendly relations with all democratic countries in the World and neighbouring countries, especially with the United Kingdom
, Soviet Russia
, Turkey
and China.
7. In order to protect peace in Eastern Turkestan, recruit people of all nationalities to establish a strong Army.
8. The Bank, Post Service, Telephone and Telegraph, Forestry and all underground wealth belong to the nation.
9. Eliminate individualism, bureaucracy idea, nationalism and corruption among Government officials.
The efforts of the Turkish Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan to receive international recognition had failed despite the dispatching of numerous envoys by Prime Minister Sabit Damolla
to the USSR (Tashkent
, Moscow
), Afghanistan
, Iran
, Turkey
and British India. The Soviet Union
rejected all offers of dealing with Islamists. In Kabul
, Kashgar representatives met the newly-proclaimed King of Afghanistan Mohammad Zahir Shah and Prime Minister Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
, asking for aid and a supply of arms. But both preferred to keep neutrality and not interfere in Chinese affairs. Other countries reacted the same way, refusing to recognize the envoys as representatives of an independent country. None of the regional powers wanted to make a challenge to the Soviet Union and China in their politics and to become engaged in bloody fighting in Xinjiang
, which had already claimed the lives of around 100,000 of its inhabitants. This left the fledgling Republic, which was surrounded on almost all sides by hostile powers (Tungans, Soviets, and Chinese), with very little chance to survive.
1. Qeshqer infantry division
2. Khotan ifantry division
3. Aksu cavalry brigade
4. Qumul revolutionary regiment (later became a division)
5. Turpan revolutionary brigade (later became the Turpan Division)
6. Altay revolutionary cavalry brigade
During the war an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Turki civilians were killed. Although it is not certain how many soldiers the IRET lost in the war, it is estimated that around 100,000 to 150,000 soldiers were killed. In some battles entire companies and brigades were wiped out. When IRET was dismantled in 1934 the army was dismantled also (except for 6th Uyghur Division personally commanded by Mehmut Muhiti).
's forces on January 24, 1934 in the form of two Soviet brigades, the Altaiskaya
and Tarbaghataiskaya
, disguised as "White Russian
Cossack
Altai
Volunteer Army" and led by Red Army
General Volgin in the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
. The Japan
ese annexation of Manchuria
and rumored support for Ma Zhongying
's Hui
forces were one cause for concern troubling Joseph Stalin
, another was the prospect that rebellion in Xinjiang might spread to the Soviet Central Asian Republics and offer a haven to Turkic Muslim Basmachi rebels. Trade ties between Xinjiang and the Soviet Union also gave the Soviets reason for supporting Sheng. Soviet Consul-General in Urumchi Garegin Apresoff openly said to Sheng Shicai in May,1933 : You can develop the province and improve living conditions of people of different nationalities, develop their culture. But if you let them ( muslim rebels ) to create Independate State, converting it to the Second Manchuria at the back door of the USSR, we will not be just side watchers, we will start to act. First request from Sheng Sicai of military support from USSR came on October 1933. On December 1933 Sheng Shicai arrested White Russian Colonel Papengut, who was staunchy anti-Soviet, and executed by demand of Apresoff, replacing him by "neutral" General Bektieieff as Commander-in chief of three White Russian Regiments of Xinjiang Provincial Army, thus paving the way for Soviet intervention into Xinjiang.
Zhang Peiyuan, a Han Chinese General, who commanded Han Chinese troops in Ili
, conducted negotiations with Ma Zhongying and planned to join him on the attack on Urumchi in January 1934. Initially Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and Urumqi, but decided to return back to Ghulja after receiving of message of capturing the city by Russian " Altai Volunteer Army ", actually Soviet troops entered the city. Upon approaching Ghulja he was surrounded on mountain road, his troops were partly annihilated, partly fled to Muzart Pass on Tianshan
Mountains and through it to Southern Xinjiang near Aksu. Zhang Peiyuan himself committed suicide. Ma Zhongying attacked Urumchi as was planned, taking Sheng completely by surprise, hiddenly approaching the city from the hills on the west and first capturing the telegraph station and aerodrom, then started besieging the city, completely isolating it from suburbs. But the fact, that in the crucial moment of besieging of Urumchi Ma Zhongying didn't receive the promised help from Zhang Peiyuan's Ili Army , was the reason of Ma's failure to capture the city in the first weeks of attack, nevertheless its fall was imminent and just a matter of time without intervention of Soviet troops. The battle for Urumchi was decisive for the whole Ma Zhongying's campaign in Xinjiang and its taking by his forces would lead to recognision of him The absolute ruler of Xinjiang by Nanjing Government of China, as was previously secretly promised to him.
The Soviet brigades, with air support, scattered Ma Zhongying's troops surrounding Urumqi and forced them to retreat southward. On February 16, 1934 the siege of Urumchi was lifted, freeing Sheng, his Manchurian and the White Guard
Russian Cossack troops, which had been trapped in the city by Ma forces since January 13, 1934.
Hoja-Niyaz
Hajji
had by this time arrived at Kashgar with 1,500 troops on the same day of January 13, 1934 to assume the presidency of the ETR, going against his previous deal with Sheng. With him arrived another prominent Uyghur leader from Eastern Sinkiang (Turpan, Kumul) Mahmut Muhiti, known as Mahmut Sijan, i.e., division general, who had agreed to become minister of Defense in the ETR Government, accepting the offer of Prime Minister Sabit Damolla
. Sabit Damolla freed for Khoja Niyaz his own Palace in the old city of Kashgar, that was established in the former Yamen
or residence of the head of Chinese administration of Southern Xinjiang, and asked to form a new Government. In his letter to Nanjing
Central Government Khoja Niyaz explained his decision by emphasizing the fact, that he accepted the decision made by the Congress of People of Eastern Turkestan in accordance with its free will and choice and that Constitution of Chinese Republic of 1912 reserves the " right of 5 races of China to self-determination ". He listed five principles of the self-ruling of Republic:
Khoja Niyaz introduced new state Flag of Republic, so called Kok Bayraq or Blue Banner, that resembled Turkish Flag but with blue background instead of red and replaced old Flag, which was white with blue crescent and star and Shahadah. Nevertheless, the ETR (TIRET) proved to be short-lived. The Hui forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang
's forces in Kashgar allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing, and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla, and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934 to Yengi Hissar
south of the city. The conquering Hui army killed many of those who remained, and a rapid procession of betrayals among the survivors, following their expulsion from Kashgar, spelled the effective end of the TIRET. The Hui army crushed the Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934)
, Battle of Yarkand
, and Battle of Yangi Hissar
. Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed TIRET.
Mahmut Muhiti retreated with remainder of Army to Yarkand and Hotan, while Hoja Niyaz Hajji fled through Artush
to Irkeshtam on the Soviet/Chinese border, with Tungan troops on his heels, which chased him as far as the border. Hoja Niyaz took refuge in the USSR, where he was blamed by the Soviets for accepting from Sabit Damolla the position of first leader of TIRET (President), but was promised a military aid and "great prospects for the future" if he would help Sheng Shicai and the Soviets "to dissolve TIRET".
After signing the Document of TIRET dismissal and disbanding of most of its troops, that was applied to Khotanese and Kyrgyz troops ( notification of concluded agreement with USSR on negotiations between Hoja Niyaz and Soviets in Irkeshtam on Soviet/Chinese border was received by TIRET cabinet and Prime-Minister Sabit Damulla in the city of Yengi Hisar
on March 1, 1934; next day it was rejected by TIRET cabinet on the special meeting, which condemned the President as a " national traitor "; Sabit Damulla said on the meeting: Hoja Niyaz is not a Champion of Islam any more, he turned into a tool in the hands of Russians to subdue our country ) Hoja Niyaz Hajji returned to Eastern Turkestan where he turned Sabit and several other TIRET ministers to Sheng, who rewarded him with control over southern Xinjiang as previously promised; those who escaped fled to India
and Afghanistan
.
The Kuomintang allied Hui forces under Ma Zhongying
were defeated, and Sheng consolidated his rule over northern Xinjiang with Soviet backing. The seat of Hoja Niyaz Hajji Southern Xinjiang Autonomous Government was initially located in Aksu, but later he was urged by Sheng Shicai to move to Urumchi to assume the position of the Vice-Chairman of the Xinjiang Government. His forces received 15,000 rifles and ammunitions from the USSR, but each rifle, each bullet, and each bomb, that was dropped on Tungan troops from Soviet airplanes, had been bought in gold from the USSR by Hoja Niyaz Hajji.
New order was promulgated by Sheng Shicai's regime for the Xinjiang province, which China regarded as the "back door of China", but Stalin considered also to be the "back door of the USSR". This new order was to be executed through the two Programmes of the new Xinjiang Provincial Government, so called "Eight Points" and "Six Great Policies".
The Eight Points for Xinjiang were:
These Eight Points for Xinjiang were symbolized by a new high medal of Xinjiang in the shape of an eight-point star, introduced by Provincial Government. Among first persons, who were awarded this medal, was Vice-Chairman of Xinjiang Government Khoja Niyaz (1934–1937) and Divisional General, Commander-in-Chief of 6th Uyghur Division, Deputy Chief of Kashgar Military Region Mahmut Muhiti (1934–1937).
The Six Great Policies for Xinjiang were:
These Six Great Policies for Xinjiang were symbolized by the introducing of a new flag of Xinjiang Province, that had six-point yellow star on red background and was in official use from 1934 to 1944 years.
, Uighur
and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese
and Chinese Muslim
soldiers from Yarkand
New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslim and Chinese civilians.
was a minor battle in which Chinese Muslim
troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Isma'il Beg
when they rose up in revolt.
was a minor battle when Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang
attacked and inflicted a defeat upon uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 uighur and Kirghiz were killed.
, Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay
, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated.
Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg
killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque
.
Han Chinese
troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam.
During the Battle the Kirghiz prevented the Uyghur from looting the city, because they wanted to loot it themselves. They started murdering any Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, as well as any Turkic people who were wives or mistresses of Chinese. They then looted their property.
occurred in July 1933 after Khoja Niyas Hajji, a Uighur
leader, defected with his forces to Governor Sheng Shicai
. He was appointed by Sheng Shicai through agreement to be in charge for the whole Southern Xinjiang (Tarim Basin
) and also Turpan Basin and being satisfied with this agreement marched away from Urumqi to the South across Dawan Ch'eng
of Tengritagh Mountains
and occupied Toksun in Turpan Basin, but was badly defeated by the Chinese Muslim forces of General Ma Shih-ming, who forced him to retreat to Karashar
in Eastern Kashgaria, where he held his headquarters during July, August and September 1933, defending mountain passes and roads, that led from Turpan Basin to Kashgaria, in the fruitless attempt to stop advancement of Tungan Armies to the South.
, 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, and attacked the Uighur
and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghizs since May 22, 1933 and was involved in continuous fighting, that lasted for more than five and half months, for holding control of a New City with its important Arsenal and Treasury since August 15, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks launched by Khoja Niyaz
, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, with 1,500 troops, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre
, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city in four directions: to Yengi Hisar
with the Government, to Yarkand, to Upal
and to Artush
. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Idgah mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China
government at Nanjing
. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division.
, Ma Zhancang led the 36th division to attack Uighur forces at Yangi Hissar
, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
. The siege on Yangi Hissar citadel continued almost half a month, during which 500 uyghur defenders, armed only with rifles, inflicted heavy casualties, up to several hundreds, to Tungan forces, who contrary were armed with artillery cannons and machine guns, besides of rifles. Quickly being run out of ammunition uyghur defenders applied tree trunks, large stones and oil fire bombs for defending of citadel. On March 26, 1934, Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra ordered troops in citadel to stop fighting to celebrate Holy Day of Kurban Bayram (Feast of Sacrific), but on the same day Chinese Muslims managed to breach through the walls of citadel by successful mining and put to death all remaining defenders by sword. It was reported by Ahmad Kamal in his book "Land Without Laughter" on page 130-131, that Nur Ahmad Jan's head was cut off by the Chinese Muslim troops and sent to the local parade ground to be used as a ball in the soccer (football) game.
in March–April 1934, Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan's Chinese Muslim troops, 10,000 strong, defeated 2,500 strong Uighur force led by emir Shah Mansur (Abdullah Khan Bughra) from Yarkand to Yengi Hissar
to deblocade citadel in which his brother Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
was besieged. This force included a small number of Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah
and who served as body guards of emir Abdullah. For two weeks of fierce fighting by March 28, 1934 of 2,500 emir Abdullah soldiers, who initially were engaged in the battle, 2,300 had been killed or wounded. The last engagement occurred near Sweden
mission in Yarkand during which the emir Abdullah Bughra was allegedly killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque. None of 24 Afghan body guards left Shah Mansur till last minute and all were killed in the battle.
by the Uighurs in the Charkliq
oasis in 1935. More than 100 uighurs were executed, and the family of the Uighur leader was taken as hostage.
Islamic republic
Islamic republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Mauritania. Pakistan adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian...
founded in 1933. It was centered on the city of Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
in what is today the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
-administered Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Although primarily the product of independence movement of the Uyghur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
population living there, the ETR was Turkish-ethnic in character, including Kazakh
Kazakhs
The Kazakhs are a Turkic people of the northern parts of Central Asia ....
, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are peoples residing in northern, central and western Asia, southern Siberia and northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
Turkish in its government and its population.
With the sacking of Kashgar in 1934 by Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
warlords nominally allied with the Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
government in Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
, the first ETR was effectively eliminated. Its example, however, served to some extent as inspiration for the founding of a Second East Turkestan Republic
Second East Turkestan Republic
The Second East Turkestan Republic, usually known simply as the East Turkestan Republic , was a short-lived Soviet-backed Turkic people's republic which existed in the 1940s in three northern districts of Xinjiang province of the Republic of China, what is now the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous...
a decade later, and continues to influence modern Uyghur nationalist support for the creation of an independent East Turkestan
East Turkestan
East Turkestan is a controversial political term with multiple meanings depending on context and usage...
. Isa Alptekin
Isa Alptekin
Isa Yusuf Alptekin or ʿĪsa Yūsuf Alptekin ; 1901 – 17 December 1995) was a Uyghur political leader, exiled from China in 1949.He was born at 1901 in Yengisar County, Kashgar, Qing Dynasty...
was the General Secretary of the First East Turkestan Republic.
Origins of the ETR Movement
See also: History of XinjiangHistory of Xinjiang
The recorded history of Xinjiang dates to the 2nd millennium BC. There have been many empires, primarily Han, Turkic, and Mongolic, that have ruled over the region, including the Yuezhi, Xiongnu Empire, Han Dynasty, Sixteen Kingdoms of the Jin Dynasty , Tang Dynasty, Uyghur Khaganate, Kara-Khanid...
, East Turkestan independence movement
East Turkestan independence movement
The East Turkestan independence movement is a broad term that refers to advocates of an independent, self-governing East Turkestan in the region now known as Xinjiang, an autonomous region in the People's Republic of China.-Historical background:...
The stirrings of Uyghur separatism during the early 20th century were greatly influenced by the Turkish jadidist movement, which spread as wealthier Uyghurs, inspired by notions of Pan-Turkism
Pan-Turkism
Pan-Turkism is a nationalist movement that emerged in 1880s among the Turkic intellectuals of the Russian Empire, with the aim of cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples.-Name:...
, traveled abroad to Turkey, Europe, and Russia, and returned home determined to modernize and develop the educational system in Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
. The first major school founded on the European model was located outside of Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
and, unlike the traditional curricula of the madrassah, focused on more technical areas of study such as science, mathematics, history, and language studies. Jadidism emphasized the power of education as a tool for personal and national self-advancement, a development sure to disturb the traditional status quo in Xinjiang. The ruler of Xinjiang, Governor Yang Zengxin
Yang Zengxin
Yang Zengxin , born in Mengzi, Honghe, Yunnan in 1859, was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 until his assassination in 1928.-Life:...
(楊增新), responded by closing down or interfering with the operations of several of the new schools.
The birth of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
and the socialist Central Asian Republics also influenced the Uyghurs, increasing the popularity of nationalist separatist movements and the spread of the communist message. Although a local Communist revolutionary organization was established in Xinjiang in 1921, the area also served as a refuge for many intellectuals fleeing the advent of Soviet Communism in Central Asia, which formed a division within the Xinjiang Turkic nationalist movement.
The situation in Xinjiang deteriorated with the assassination of Yang Zengxin in 1928 and the rise to power of his deputy, Jin Shuren
Jin Shuren
Jin Shuren , governor of Xinjiang, succeeded Yang Zengxin after Yang was assassinated in 1928. Jin ruled Xinjiang for about half a decade, and his reign was characterized by corruption and suppression. Under his rule, both ethnic and religion conflicts were greatly deepened, resulting in numerous...
(金樹仁), who declared himself governor after arresting and executing Yang's assassin, a rival official named Fan Yaonan (樊耀南) who had planned to assume the position for himself. Autocratic, corrupt, and ineffective at managing the province's development, Jin further antagonized the populace by reinstituting Sinicization
Sinicization
Sinicization, Sinicisation or Sinification, is the linguistic assimilation or cultural assimilation of terms and concepts of the language and culture of China...
policies, increasing taxes, prohibiting participation in the hajj
Hajj
The Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is one of the largest pilgrimages in the world, and is the fifth pillar of Islam, a religious duty that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so...
and bringing in Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
officials to replace local leaders.
Rebellion
The situation came to a head in 1930, when the khanKhan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
of Kumul Prefecture (Hami) in eastern Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
, Shah Mexsut, died. In policies carried over from the Qing era, the khan had been allowed to continue his hereditary rule over the area consistent with the principles of feudalism
Feudalism
Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...
or satrapy. The importance of Hami territory, strategically located straddling the main road linking the province to eastern China and rich in undeveloped farmland, together with a desire by the government to consolidate power and eliminate the old practice of indirect rule, led Jin to abolish the khanate and assert direct rule upon Shah Mexsut's death.
Jin Shuren then proceeded to double agricultural taxes upon the local Uyghur population, expropriated choice farmland, and distributed it among Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
refugees from neighboring Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
province, subsidizing their efforts and resettling displaced Uyghurs on poor-quality land near the desert. The new garrison
Garrison
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
stationed in Hami proved even more antagonizing, and by 1931, scattered revolts, mobs, and resistance movements were emerging throughout the area. The final straw was in February 1931 when an ethnic Chinese officer named Chieng wished to marry a Uyghur girl from a village outside Hami. Uyghur accounts usually claim that the girl was raped or the family coerced, but as Islamic law forbids Muslim girls to marry non-Muslim men it was clearly offensive to the Uyghur community.
Rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931 with a massacre of Chieng and his 33 soldiers at the wedding ceremony; 120 Han Chinese refugees from Gansu also were killed. It was not confined to the ethnic Uyghur population alone; Kazaks
Kazaks
Kazak may be a transliteration from native languages into English of the following terms:* Kazakhs , an ethnic group of Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and Turkey* Qazaq - a Kazakh language newspaper published in the early 20th century...
, Kyrgyz, Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
and Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
commanders all joined in revolt against Jin's rule, though they would occasionally break to fight one another.
The Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
(KMT) and Soviet
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
governments further complicated the situation by dispatching troops to come to the aid of Jin and his military commander Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
(盛世才), as did White Russian
White movement
The White movement and its military arm the White Army - known as the White Guard or the Whites - was a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces.The movement comprised one of the politico-military Russian forces who fought...
refugees from the Soviet Union living in the Ili River
Ili River
thumb|right|300px|Map of the Lake Balkhash drainage basin showing the Ili River and its tributariesThe Ili River is a river in northwestern China and southeastern Kazakhstan .It is long, of which is in Kazakhstan...
valley region.
The main fighting initially centered around Urumchi, which Uyghur and Hui forces laid under siege until Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
's troops were reinforced by White Russian and Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
n soldiers who had previously fled the Japanese invasion of northeast China. In April 1933, Jin was deposed by a combination of these forces and succeeded by Sheng, who enjoyed Soviet support. Newly bolstered, Sheng split the opposing forces around Urumchi by offering several Uyghur commanders (led by Xoja Niyaz Hajji
Hajji
Hajji or El-Hajj, is an honorific title given to a Muslim person who has successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca, and is often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel. The title is placed before a person's name...
, an advisor to the recently deceased Hami khan
Khan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
) positions of power in southern Xinjiang if they would agree to turn against the Hui armies in the north, led by Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
(馬仲英).
Another Hui faction in southern Xinjiang, meanwhile, had struck an alliance with Uyghur forces located around Kucha
Kucha
Kuchaor Kuche Uyghur , Chinese Simplified: 库车; Traditional: 庫車; pinyin Kùchē; also romanized as Qiuzi, Qiuci, Chiu-tzu, Kiu-che, Kuei-tzu from the traditional Chinese forms 屈支 屈茨; 龜玆; 龟兹, 丘玆, also Po ; Sanskrit: Kueina, Standard Tibetan: Kutsahiyui was an ancient Buddhist kingdom...
under the leadership of Timur Beg
Timur Beg
Timur Beg , or Timur Sijan was a Uighur rebel military leader in Xinjiang in 1933. He was involved in the 1933 Battle of Kashgar and participated before in Turpan Rebellion . He associated with the Turkic nationalist Young Kashgar Party and appointed himself as 'Timur Shah'. He and other Uighurs...
and proceeded to march towards Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
. The joint Uyghur and Hui force surrounding the city split again, as Hui commander Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
(馬占倉) allied with the local provincial authority representative, a fellow Hui named Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu was a Hui born in Yunnan, in Qing dynasty China. He was a member of the Xinjiang clique during the Republic of China.- Family history :...
(馬紹武), and attacked the Uyghur forces, killing Timur Beg.
A Kirghiz rebellion
Kirghiz rebellion
The Kirghiz rebellion occurred when Kyrgyz irregulars in Xinjiang revolted against the government. The leader of the rebellion was Id Mirab. The Chinese Muslim Taoyin of Kashgar, Ma Shaowu, ruthlessly crushed the Kirghiz rebels. The Soviet Union was also involved in suppressing the rebels....
had earlier broken out in Xinjiang, led by the Kirghiz leader Id Mirab
Id Mirab
Id Mirab was a Kirghiz leader who revolted against the government of Xinjiang in 1932 in the Kirghiz rebellion in the Tien Shan mountains. He was defeated....
. Ma Shaowu had crushed and defeated the Kirghiz rebels. The Soviet Union had been involved in also fighting against the rebels, who had spilled over to the Soviet side.
Establishment of the ETR
While this was transpiring, in the nearby southern Tarim BasinTarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about . It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The...
city of Khotan
Khotan
Hotan , or Hetian , also spelled Khotan, is the seat of the Hotan Prefecture in Xinjiang, China. It was previously known in Chinese as 于窴/於窴 and to 19th-century European explorers as Ilchi....
, three brothers of rich Bughra family, Muhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra also Muḥammad Amīn Bughra , Муххамад Эмин Бугро, was a Turkic Muslim leader, who planned to set up an independent state, the First East Turkestan Republic....
, Abdullah Bughra
Abdullah Bughra
Abdullah Bughra , was a Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and older brother of Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslimm 36th Division...
and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra , was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division...
, educated in the jadidist tradition, had led a rebellion of gold miners who worked in Surghak mines near Keriya
Keriya
Keriya Town or Mugala Town , is a town in Keriya County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China, on the old Southern Silk Road. As the commercial and administrative centre of Keriya County, it is about 166 km east of Khotan, 80 km east of Qira, and 120 km west of Niya...
city, also in Yurunkash and Karakash
Karakash River
The Karakash or Black Jade River, also spelled Karakax , is a river in the Xinjiang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, which lies partially in the disputed Aksai Chin region. The river originates near Sumde on the northern slopes of the Karakoram range in the Aksai Chin region of...
mountain rivers, and established themselves as emirs of the city, having declared the Khotan Emirate
Emirate
An emirate is a political territory that is ruled by a dynastic Muslim monarch styled emir.-Etymology:Etymologically emirate or amirate is the quality, dignity, office or territorial competence of any emir ....
and independence from China on March 16, 1933.
Leader of Karakash gold miners Ismail Khan Khoja sent message to Governor Jin Shuren
Jin Shuren
Jin Shuren , governor of Xinjiang, succeeded Yang Zengxin after Yang was assassinated in 1928. Jin ruled Xinjiang for about half a decade, and his reign was characterized by corruption and suppression. Under his rule, both ethnic and religion conflicts were greatly deepened, resulting in numerous...
: "Foolish infidels like you are not fit to rule.... You infidels think that because you have rifles, guns... and money, you can depend on them, but we depend of God in whose hands are our lives."
Local provincial authorities and troops were annihilated by the miners throughout Khotan vilayet, rare Chinese
Chinese people
The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
population in most cases saved their lives and property, but was forced to accept Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
under the threat of execution. During successful storming of Khotan New City on March 16, 1933 both the Treasury and Arsenal were captured by rebels, delivering to their hands several thousands of rifles and more than a ton
Ton
The ton is a unit of measure. It has a long history and has acquired a number of meanings and uses over the years. It is used principally as a unit of weight, and as a unit of volume. It can also be used as a measure of energy, for truck classification, or as a colloquial term.It is derived from...
of gold. The Khotan Emirate dispatched one of the three brothers, Shahmansur, known also as Emir Abdullah
Abdullah Bughra
Abdullah Bughra , was a Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and older brother of Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslimm 36th Division...
, and a former publisher named Sabit Damolla
Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
-Life:Sabit Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar...
to Kashgar, where they established the Kashgar Affairs Office of the Khotan Government, led by Muhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra also Muḥammad Amīn Bughra , Муххамад Эмин Бугро, was a Turkic Muslim leader, who planned to set up an independent state, the First East Turkestan Republic....
, in July 1933. By the fall of that year, the office had shed many of its links to the Khotan government and reformed itself into the multi-ethnic, quasi-nationalist East Turkestan Independence Association, which drew heavily on ideas of Islamic reformism, nationalism and jadidism.
In September 1933, Sabit Damolla declared the establishment of the East Turkistan Republic with Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja Niyaz Haji also Khoja or Xoja Niyaz Haji was a Uyghur independence movement leader who led several rebellions in Xinjiang against the Kumul Khanate, the Chinese governor Jin Shuren, and later the Hui warlord Ma Chung-ying...
as its president — despite the fact that the respected commander was engaged in fighting in northern Xinjiang and had actually allied his forces with those of Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
. Original proclamation was extremely anti-Tungan and ani-Han and contained such words:
"The Tungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans also. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since the Tungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers.... From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages and etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colours yellow and black are foul.... They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down the yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan!"
Tungan, Dungan, and Hui all mean the same thing. They mean Chinese speaking Muslims, Hui people
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
.
On November 12, 1933 an independent republic (Turkish Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan (TIRET) or Republic of Uyghurstan, both names were used at the same time) was proclaimed. This event was organized on Sunday morning in a mass rally on the shore of Tuman river outside of Kashgar with participating of about 7,000 troops and 13,000 civilians, including teachers and students of schools, who delivered speeches alongside with appointed "Ministers" of the independent republic. On noon cannon fired 41 times and crowd proceeded to the Old City of Kashgar, waving blue banners of Independence, where rally continued on the square in front of Idgah Mosque and more speeches were delivered from Mosque's front, where Sabit Damulla appeared as a main speaker.
Established distinct from the Khotan Emirate, the ETR claimed authority over territory stretching from Aksu along the northern rim of the Tarim Basin
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about . It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The...
to Khotan
Khotan
Hotan , or Hetian , also spelled Khotan, is the seat of the Hotan Prefecture in Xinjiang, China. It was previously known in Chinese as 于窴/於窴 and to 19th-century European explorers as Ilchi....
in the south. In fact, the government in Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
was strapped for resources, plagued by rapid inflation
Inflation
In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a...
, and surrounded by hostile powers — including the Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
forces under Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
. Although established as a multiethnic republic, as reflected in the choice of the "East Turkestan" name used in its founding constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
, the first coins of the new government were initially minted
Mint (coin)
A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins for currency.The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. One difference is that the history of the mint is usually closely tied to the political situation of an era...
under the name "Republic of Uyghurstan" (Uyghurstan Jumhuriyiti). In some sources, it is known as the "East Turkestan Islamic Republic", suggesting a greater role for Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
in its founding character. The extent of Islam's influence in the foundation of the ETR is disputed; while the constitution endorses sharia
Sharia
Sharia law, is the moral code and religious law of Islam. Sharia is derived from two primary sources of Islamic law: the precepts set forth in the Quran, and the example set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah. Fiqh jurisprudence interprets and extends the application of sharia to...
as the guiding law, the jadidist modernizing tradition places much greater emphases on reform and development, which is reflected in subsequent passages of the constitution that focus on health, education, and economic reforms. The Turkestan Declaration of Independence put political platform of the self-proclaimed Republic based on nine main principles:
1. End the Chinese dictatorial rule in the Land of Eastern Turkestan.
2. Establish a free and independent Eastern Turkestan Republic, based on equality of all nationalities.
3. In order to fully develop the economy of Eastern Turkestan, promote industry, agriculture and animal husbandry as well as private businesses. Increase people's living standards.
4. Since the majority of people of Eastern Turkestan believe in Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, so the Government particularly advocates this religion. At the same time it promotes religious freedom for other religions.
5. Develop education, culture and health standards in Eastern Turkestan.
6. Establish friendly relations with all democratic countries in the World and neighbouring countries, especially with the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Soviet Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
, Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
and China.
7. In order to protect peace in Eastern Turkestan, recruit people of all nationalities to establish a strong Army.
8. The Bank, Post Service, Telephone and Telegraph, Forestry and all underground wealth belong to the nation.
9. Eliminate individualism, bureaucracy idea, nationalism and corruption among Government officials.
The efforts of the Turkish Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan to receive international recognition had failed despite the dispatching of numerous envoys by Prime Minister Sabit Damolla
Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
-Life:Sabit Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar...
to the USSR (Tashkent
Tashkent
Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekistan and of the Tashkent Province. The officially registered population of the city in 2008 was about 2.2 million. Unofficial sources estimate the actual population may be as much as 4.45 million.-Early Islamic History:...
, Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
), Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
and British India. The Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
rejected all offers of dealing with Islamists. In Kabul
Kabul
Kabul , spelt Caubul in some classic literatures, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. It is also the capital of the Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan...
, Kashgar representatives met the newly-proclaimed King of Afghanistan Mohammad Zahir Shah and Prime Minister Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan was a political figure in Afghanistan.He was the uncle of Mohammad Zahir Shah and the elder brother of Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan and Sardar Shah Wali Khan. Hashim put into effect the policies already orchestrated by his brothers...
, asking for aid and a supply of arms. But both preferred to keep neutrality and not interfere in Chinese affairs. Other countries reacted the same way, refusing to recognize the envoys as representatives of an independent country. None of the regional powers wanted to make a challenge to the Soviet Union and China in their politics and to become engaged in bloody fighting in Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
, which had already claimed the lives of around 100,000 of its inhabitants. This left the fledgling Republic, which was surrounded on almost all sides by hostile powers (Tungans, Soviets, and Chinese), with very little chance to survive.
National army
The National Army of the Islamic Republic East Turkestan Republic was formed on November 12, 1933 and originally consisted of two divisions (around 22,000 troops), the Qeshqer infantry division (stationed in the capital, Qeshqer), and the Khotan Infantry Division (stationed in Khotan). The National Army was poorly armed and trained in the beginning of the Revolution, so a military academy was set up in Atush (Artush) to train cadets. All Turkic ethnic groups were called to take up arms and join the National Army. The military was headed by the Defense Minister Mehmut Muhiti (an Uyghur revolutionary from Turpan). Although the true size of the National Army is not known, it is estimated at around 80,000 to 100,000 according to official Soviet sources. :1. Qeshqer infantry division
2. Khotan ifantry division
3. Aksu cavalry brigade
4. Qumul revolutionary regiment (later became a division)
5. Turpan revolutionary brigade (later became the Turpan Division)
6. Altay revolutionary cavalry brigade
During the war an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Turki civilians were killed. Although it is not certain how many soldiers the IRET lost in the war, it is estimated that around 100,000 to 150,000 soldiers were killed. In some battles entire companies and brigades were wiped out. When IRET was dismantled in 1934 the army was dismantled also (except for 6th Uyghur Division personally commanded by Mehmut Muhiti).
End of the First East Turkestan Republic
In the north, aid came to Sheng ShicaiSheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
's forces on January 24, 1934 in the form of two Soviet brigades, the Altaiskaya
Altay Prefecture
Altay Prefecture is located in northern Xinjiang, China. It has an area of 118,015 km² and a population of 561,667 . It is a part of Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture...
and Tarbaghataiskaya
Tacheng Prefecture
Tacheng Prefecture is located in northern Xinjiang, China. It has an area of 98,824 km² and a population of 892,397 . It is a part of Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture. The prefecture level city of Karamay forms a separate enclave in the middle of Tacheng.- Subdivisions :Tacheng prefecture is...
, disguised as "White Russian
White movement
The White movement and its military arm the White Army - known as the White Guard or the Whites - was a loose confederation of Anti-Communist forces.The movement comprised one of the politico-military Russian forces who fought...
Cossack
Cossack
Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in what is today Ukraine and Southern Russia inhabiting sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins and who played an important role in the...
Altai
Altai Republic
Altai Republic is a federal subject of Russia . Its capital is the town of Gorno-Altaysk. The area of the republic is . Population: -Geography:...
Volunteer Army" and led by Red Army
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...
General Volgin in the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang was a military campaign in the Chinese northwestern region of Xinjiang in 1934. White Russian forces assisted the Soviet Red Army.- Background :...
. The Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
ese annexation of Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
and rumored support for Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
's Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
forces were one cause for concern troubling Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
, another was the prospect that rebellion in Xinjiang might spread to the Soviet Central Asian Republics and offer a haven to Turkic Muslim Basmachi rebels. Trade ties between Xinjiang and the Soviet Union also gave the Soviets reason for supporting Sheng. Soviet Consul-General in Urumchi Garegin Apresoff openly said to Sheng Shicai in May,1933 : You can develop the province and improve living conditions of people of different nationalities, develop their culture. But if you let them ( muslim rebels ) to create Independate State, converting it to the Second Manchuria at the back door of the USSR, we will not be just side watchers, we will start to act. First request from Sheng Sicai of military support from USSR came on October 1933. On December 1933 Sheng Shicai arrested White Russian Colonel Papengut, who was staunchy anti-Soviet, and executed by demand of Apresoff, replacing him by "neutral" General Bektieieff as Commander-in chief of three White Russian Regiments of Xinjiang Provincial Army, thus paving the way for Soviet intervention into Xinjiang.
Zhang Peiyuan, a Han Chinese General, who commanded Han Chinese troops in Ili
Ili River
thumb|right|300px|Map of the Lake Balkhash drainage basin showing the Ili River and its tributariesThe Ili River is a river in northwestern China and southeastern Kazakhstan .It is long, of which is in Kazakhstan...
, conducted negotiations with Ma Zhongying and planned to join him on the attack on Urumchi in January 1934. Initially Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and Urumqi, but decided to return back to Ghulja after receiving of message of capturing the city by Russian " Altai Volunteer Army ", actually Soviet troops entered the city. Upon approaching Ghulja he was surrounded on mountain road, his troops were partly annihilated, partly fled to Muzart Pass on Tianshan
Tianshan
Tianshan may refer to:*Tian Shan, a mountain range in Central Asia*Tianshan District, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China*Tianshan Subdistrict, Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia, China*Tianshan Town, Ar Horqin Banner, in Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia, China...
Mountains and through it to Southern Xinjiang near Aksu. Zhang Peiyuan himself committed suicide. Ma Zhongying attacked Urumchi as was planned, taking Sheng completely by surprise, hiddenly approaching the city from the hills on the west and first capturing the telegraph station and aerodrom, then started besieging the city, completely isolating it from suburbs. But the fact, that in the crucial moment of besieging of Urumchi Ma Zhongying didn't receive the promised help from Zhang Peiyuan's Ili Army , was the reason of Ma's failure to capture the city in the first weeks of attack, nevertheless its fall was imminent and just a matter of time without intervention of Soviet troops. The battle for Urumchi was decisive for the whole Ma Zhongying's campaign in Xinjiang and its taking by his forces would lead to recognision of him The absolute ruler of Xinjiang by Nanjing Government of China, as was previously secretly promised to him.
The Soviet brigades, with air support, scattered Ma Zhongying's troops surrounding Urumqi and forced them to retreat southward. On February 16, 1934 the siege of Urumchi was lifted, freeing Sheng, his Manchurian and the White Guard
White Guard
The term White Guard may refer to:* White Guard , part of the White Army of the 1918 Finnish Civil War* White Guard , part of the Axis colaborators in Slovenia during the Second World War* Military arm of the Russian White movement...
Russian Cossack troops, which had been trapped in the city by Ma forces since January 13, 1934.
Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja Niyaz Haji also Khoja or Xoja Niyaz Haji was a Uyghur independence movement leader who led several rebellions in Xinjiang against the Kumul Khanate, the Chinese governor Jin Shuren, and later the Hui warlord Ma Chung-ying...
Hajji
Hajji
Hajji or El-Hajj, is an honorific title given to a Muslim person who has successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca, and is often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel. The title is placed before a person's name...
had by this time arrived at Kashgar with 1,500 troops on the same day of January 13, 1934 to assume the presidency of the ETR, going against his previous deal with Sheng. With him arrived another prominent Uyghur leader from Eastern Sinkiang (Turpan, Kumul) Mahmut Muhiti, known as Mahmut Sijan, i.e., division general, who had agreed to become minister of Defense in the ETR Government, accepting the offer of Prime Minister Sabit Damolla
Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
-Life:Sabit Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar...
. Sabit Damolla freed for Khoja Niyaz his own Palace in the old city of Kashgar, that was established in the former Yamen
Yamen
A yamen is any local bureaucrat's, or mandarin's, office and residence of the Chinese Empire. The term has been widely used in China for centuries, but appeared in English during the Qing Dynasty....
or residence of the head of Chinese administration of Southern Xinjiang, and asked to form a new Government. In his letter to Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
Central Government Khoja Niyaz explained his decision by emphasizing the fact, that he accepted the decision made by the Congress of People of Eastern Turkestan in accordance with its free will and choice and that Constitution of Chinese Republic of 1912 reserves the " right of 5 races of China to self-determination ". He listed five principles of the self-ruling of Republic:
- All of Xinjiang is part of the Eastern Turkestan Republic, while all, that do not belong, should go back to where they came from;
- The Government and economics will be conducted by the local people;
- All the oppressed people, now living in Eastern Turkestan, will have freedom to pursue education, commerce and to build a new nation;
- The President of the Republic, Khoja Niyaz, will build a Government dedicated to the happiness of the people;
- The Republic with its various departments will strive to catch up with other modernizing societies.
Khoja Niyaz introduced new state Flag of Republic, so called Kok Bayraq or Blue Banner, that resembled Turkish Flag but with blue background instead of red and replaced old Flag, which was white with blue crescent and star and Shahadah. Nevertheless, the ETR (TIRET) proved to be short-lived. The Hui forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
's forces in Kashgar allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing, and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla, and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934 to Yengi Hissar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
south of the city. The conquering Hui army killed many of those who remained, and a rapid procession of betrayals among the survivors, following their expulsion from Kashgar, spelled the effective end of the TIRET. The Hui army crushed the Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkestan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934)
Battle of Kashgar (1934)
The Battle of Kashgar was a military confrontation that took place in 1934 during the Xinjiang Wars. Turkic Muslim Uighur and Kirghiz fighters under Emir Abdullah Bughra and the other Turkic separatists began four separate attacks over a six-day period on Hui and Han Chinese soldiers led by General...
, Battle of Yarkand
Battle of Yarkand
The Battle of Yarkhand was a military confrontation that took place in April 1934. Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim army defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at...
, and Battle of Yangi Hissar
Battle of Yangi Hissar
The Battle of Yangi Hissar was a military confrontation that took place in the Xinjiang Wars. In April 1934, Ma Zhancang led the 36th division to attack Uighur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force of 500, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.It was reported by Ahmad Kamal...
. Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed TIRET.
Mahmut Muhiti retreated with remainder of Army to Yarkand and Hotan, while Hoja Niyaz Hajji fled through Artush
Artux
Artux, Atush or Atushi is a county-level city in Xinjiang. The area is 15,509 km² and the total population is 200,000 . Artux is the seat of Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture....
to Irkeshtam on the Soviet/Chinese border, with Tungan troops on his heels, which chased him as far as the border. Hoja Niyaz took refuge in the USSR, where he was blamed by the Soviets for accepting from Sabit Damolla the position of first leader of TIRET (President), but was promised a military aid and "great prospects for the future" if he would help Sheng Shicai and the Soviets "to dissolve TIRET".
After signing the Document of TIRET dismissal and disbanding of most of its troops, that was applied to Khotanese and Kyrgyz troops ( notification of concluded agreement with USSR on negotiations between Hoja Niyaz and Soviets in Irkeshtam on Soviet/Chinese border was received by TIRET cabinet and Prime-Minister Sabit Damulla in the city of Yengi Hisar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
on March 1, 1934; next day it was rejected by TIRET cabinet on the special meeting, which condemned the President as a " national traitor "; Sabit Damulla said on the meeting: Hoja Niyaz is not a Champion of Islam any more, he turned into a tool in the hands of Russians to subdue our country ) Hoja Niyaz Hajji returned to Eastern Turkestan where he turned Sabit and several other TIRET ministers to Sheng, who rewarded him with control over southern Xinjiang as previously promised; those who escaped fled to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
and Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
.
The Kuomintang allied Hui forces under Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
were defeated, and Sheng consolidated his rule over northern Xinjiang with Soviet backing. The seat of Hoja Niyaz Hajji Southern Xinjiang Autonomous Government was initially located in Aksu, but later he was urged by Sheng Shicai to move to Urumchi to assume the position of the Vice-Chairman of the Xinjiang Government. His forces received 15,000 rifles and ammunitions from the USSR, but each rifle, each bullet, and each bomb, that was dropped on Tungan troops from Soviet airplanes, had been bought in gold from the USSR by Hoja Niyaz Hajji.
New order was promulgated by Sheng Shicai's regime for the Xinjiang province, which China regarded as the "back door of China", but Stalin considered also to be the "back door of the USSR". This new order was to be executed through the two Programmes of the new Xinjiang Provincial Government, so called "Eight Points" and "Six Great Policies".
The Eight Points for Xinjiang were:
- Equality between races;
- Religious freedom;
- Immediate rural relief;
- Financial reforms;
- Administrative reforms;
- Extension of education;
- Realization of self-government;
- Judicial reforms.
These Eight Points for Xinjiang were symbolized by a new high medal of Xinjiang in the shape of an eight-point star, introduced by Provincial Government. Among first persons, who were awarded this medal, was Vice-Chairman of Xinjiang Government Khoja Niyaz (1934–1937) and Divisional General, Commander-in-Chief of 6th Uyghur Division, Deputy Chief of Kashgar Military Region Mahmut Muhiti (1934–1937).
The Six Great Policies for Xinjiang were:
- Anti-Imperialism;
- Kinship to the USSR;
- Racial and national equality;
- Clean Government and struggle against corruption;
- Maintaining of Peace;
- Reconstruction and building of a new Xinjia'.
These Six Great Policies for Xinjiang were symbolized by the introducing of a new flag of Xinjiang Province, that had six-point yellow star on red background and was in official use from 1934 to 1944 years.
Literature
Political graffiti painted by Uighurs on Khotan's city gates.
Revolution is an edifice built of many bricks
Each brick is an injustice
Blood is Mortar
Each wall is a mountain of sorrow
The foundation is most important
Alone, it must sustain the structure
Martyrdom is the Excellent Foundation!
Kizil massacre
In the Kizil massacreKizil massacre
The Kizil massacre occurred in June 1933, when Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers and civilians from Yarkand New City on their way to Kashgar...
, Uighur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
and Chinese Muslim
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
soldiers from Yarkand
Yarkand
Yarkant County , is a county in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China, located on the southern rim of the Taklamakan desert in the Tarim Basin. It is one of 11 counties administered under Kashgar Prefecture...
New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslim and Chinese civilians.
Battle of Aksu
The Battle of AksuBattle of Aksu
The Battle of Aksu was a minor battle when Chinese Muslim troops were driven out from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs when they rebelled. Isma'il Beg, a uighur, became the rebel Tao-yin of Aksu....
was a minor battle in which Chinese Muslim
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Isma'il Beg
Isma'il Beg
Isma'il Beg , was a uighur who dislodged Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops from Aksu on May 31, 1933. He was then appointed Tao-yin of Aksu. He was a supporter of the Khotan Emirs Abdullah Bughra and his brothers.-References:...
when they rose up in revolt.
Battle of Sekes Tash
The Battle of Sekes TashBattle of Sekes Tash
The Battle of Sekes Tash was a minor battle when Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang attacked and inflicted a defeat upon uighur and kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh....
was a minor battle when Chinese Muslim troops under general Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
attacked and inflicted a defeat upon uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 uighur and Kirghiz were killed.
Battle of Kashgar (1933)
In the Battle of KashgarBattle of Kashgar (1933)
In the 1933 Battle of Kashgar, General Ma Zhancang signed a secret agreement with the daotai of Kashgar, Ma Shaowu, and his Chinese Muslim troops joined the Han Chinese garrison inside the yamen in Kashgar and helped them repulse Uighur and Kirghiz attacks led by Abdullah Bughra. Timur Beg's Turkic...
, Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay
Tawfiq Bay
Tawfiq Bay, or Sayyid Ahmad Tawfiq Bay Sharif Efendi , was a Syrian Arab traveler who had been in the service of King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, eventually traveling to Xinjiang, Republic of China, in 1932. He was deported by the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu. On August 26 he arrived at Kashgar...
, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated.
Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg
Timur Beg
Timur Beg , or Timur Sijan was a Uighur rebel military leader in Xinjiang in 1933. He was involved in the 1933 Battle of Kashgar and participated before in Turpan Rebellion . He associated with the Turkic nationalist Young Kashgar Party and appointed himself as 'Timur Shah'. He and other Uighurs...
killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque
Id Kah Mosque
The Id Kah mosque is a mosque located in Kashgar, Xinjiang, in the western People's Republic of China. It is the largest mosque in China. Every Friday, it houses nearly 10,000 worshippers and may accommodate up to 20,000....
.
Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam.
During the Battle the Kirghiz prevented the Uyghur from looting the city, because they wanted to loot it themselves. They started murdering any Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, as well as any Turkic people who were wives or mistresses of Chinese. They then looted their property.
Further uprisings
In Charchan, Uighurs revolted against Chinese muslim forecs, the emires of Khotan sent 100 troops to defend Charchan from Kara Shahr Chinese muslims who controlled Charkhlik. By 11 April, Guma, Karghalik, Posgam, and the Old City in Yarkand fell to Uyghur rebels .Battle of Toksun
The Battle of ToksunBattle of Toksun
The Battle of Toksun occurred in July 1933 when Khoja Niyas Hajji, a Uighur leader, defected with his forces to Governor Sheng Shicai. He marched across Dawan Ch'eng and occupied Toksun, where the Chinese Muslim forces of General Ma Shih-ming achieved victory over Niyas Hajji's forces....
occurred in July 1933 after Khoja Niyas Hajji, a Uighur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
leader, defected with his forces to Governor Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
. He was appointed by Sheng Shicai through agreement to be in charge for the whole Southern Xinjiang (Tarim Basin
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about . It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The...
) and also Turpan Basin and being satisfied with this agreement marched away from Urumqi to the South across Dawan Ch'eng
Dabancheng District
The Dabancheng District is a district within the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and is under the administrative jurisdiction of the Ürümqi City. Located southeast of Ürümq urban area, it contains an area of 5,042 km2...
of Tengritagh Mountains
Tianshan
Tianshan may refer to:*Tian Shan, a mountain range in Central Asia*Tianshan District, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China*Tianshan Subdistrict, Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia, China*Tianshan Town, Ar Horqin Banner, in Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia, China...
and occupied Toksun in Turpan Basin, but was badly defeated by the Chinese Muslim forces of General Ma Shih-ming, who forced him to retreat to Karashar
Karasahr
Yanqi , or Karasahr , is an ancient town on the Silk Road and capital of Yanqi Hui Autonomous County in the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture of Xinjiang, in northwestern China...
in Eastern Kashgaria, where he held his headquarters during July, August and September 1933, defending mountain passes and roads, that led from Turpan Basin to Kashgaria, in the fruitless attempt to stop advancement of Tungan Armies to the South.
Battle of Kashgar (1934)
In the 1934 Battle of KashgarBattle of Kashgar (1934)
The Battle of Kashgar was a military confrontation that took place in 1934 during the Xinjiang Wars. Turkic Muslim Uighur and Kirghiz fighters under Emir Abdullah Bughra and the other Turkic separatists began four separate attacks over a six-day period on Hui and Han Chinese soldiers led by General...
, 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, and attacked the Uighur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghizs since May 22, 1933 and was involved in continuous fighting, that lasted for more than five and half months, for holding control of a New City with its important Arsenal and Treasury since August 15, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks launched by Khoja Niyaz
Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja Niyaz Haji also Khoja or Xoja Niyaz Haji was a Uyghur independence movement leader who led several rebellions in Xinjiang against the Kumul Khanate, the Chinese governor Jin Shuren, and later the Hui warlord Ma Chung-ying...
, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, with 1,500 troops, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre
Kizil massacre
The Kizil massacre occurred in June 1933, when Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers and civilians from Yarkand New City on their way to Kashgar...
, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city in four directions: to Yengi Hisar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
with the Government, to Yarkand, to Upal
Upal
Upal is a small town in western Xinjiang, China. -Karakoram Highway:Today Upal is on the Karakoram Highway, which follows the old Silk Road route from China to Pakistan...
and to Artush
Artux
Artux, Atush or Atushi is a county-level city in Xinjiang. The area is 15,509 km² and the total population is 200,000 . Artux is the seat of Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture....
. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Idgah mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
government at Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division.
Battle of Yangi Hissar
In the Battle of Yangi HissarBattle of Yangi Hissar
The Battle of Yangi Hissar was a military confrontation that took place in the Xinjiang Wars. In April 1934, Ma Zhancang led the 36th division to attack Uighur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force of 500, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.It was reported by Ahmad Kamal...
, Ma Zhancang led the 36th division to attack Uighur forces at Yangi Hissar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra , was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division...
. The siege on Yangi Hissar citadel continued almost half a month, during which 500 uyghur defenders, armed only with rifles, inflicted heavy casualties, up to several hundreds, to Tungan forces, who contrary were armed with artillery cannons and machine guns, besides of rifles. Quickly being run out of ammunition uyghur defenders applied tree trunks, large stones and oil fire bombs for defending of citadel. On March 26, 1934, Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra ordered troops in citadel to stop fighting to celebrate Holy Day of Kurban Bayram (Feast of Sacrific), but on the same day Chinese Muslims managed to breach through the walls of citadel by successful mining and put to death all remaining defenders by sword. It was reported by Ahmad Kamal in his book "Land Without Laughter" on page 130-131, that Nur Ahmad Jan's head was cut off by the Chinese Muslim troops and sent to the local parade ground to be used as a ball in the soccer (football) game.
Battle of Yarkand
In the Battle of YarkandBattle of Yarkand
The Battle of Yarkhand was a military confrontation that took place in April 1934. Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim army defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at...
in March–April 1934, Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan's Chinese Muslim troops, 10,000 strong, defeated 2,500 strong Uighur force led by emir Shah Mansur (Abdullah Khan Bughra) from Yarkand to Yengi Hissar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
to deblocade citadel in which his brother Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra , was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division...
was besieged. This force included a small number of Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah
Mohammed Zahir Shah
Mohammed Zahir Shah was the last King of Afghanistan, reigning for four decades, from 1933 until he was ousted by a coup in 1973...
and who served as body guards of emir Abdullah. For two weeks of fierce fighting by March 28, 1934 of 2,500 emir Abdullah soldiers, who initially were engaged in the battle, 2,300 had been killed or wounded. The last engagement occurred near Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
mission in Yarkand during which the emir Abdullah Bughra was allegedly killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque. None of 24 Afghan body guards left Shah Mansur till last minute and all were killed in the battle.
Charkhlik Revolt
The 36th division under General Ma Hushan crushed the Charkhlik RevoltCharkhlik Revolt
The Charkhlik Revolt was an Uighur uprising in 1935 against the Chinese Muslim dominated Tunganistan, which was administered by the 36th Division . The Chinese Muslim troops quickly and brutally defeated the Uighur revolt. Over 100 uighurs were executed. The revolt leader's family were transformed...
by the Uighurs in the Charkliq
Ruoqiang County
Ruoqiang is a county of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Western China and is under the administration of the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture...
oasis in 1935. More than 100 uighurs were executed, and the family of the Uighur leader was taken as hostage.
Sources
- James A. Millward and Nabijan Tursun, "Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884-1978" in Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland (ISBN 0-7656-1318-2).
- Michael Zrazhevsky, " Russian CossackCossackCossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in what is today Ukraine and Southern Russia inhabiting sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins and who played an important role in the...
s in Sinkiang ". Almanach " The Third RomeThird RomeThe term Third Rome describes the idea that some European city, state, or country is the successor to the legacy of the Roman Empire and its successor state, the Byzantine Empire ....
", RussiaRussiaRussia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, MoscowMoscowMoscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
, 2001 - Sven Gedin, " The flight of Big Horse ". New-York, USA, 1936
- Burhan ShahidiBurhan ShahidiBurhan Shahidi was a political leader in Xinjiang, China during the 20th century.-Early life:Burhan Shahidi was born in 1894 in the Russian province of Kazan to a family whose ancestors had fled from Aksu, an oasis town in southern Xinjiang, after a failed peasant uprising during the Qing Dynasty...
包尔汗, Xinjiang wushi nian 新疆五十年 [Fifty Years in Xinjiang], (Beijing, Wenshi ziliao, 1984). - Clubb, O. E., China and Russia: The 'Great Game’. (NY, Columbia, 1971).
- Forbes, A. D. W. Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republic Sinkiang, 1911-1949 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1986).
- Hasiotis, A. C. Jr. Soviet Political, Economic and Military Involvement in Sinkiang from 1928 to 1949 (NY, Garland, 1987).
- Khakimbaev A. A., 'Nekotorye Osobennosti Natsional’no-Osvoboditel’nogo Dvizheniya Narodov Sin’tszyana v 30-kh i 40-kh godakh XX veka' [Some Characters of the National-Liberation Movement of the Xinjiang Peoples in 1930s and 1940s], in Materially Mezhdunarodnoi Konferentsii po Problemam Istorii Kitaya v Noveishchee Vremya, Aprel’ 1977, Problemy Kitaya (Moscow, 1978) pp. 113–118.
- Lattimore, O., Pivot of Asia: Sinkiang and the Inner Asian Frontiers of China (Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1950).
- Rakhimov, T. R. 'Mesto Bostochno-Turkestanskoi Respubliki (VTR) v Natsional’no-Osvoboditel’noi Bor’be Narodov Kitaya' [Role of the Eastern Turkestan Republic (ETR) in the National Liberation Struggle of the Peoples in China], A paper presented at 2-ya Nauchnaya Konferentsiya po Problemam Istorii Kitaya v Noveishchee Vremya, (Moscow, 1977), pp. 68–70.
- Wang, D., 'The USSR and the Establishment of the Eastern Turkestan Republic in Xinjiang', Journal of Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, Taipei, vol.25 (1996) pp. 337–378.
- Whiting, A. S., and Sheng Shih-ts’ai, Sinkiang: Pawn or Pivot? (Michigan, East Lansing, 1958).