Claude Steele
Encyclopedia
Claude Mason Steele is an American social psychologist
and currently the I. James Quillen Dean
for the School of Education
at Stanford University
, as well as Professor Emeritus in the Department of Psychology at Stanford. Previously, he served as the twenty-first Provost
of Columbia University
for two years, and before that, as a professor of psychology at various institutions for almost forty years. He is best known for his work on stereotype threat
and its application to minority student academic performance. His earlier work dealt with research on the self (e.g., self-image, self-affirmation
) as well as the role of self-regulation in addictive behavior
s. In 2010, he released his book, ‘’Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us’’, summarizing years of research on stereotype threat and the underperformance of minority students in higher education
.
in Phoenix, Illinois
during the Civil Rights movement
. Claude recalls his family (including his twin brother, Shelby and two other siblings) as being deeply interested in social issues and the civil right movement, as these were very much on American minds at the time. His father pushed him to achieve security in the context of securing employment, but Claude construed achievement as success in education. He enrolled at Hiram College
in Hiram, Ohio
, where he earned a B.A. in psychology
in 1967.
At Hiram
, Claude’s passion for reading novels naturally led to an interest in how the individual faces the social world. Claude was inspired by African-American social psychologist Kenneth Clark’s
TV appearance discussing the psychological implications of the 1964 race riots in Harlem
, New York
, which led to an excitement for doing behavioral research. Claude conducted early experimental research at Hiram College
in physiological psychology
(looking at behavioral motives in Siamese fighting fish
) and social psychology (studying how African-American dialect among kids maintains ethnic/racial identity
), where he worked under the mentorship of social psychologist
, Ralph Cebulla. He then continued on to graduate school to study social psychology
, earning an M.A. in 1969 and a Ph.D. in 1971 from the Ohio State University
in Columbus, Ohio
, with a minor in statistical psychology. His dissertation
work with faculty adviser Thomas Ostrom
at Ohio State
focused on attitude measurement and attitude change
.
in Salt Lake City, Utah
, and then moved to the University of Washington
in Seattle, Washington for 14 years, receiving tenure in 1985. In 1987, he moved to the University of Michigan
in Ann Arbor, Michigan
, where he was Professor of Psychology for four years, during the latter two of which he simultaneously held the position of Research Scientist in Univ. of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research. In 1991, he moved to Stanford University
in Palo Alto, California
, where he was Professor of Psychology for 18 years, receiving the title of Lucie Stern Professor in the Social Sciences in 1997. During his 18 years at Stanford, he also served as Chair of the Department of Psychology for three years (1997–2000), Director of the Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity for three years (2002–2005), and Director of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences for four years (2005–2009), among various other positions (see Teaching and Administrative Appointments, below). In 2009, he left Stanford to become the 21st Provost
and Chief Academic Officer at Columbia University
in Manhattan
, New York
for two years, where he was responsible for faculty appointments and tenure recommendations, along with overseeing financial planning and budgeting. In 2011, he left Columbia and returned back to Stanford, where he is currently the I. James Quillen Dean for the School of Education
.
: stereotype threat
, self-affirmation
, and addictive behavior
s. Although separate and distinct, these three lines of research are linked together by their shared focus on self-evaluation and how people cope with threats to their self-image and self-identities
.
research, the 14 years of his post-doctoral
academic career that he spent at the University of Washington
were focused on addictive behavior
s and the social psychology
behind alcohol
use and addiction. He was interested in the role of alcohol and drug use in self-regulation
processes and social behavior. Among his major findings are that alcohol myopia
, or the cognitive impairment due to alcohol use, reduces cognitive dissonance
, leads to more extreme social responses, increases helping behavior, reduces anxiety
when combined with a distracting activity, and enhances important self-evaluations
.
use on social behavior, Claude Steele was simultaneously formulating a theory about the effects of self-affirmation
. Developed in the 1980s, self-affirmation
al processes referred to the ability to reduce threats to our self-image by stepping back and affirming a value that is important to our self-concept
. Steele often uses the example of smokers who are told that smoking
will lead to significant negative health outcomes. The perception that they may be evaluated negatively due to their willingness to engage in negative behaviors threatens their self-image. However, affirming a value in a domain completely unrelated to smoking
but important to one’s self-concept
, e.g., joining a valued cause, or accomplishing more at work, will counter the negative effects of the self-image threat and re-establish self-integrity. Self-affirmation
theory was originally formulated as an alternative motivational explanation for cognitive dissonance
theory, namely, that threats to the self led to a change in attitudes
, rather than psychologically inconsistent ideas, and that self-affirmation
al strategies can reduce dissonance
as effectively as attitude change
.
Steele’s research on self-affirmation
and its effects demonstrated the power of self-affirmation
to reduce bias
ed attitudes
, lead to positive health behaviors, and even improve the academic performance
of minority
students.
and its application to explain real-world problems, such as the underperformance of female
students in math and science classes as well as African-American
students in academic contexts. Steele first began to explore the issues surrounding stereotype threat
at the University of Michigan
, when his membership on a university committee called for him to tackle the problem of academic underachievement of minority students
at the university. Stereotype threat
refers to the threat felt in particular situations in which stereotype
s relevant to one’s group identity
exist, and the mere knowledge of the stereotype
s can be distracting enough to negatively affect one’s performance in a domain related to the stereotype
. Steele has demonstrated the far-reaching implications of stereotype threat
by showing that it is more likely to undermine the performance of individuals who are highly invested in the domain being threatened, and that stereotype threat
can even lead to significant negative health outcomes
among African American
s.
Steele has spearheaded many successful interventions aimed at reducing the negative effects of stereotype threat
, including how to provide critical feedback effectively to a student under the effects of stereotype threat
, inspired by his graduate school adviser, Tom Ostrom’s, motivating style of feedback, as well as how teacher practices can foster a feeling of identity safety and, as a result, better performance outcomes among elementary school
minority
students.
s. ‘’Whistling Vivaldi’’ focuses on the phenomenon of stereotype threat
as it explains the trend of minority
underperformance in higher education
. In his book, Steele discusses how identity
contingencies, or those cues in an environment that signal particular stereotype
s attached to an aspect of one’s identity
, can have a drastic negative effect on a person’s functioning, and how these effects can explain racial and gender performance gaps
in academic performance
. Steele also offers a host of strategies for reducing stereotype threat
and enhancing minority
student performance
, as well as the hope that the societal knowledge of stereotype threat
will lead to an understanding and acceptance of diverse
group differences.
. Claude and Dorothy have been known to collaborate on projects dedicated to prejudice
in American society
and minority
student achievement
. His twin brother, Shelby Steele
is a conservative
writer and Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution
at Stanford University
.
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
and currently the I. James Quillen Dean
Dean (education)
In academic administration, a dean is a person with significant authority over a specific academic unit, or over a specific area of concern, or both...
for the School of Education
Stanford University School of Education
The Stanford University School of Education , is one of the seven schools of Stanford University. It is the second-oldest school of education in the United States, after NYU...
at Stanford University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
, as well as Professor Emeritus in the Department of Psychology at Stanford. Previously, he served as the twenty-first Provost
Provost (education)
A provost is the senior academic administrator at many institutions of higher education in the United States, Canada and Australia, the equivalent of a pro-vice-chancellor at some institutions in the United Kingdom and Ireland....
of Columbia University
Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...
for two years, and before that, as a professor of psychology at various institutions for almost forty years. He is best known for his work on stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
and its application to minority student academic performance. His earlier work dealt with research on the self (e.g., self-image, self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
) as well as the role of self-regulation in addictive behavior
Addictive behavior
Addictive behavior is any activity, substance, object, or behavior that becomes the major focus of a person's life, during which they withdraw from other activities. Along with this, there are often other signs of having an addiction either physically, mentally, or socially.A person can become...
s. In 2010, he released his book, ‘’Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us’’, summarizing years of research on stereotype threat and the underperformance of minority students in higher education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
.
Education and Early Life
Claude Steele was born on January 1, 1946 to parents Ruth (social worker) and Shelby (truck driver) just outside of ChicagoChicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
in Phoenix, Illinois
Phoenix, Illinois
Phoenix is a village in Cook County, Illinois, United States. The population was 2,157 at the 2000 census. It is located approximately 19 miles south of the Chicago Loop and is part of the Chicago–Naperville–Joliet, IL-IN-WI Metropolitan Statistical Area.-Geography:Phoenix is located at...
during the Civil Rights movement
Civil rights movement
The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980. In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations it was...
. Claude recalls his family (including his twin brother, Shelby and two other siblings) as being deeply interested in social issues and the civil right movement, as these were very much on American minds at the time. His father pushed him to achieve security in the context of securing employment, but Claude construed achievement as success in education. He enrolled at Hiram College
Hiram College
Hiram College is a private liberal arts college located in Hiram, Ohio. Founded by Amos Sutton Hayden of the Disciples of Christ Church in 1850, the institution has, since its first days, been nonsectarian and coeducational, and throughout its existence Hiram College has sustained this egalitarian...
in Hiram, Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...
, where he earned a B.A. in psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
in 1967.
At Hiram
Hiram College
Hiram College is a private liberal arts college located in Hiram, Ohio. Founded by Amos Sutton Hayden of the Disciples of Christ Church in 1850, the institution has, since its first days, been nonsectarian and coeducational, and throughout its existence Hiram College has sustained this egalitarian...
, Claude’s passion for reading novels naturally led to an interest in how the individual faces the social world. Claude was inspired by African-American social psychologist Kenneth Clark’s
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
Kenneth Bancroft Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark were African-American psychologists who as a married team conducted important research among children and were active in the Civil Rights Movement...
TV appearance discussing the psychological implications of the 1964 race riots in Harlem
Harlem
Harlem is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, which since the 1920s has been a major African-American residential, cultural and business center. Originally a Dutch village, formally organized in 1658, it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands...
, New York
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
, which led to an excitement for doing behavioral research. Claude conducted early experimental research at Hiram College
Hiram College
Hiram College is a private liberal arts college located in Hiram, Ohio. Founded by Amos Sutton Hayden of the Disciples of Christ Church in 1850, the institution has, since its first days, been nonsectarian and coeducational, and throughout its existence Hiram College has sustained this egalitarian...
in physiological psychology
Physiological psychology
Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments...
(looking at behavioral motives in Siamese fighting fish
Siamese fighting fish
The Siamese fighting fish , also known as the betta , is a popular species of freshwater aquarium fish. The name of the genus is derived from ikan bettah, taken from a local dialect of Malay...
) and social psychology (studying how African-American dialect among kids maintains ethnic/racial identity
Ethnic group
An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
), where he worked under the mentorship of social psychologist
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
, Ralph Cebulla. He then continued on to graduate school to study social psychology
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
, earning an M.A. in 1969 and a Ph.D. in 1971 from the Ohio State University
Ohio State University
The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State, is a public research university located in Columbus, Ohio. It was originally founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and is currently the third largest university campus in the United States...
in Columbus, Ohio
Columbus, Ohio
Columbus is the capital of and the largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio. The broader metropolitan area encompasses several counties and is the third largest in Ohio behind those of Cleveland and Cincinnati. Columbus is the third largest city in the American Midwest, and the fifteenth largest city...
, with a minor in statistical psychology. His dissertation
Thesis
A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings...
work with faculty adviser Thomas Ostrom
Tom Ostrom
Thomas Marshall Ostrom was a psychologist who helped further the study of social psychology. Prior to Ostrom, the field explored and identified the cognitive foundations of social activity. Ostrom pushed the field to studying the social foundations of cognitive activity.-Career:Ostrom was born...
at Ohio State
Ohio State University
The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State, is a public research university located in Columbus, Ohio. It was originally founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and is currently the third largest university campus in the United States...
focused on attitude measurement and attitude change
Attitude change
Attitudes are the evaluations and associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as an individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when...
.
Academic career
After receiving his PhD in 1971, Claude Steele got his first job as an Assistant Professor of Psychology for two years at the University of UtahUniversity of Utah
The University of Utah, also known as the U or the U of U, is a public, coeducational research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret, making it Utah's oldest...
in Salt Lake City, Utah
Utah
Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
, and then moved to the University of Washington
University of Washington
University of Washington is a public research university, founded in 1861 in Seattle, Washington, United States. The UW is the largest university in the Northwest and the oldest public university on the West Coast. The university has three campuses, with its largest campus in the University...
in Seattle, Washington for 14 years, receiving tenure in 1985. In 1987, he moved to the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
in Ann Arbor, Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Ann Arbor is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. The 2010 census places the population at 113,934, making it the sixth largest city in Michigan. The Ann Arbor Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 344,791 as of 2010...
, where he was Professor of Psychology for four years, during the latter two of which he simultaneously held the position of Research Scientist in Univ. of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research. In 1991, he moved to Stanford University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
in Palo Alto, California
Palo Alto, California
Palo Alto is a California charter city located in the northwest corner of Santa Clara County, in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, United States. The city shares its borders with East Palo Alto, Mountain View, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Stanford, Portola Valley, and Menlo Park. It is...
, where he was Professor of Psychology for 18 years, receiving the title of Lucie Stern Professor in the Social Sciences in 1997. During his 18 years at Stanford, he also served as Chair of the Department of Psychology for three years (1997–2000), Director of the Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity for three years (2002–2005), and Director of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences for four years (2005–2009), among various other positions (see Teaching and Administrative Appointments, below). In 2009, he left Stanford to become the 21st Provost
Provost (education)
A provost is the senior academic administrator at many institutions of higher education in the United States, Canada and Australia, the equivalent of a pro-vice-chancellor at some institutions in the United Kingdom and Ireland....
and Chief Academic Officer at Columbia University
Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...
in Manhattan
Manhattan
Manhattan is the oldest and the most densely populated of the five boroughs of New York City. Located primarily on the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the Hudson River, the boundaries of the borough are identical to those of New York County, an original county of the state of New York...
, New York
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
for two years, where he was responsible for faculty appointments and tenure recommendations, along with overseeing financial planning and budgeting. In 2011, he left Columbia and returned back to Stanford, where he is currently the I. James Quillen Dean for the School of Education
Stanford University School of Education
The Stanford University School of Education , is one of the seven schools of Stanford University. It is the second-oldest school of education in the United States, after NYU...
.
Research
Throughout his academic career, Claude Steele’s work fell into 3 main domains of research under the broad subject area of social psychologySocial psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
: stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
, self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
, and addictive behavior
Addictive behavior
Addictive behavior is any activity, substance, object, or behavior that becomes the major focus of a person's life, during which they withdraw from other activities. Along with this, there are often other signs of having an addiction either physically, mentally, or socially.A person can become...
s. Although separate and distinct, these three lines of research are linked together by their shared focus on self-evaluation and how people cope with threats to their self-image and self-identities
Self-concept
Self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics , gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others. Each of these characteristics is a research domain Self-concept (also...
.
Addictive Behaviors
Although many people primarily associate Claude Steele with his significant contributions in the development of stereotype threatStereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
research, the 14 years of his post-doctoral
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
academic career that he spent at the University of Washington
University of Washington
University of Washington is a public research university, founded in 1861 in Seattle, Washington, United States. The UW is the largest university in the Northwest and the oldest public university on the West Coast. The university has three campuses, with its largest campus in the University...
were focused on addictive behavior
Addictive behavior
Addictive behavior is any activity, substance, object, or behavior that becomes the major focus of a person's life, during which they withdraw from other activities. Along with this, there are often other signs of having an addiction either physically, mentally, or socially.A person can become...
s and the social psychology
Social psychology
Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
behind alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
use and addiction. He was interested in the role of alcohol and drug use in self-regulation
Self control
Self control is the ability to control one's emotions, behavior and desires in order to obtain some reward later. In psychology it is sometimes called self-regulation...
processes and social behavior. Among his major findings are that alcohol myopia
Alcohol myopia
Alcohol myopia is a cognitive-physiological theory on alcohol abuse in which many of alcohol's social and stress-reducing effects, which may underlie its addictive capacity, are explained as a consequence of alcohol's narrowing of perceptual and cognitive functioning.It has three central...
, or the cognitive impairment due to alcohol use, reduces cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is a discomfort caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying,...
, leads to more extreme social responses, increases helping behavior, reduces anxiety
Anxiety
Anxiety is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components. The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness,...
when combined with a distracting activity, and enhances important self-evaluations
Core self-evaluations
Core self-evaluations represent a stable personality trait which encompasses an individual’s subconscious, fundamental evaluations about themselves, their own abilities and their own control. People who have high core self-evaluations will think positively of themselves and be confident in their...
.
Self-Affirmation
While studying the effects of alcoholAlcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
use on social behavior, Claude Steele was simultaneously formulating a theory about the effects of self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
. Developed in the 1980s, self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
al processes referred to the ability to reduce threats to our self-image by stepping back and affirming a value that is important to our self-concept
Self-concept
Self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics , gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others. Each of these characteristics is a research domain Self-concept (also...
. Steele often uses the example of smokers who are told that smoking
Smoking
Smoking is a practice in which a substance, most commonly tobacco or cannabis, is burned and the smoke is tasted or inhaled. This is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use, as combustion releases the active substances in drugs such as nicotine and makes them...
will lead to significant negative health outcomes. The perception that they may be evaluated negatively due to their willingness to engage in negative behaviors threatens their self-image. However, affirming a value in a domain completely unrelated to smoking
Smoking
Smoking is a practice in which a substance, most commonly tobacco or cannabis, is burned and the smoke is tasted or inhaled. This is primarily practised as a route of administration for recreational drug use, as combustion releases the active substances in drugs such as nicotine and makes them...
but important to one’s self-concept
Self-concept
Self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics , gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others. Each of these characteristics is a research domain Self-concept (also...
, e.g., joining a valued cause, or accomplishing more at work, will counter the negative effects of the self-image threat and re-establish self-integrity. Self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
theory was originally formulated as an alternative motivational explanation for cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is a discomfort caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying,...
theory, namely, that threats to the self led to a change in attitudes
Attitude (psychology)
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for something. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event— this is often referred to as the attitude object...
, rather than psychologically inconsistent ideas, and that self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
al strategies can reduce dissonance
Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is a discomfort caused by holding conflicting ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance. They do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, and actions. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying,...
as effectively as attitude change
Attitude change
Attitudes are the evaluations and associated beliefs and behaviors towards some object. They are not stable, and because of the communication and behavior of other people, are subject to change by social influences, as well as an individual's motivation to maintain cognitive consistency when...
.
Steele’s research on self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
and its effects demonstrated the power of self-affirmation
Self-affirmation
The theory of self-affirmation is a psychological theory that was first proposed by Claude Steele with the premise that people are motivated to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy...
to reduce bias
Bias
Bias is an inclination to present or hold a partial perspective at the expense of alternatives. Bias can come in many forms.-In judgement and decision making:...
ed attitudes
Attitude (psychology)
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for something. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event— this is often referred to as the attitude object...
, lead to positive health behaviors, and even improve the academic performance
Academic achievement
Academic achievement or performance is the outcome of education — the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals....
of minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
students.
Stereotype Threat
Claude Steele is best known for his work on stereotype threatStereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
and its application to explain real-world problems, such as the underperformance of female
Woman
A woman , pl: women is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the term girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent...
students in math and science classes as well as African-American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
students in academic contexts. Steele first began to explore the issues surrounding stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
at the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
, when his membership on a university committee called for him to tackle the problem of academic underachievement of minority students
The Racial Achievement Gap in the United States
The Racial Achievement Gap in the United States refers to the educational disparities between minority students and Caucasian students. This disparity manifests itself in a variety of ways: African-American and Hispanic students are more likely to receive lower grades, score lower on standardized...
at the university. Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
refers to the threat felt in particular situations in which stereotype
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
s relevant to one’s group identity
Collective identity
The term collective identity may refer to a variety of concepts. In general however, these concepts generally pertain to phenomena where an individuals' perceived membership in a social group impacts upon their own identity in some way. The idea of a collective identity has received attention in a...
exist, and the mere knowledge of the stereotype
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
s can be distracting enough to negatively affect one’s performance in a domain related to the stereotype
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
. Steele has demonstrated the far-reaching implications of stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
by showing that it is more likely to undermine the performance of individuals who are highly invested in the domain being threatened, and that stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
can even lead to significant negative health outcomes
John Henryism
John Henryism is a strategy for coping with prolonged exposure to stresses such as social discrimination by expending high levels of effort which results in accumulating physiological costs....
among African American
African American
African Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have at least partial ancestry from any of the native populations of Sub-Saharan Africa and are the direct descendants of enslaved Africans within the boundaries of the present United States...
s.
Steele has spearheaded many successful interventions aimed at reducing the negative effects of stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
, including how to provide critical feedback effectively to a student under the effects of stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
, inspired by his graduate school adviser, Tom Ostrom’s, motivating style of feedback, as well as how teacher practices can foster a feeling of identity safety and, as a result, better performance outcomes among elementary school
Elementary school
An elementary school or primary school is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as elementary or primary education. Elementary school is the preferred term in some countries, particularly those in North America, where the terms grade school and grammar...
minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
students.
Book: ’’Whistling Vivaldi’’
In 2010, Claude Steele published his first book, ‘’Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us’’, as part of the “Issues of Our Time” series of books exploring timely issues from the voices of modern intellectualIntellectual
An intellectual is a person who uses intelligence and critical or analytical reasoning in either a professional or a personal capacity.- Terminology and endeavours :"Intellectual" can denote four types of persons:...
s. ‘’Whistling Vivaldi’’ focuses on the phenomenon of stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
as it explains the trend of minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
underperformance in higher education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
. In his book, Steele discusses how identity
Identity (social science)
Identity is a term used to describe a person's conception and expression of their individuality or group affiliations . The term is used more specifically in psychology and sociology, and is given a great deal of attention in social psychology...
contingencies, or those cues in an environment that signal particular stereotype
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
s attached to an aspect of one’s identity
Identity (social science)
Identity is a term used to describe a person's conception and expression of their individuality or group affiliations . The term is used more specifically in psychology and sociology, and is given a great deal of attention in social psychology...
, can have a drastic negative effect on a person’s functioning, and how these effects can explain racial and gender performance gaps
The Racial Achievement Gap in the United States
The Racial Achievement Gap in the United States refers to the educational disparities between minority students and Caucasian students. This disparity manifests itself in a variety of ways: African-American and Hispanic students are more likely to receive lower grades, score lower on standardized...
in academic performance
Academic achievement
Academic achievement or performance is the outcome of education — the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals....
. Steele also offers a host of strategies for reducing stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
and enhancing minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
student performance
Academic achievement
Academic achievement or performance is the outcome of education — the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals....
, as well as the hope that the societal knowledge of stereotype threat
Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. First described by social psychologist Claude Steele and his colleagues, stereotype threat has been shown to reduce the performance of...
will lead to an understanding and acceptance of diverse
Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
group differences.
Personal life
Claude Steele currently lives with his wife, Dr. Dorothy Munson Steele, and children in CaliforniaCalifornia
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
. Claude and Dorothy have been known to collaborate on projects dedicated to prejudice
Prejudice
Prejudice is making a judgment or assumption about someone or something before having enough knowledge to be able to do so with guaranteed accuracy, or "judging a book by its cover"...
in American society
Society of the United States
The society or culture of the United States is a Western culture, and has been developing since long before the United States became a country with its own unique social and cultural characteristics such as dialect, music, arts, social habits, cuisine, folklore, etc...
and minority
Minority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
student achievement
Academic achievement
Academic achievement or performance is the outcome of education — the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals....
. His twin brother, Shelby Steele
Shelby Steele
-Awards:*National Book Critics Circle Award in the general non-fiction category for the book The Content of Our Character.*Emmy and Writers Guild Awards for his 1991 Frontline documentary film Seven Days in Bensonhurst.-External links:**...
is a conservative
Conservatism
Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that promotes the maintenance of traditional institutions and supports, at the most, minimal and gradual change in society. Some conservatives seek to preserve things as they are, emphasizing stability and continuity, while others oppose modernism...
writer and Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution
Hoover Institution
The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace is a public policy think tank and library founded in 1919 by then future U.S. president, Herbert Hoover, an early alumnus of Stanford....
at Stanford University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
.
Teaching and Administrative Appointments
- 1971-1973 Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of UtahUniversity of UtahThe University of Utah, also known as the U or the U of U, is a public, coeducational research university in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. The university was established in 1850 as the University of Deseret by the General Assembly of the provisional State of Deseret, making it Utah's oldest...
- 1973-1987 Assistant Professor to Associate Professor of Psychology, University of WashingtonUniversity of WashingtonUniversity of Washington is a public research university, founded in 1861 in Seattle, Washington, United States. The UW is the largest university in the Northwest and the oldest public university on the West Coast. The university has three campuses, with its largest campus in the University...
- 1987-1991 Professor of Psychology, University of MichiganUniversity of MichiganThe University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
- 1989-1991 Research Scientist, Institute for Social Research, University of MichiganUniversity of MichiganThe University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
- 1991-2009 Professor of Psychology, Stanford UniversityStanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
- 1996-1997 President, Western Psychological Association
- 1997-2000 Chair, Department of Psychology, Stanford UniversityStanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
- 1997-2009 Lucie Stern Professor in the Social Sciences, Stanford UniversityStanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
- 2002-2005 Director, Center for Comparative Studies in Race and Ethnicity, Stanford UniversityStanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
- 2002-2003 President, Society for Personality and Social PsychologySociety for Personality and Social PsychologyThe Society for Personality and Social Psychology is an academic society for personality and social psychologists with over 4500 members worldwide. SPSP serves as Division 8 of the American Psychological Association and publishes the journals Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin and...
- 2009-2011 Provost of Columbia UniversityColumbia UniversityColumbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...
- 2011- Dean, School of EducationStanford University School of EducationThe Stanford University School of Education , is one of the seven schools of Stanford University. It is the second-oldest school of education in the United States, after NYU...
at Stanford UniversityStanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
Awards and Honors
- 1994-1995 Cattell Faculty Fellowship, The James McKeen CattellJames McKeen CattellJames McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science...
Fund - 1995 Dean’s Teaching Award, Stanford UniversityStanford UniversityThe Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
- 1996 Elected to The American Academy of Arts and SciencesAmerican Academy of Arts and SciencesThe American Academy of Arts and Sciences is an independent policy research center that conducts multidisciplinary studies of complex and emerging problems. The Academy’s elected members are leaders in the academic disciplines, the arts, business, and public affairs.James Bowdoin, John Adams, and...
- 1997 Gordon AllportGordon AllportGordon Willard Allport was an American psychologist. Allport was one of the first psychologists to focus on the study of the personality, and is often referred to as one of the founding figures of personality psychology...
Prize in Social PsychologySocial psychologySocial psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
, Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues - 1998 Elected to The National Academy of Education
- 2000 William JamesWilliam JamesWilliam James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a physician. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism...
Fellow Award for Distinguished Scientific Career Contribution, American Psychological SocietyAssociation for Psychological ScienceThe Association for Psychological Science , previously the American Psychological Society, is a non-profit international organization whose mission is to promote, protect, and advance the interests of scientifically oriented psychology in research, application, teaching, and the improvement of... - 2001 Donald CampbellDonald T. CampbellDonald Thomas Campbell was an American social scientist. He is noted for his work in methodology. He coined the term "evolutionary epistemology" and developed a selectionist theory of human creativity.- Biography :...
Award, Society for Personality and Social PsychologySociety for Personality and Social PsychologyThe Society for Personality and Social Psychology is an academic society for personality and social psychologists with over 4500 members worldwide. SPSP serves as Division 8 of the American Psychological Association and publishes the journals Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin and... - 2002 Kurt LewinKurt LewinKurt Zadek Lewin was a German-American psychologist, known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology....
Memorial Award, Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues - 2002 Senior Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology in the Public Interest, American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological AssociationThe American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
- 2003 Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological AssociationThe American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
- 2003 Elected to The National Academy of SciencesNational Academy of SciencesNational Academy of Sciences commonly refers to the academy in the United States of America.National Academy of Sciences may also refer to :* National Academy of Sciences of Argentina* Armenian National Academy of Sciences...
- 2004 Columbia Teachers CollegeTeachers College, Columbia UniversityTeachers College, Columbia University is a graduate school of education located in New York City, New York...
Medal for Distinguished Service - 2007 Distinguished Scientific Impact Award, The Society of Experimental Social PsychologySociety of Experimental Social PsychologyThe Society of Experimental Social Psychology is a scientific professional organization of social psychologists. SESP has over 700 members worldwide.-History:...
. (For “Threat in the Air”) - 2007 Presidential Citation, American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological AssociationThe American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
- 2008 Elected to the American Philosophical SocietyAmerican Philosophical SocietyThe American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743, and located in Philadelphia, Pa., is an eminent scholarly organization of international reputation, that promotes useful knowledge in the sciences and humanities through excellence in scholarly research, professional meetings, publications,...
- Received honorary doctorates from: University of ChicagoUniversity of ChicagoThe University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois, USA. It was founded by the American Baptist Education Society with a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller and incorporated in 1890...
, Yale UniversityYale UniversityYale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
, Princeton UniversityPrinceton UniversityPrinceton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....
, University of MichiganUniversity of MichiganThe University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
, and University of Maryland, BaltimoreUniversity of Maryland, BaltimoreUniversity of Maryland, Baltimore, was founded in 1807. It comprises some of the oldest professional schools in the nation and world. It is the original campus of the University System of Maryland. Located on 60 acres in downtown Baltimore, Maryland, it is part of the University System of Maryland...
.
Memberships
- American Academy of Arts and SciencesAmerican Academy of Arts and SciencesThe American Academy of Arts and Sciences is an independent policy research center that conducts multidisciplinary studies of complex and emerging problems. The Academy’s elected members are leaders in the academic disciplines, the arts, business, and public affairs.James Bowdoin, John Adams, and...
- American Academy of Education
- National Academy of SciencesNational Academy of SciencesNational Academy of Sciences commonly refers to the academy in the United States of America.National Academy of Sciences may also refer to :* National Academy of Sciences of Argentina* Armenian National Academy of Sciences...
- American Philosophical SocietyAmerican Philosophical SocietyThe American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743, and located in Philadelphia, Pa., is an eminent scholarly organization of international reputation, that promotes useful knowledge in the sciences and humanities through excellence in scholarly research, professional meetings, publications,...
- Board, Social Science Research CouncilSocial Science Research CouncilThe Social Science Research Council is a U.S.-based independent nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing research in the social sciences and related disciplines...
- Board of Directors, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation