Boxthorn
Encyclopedia
Boxthorn is a genus
of the nightshade
family
(Solanaceae
), containing about 90 species
of plant
s native throughout much of the temperate
and subtropical
zones of the world. They are mostly found in dry, semi-saline environments.
Other common names include desert-thorn, Christmas berry, wolfberry
, Matrimony vine, and Duke of Argyll's tea tree. Goji is a common English name made popular by several American-made juices and dried berries sometimes branded as "Tibetan" or "Himalayan" goji berries, although these terms do not geographically represent where the berries actually originate.
There are ~20 species in North America
, ~30 species in South America
, ~30 species in Africa
, ~10 species in Eurasia
, and one species in Australia
. Grabowskia
and Phrodus join Lycium in the tribe
Lycieae
, and are the genera most closely related to boxthorn.
The generic name is derived from the Greek
word λυκιον (lycion), which was a name applied by Pliny the Elder
(23-79) and Pedanius Dioscorides
(ca. 40-90) to a plant known as dyer's buckthorn. It was probably a Rhamnus species and was named for Lycia
, the province in which it grew.
They are long-lived, perennial
, thorny shrub
s, with deciduous
alternate, simple leaves
1–8 cm (0.393700787401575–3.1 in) long. The flowers are solitary or in small clusters, 6–25 mm (0.236220472440945–0.984251968503937 in) diameter, with a corolla of five purple, white or greenish-white petals joined together at their bases. The fruit is fleshy, multiseeded berry
8–20 mm (0.31496062992126–0.78740157480315 in) diameter that may be red, yellow, orange, purple or black. These fruit resemble nightshade and bittersweet
berries. In some species called wolfberries
or "longevity fruit" (notably L. barbarum and L. chinense), the fruit is edible.
Most species of Lycium are cosexual (all flowers have both male and female function), however, several species exhibit sexual dimorphism
. Evidence suggests that sexual dimorphism has evolved more than once in the genus. There are species that have both monoecious and dioecious
populations, most notably L. californicum
.
since ancient times and was traded from the Far East
to Europe by the Romans already
, for example via Ariaca
and the port of Barbarikon
near today's Karachi
, as mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
. In his Naturalis historia, Pliny the Elder
describes boxthorn as a medicinal plant recommended as a treatment for sore eyes and inflammation, as does Pedanius Dioscorides
in his P. Dioscoridae pharmacorum simplicium reique medicae.
Boxthorn is mentioned in the biblical Book of Proverbs
as besetting the paths of the wicked . In his 1753 publication Species Plantarum
, Linnaeus describes three Lycium species: L. afrum, L. barbarum, and L. europaeum.
The fruit, leaves, and bark of certain species have been used in China throughout more than 2,000 years of recorded history. Wolfberries are known in China as gǒu qǐ zǐ (枸杞子), and are processed into herbal teas, soups, juices, and alcoholic beverages. The bark is also used, it is known in Chinese as dì gǔ pí (地骨皮).
The berries may also be used whole; in traditional Chinese medicine
they are always cooked, boiled either by themselves or in combination with other herbs; or as an ingredient in a soup. Whole wolfberries are used in this way for a variety of purposes in traditional Korean medicine
and traditional Tibetan medicine
, where boxthorn is called dre-tsher-ma ("ghost thorn"). It is a rare ingredient in kampō
(traditional Japanese medicine), where the fruit is called kukoshi (クコシ) and the bark jikoppi (ジコッピ); these terms are derived from the Chinese names.
) has shown to be able to spread uncontrollably and become an invasive weed in Australia
.
Lycium species are used as food plants by the larva
e of some Lepidoptera
species including Coleophora vigilis (recorded on L. ferocissimum).
"Lycium eleagnus", "Lycium eleganus" and "Lycium eleganus barbarum" are obsolete or invented
names often used to promote "authentic" "Tibetan goji".
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of the nightshade
Solanum
Solanum, the nightshades, horsenettles and relatives, is a large and diverse genus of annual and perennial plants. They grow as forbs, vines, subshrubs, shrubs, and small trees, and often have attractive fruit and flowers. Many formerly independent genera like Lycopersicon or Cyphomandra are...
family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
(Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae are a family of flowering plants that include a number of important agricultural crops as well as many toxic plants. The name of the family comes from the Latin Solanum "the nightshade plant", but the further etymology of that word is unclear...
), containing about 90 species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
of plant
Plant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s native throughout much of the temperate
Temperate
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of the globe lie between the tropics and the polar circles. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally relatively moderate, rather than extreme hot or cold...
and subtropical
Subtropics
The subtropics are the geographical and climatical zone of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropical zone, which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, at latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S...
zones of the world. They are mostly found in dry, semi-saline environments.
Other common names include desert-thorn, Christmas berry, wolfberry
Wolfberry
Wolfberry, commercially called goji berry, is the common name for the fruit of two very closely related species: Lycium barbarum and L. chinense , two species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae...
, Matrimony vine, and Duke of Argyll's tea tree. Goji is a common English name made popular by several American-made juices and dried berries sometimes branded as "Tibetan" or "Himalayan" goji berries, although these terms do not geographically represent where the berries actually originate.
There are ~20 species in North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
, ~30 species in South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
, ~30 species in Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, ~10 species in Eurasia
Eurasia
Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...
, and one species in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
. Grabowskia
Grabowskia
Grabowskia is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae.-Selected species:* Grabowskia ameghinoi Speg.* Grabowskia glauca I.M.Johnst.* Grabowskia lindleyi Sendtn.* Grabowskia megalosperma Speg....
and Phrodus join Lycium in the tribe
Tribe (biology)
In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank between family and genus. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes.Some examples include the tribes: Canini, Acalypheae, Hominini, Bombini, and Antidesmeae.-See also:* Biological classification* Rank...
Lycieae
Lycieae
Lycieae is a tribe of flowering plants in the subfamily Solanoideae of the family Solanaceae. It comprises two genera: Lycium and Grabowskia....
, and are the genera most closely related to boxthorn.
The generic name is derived from the Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
word λυκιον (lycion), which was a name applied by Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
(23-79) and Pedanius Dioscorides
Pedanius Dioscorides
Pedanius Dioscorides was a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, the author of a 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances , that was widely read for more than 1,500 years.-Life:...
(ca. 40-90) to a plant known as dyer's buckthorn. It was probably a Rhamnus species and was named for Lycia
Lycia
Lycia Lycian: Trm̃mis; ) was a region in Anatolia in what are now the provinces of Antalya and Muğla on the southern coast of Turkey. It was a federation of ancient cities in the region and later a province of the Roman Empire...
, the province in which it grew.
Description
Perennial plant
A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years. The term is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter lived annuals and biennials. The term is sometimes misused by commercial gardeners or horticulturalists to describe only herbaceous perennials...
, thorny shrub
Shrub
A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height, usually under 5–6 m tall. A large number of plants may become either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions they experience...
s, with deciduous
Deciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
alternate, simple leaves
Leaf
A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant, as defined in botanical terms, and in particular in plant morphology. Foliage is a mass noun that refers to leaves as a feature of plants....
1–8 cm (0.393700787401575–3.1 in) long. The flowers are solitary or in small clusters, 6–25 mm (0.236220472440945–0.984251968503937 in) diameter, with a corolla of five purple, white or greenish-white petals joined together at their bases. The fruit is fleshy, multiseeded berry
Berry
The botanical definition of a berry is a fleshy fruit produced from a single ovary. Grapes are an example. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. They may have one or more carpels with a thin covering and fleshy interiors....
8–20 mm (0.31496062992126–0.78740157480315 in) diameter that may be red, yellow, orange, purple or black. These fruit resemble nightshade and bittersweet
Solanum dulcamara
Solanum dulcamara, also known as bittersweet, bittersweet nightshade, bitter nightshade, blue bindweed, Amara Dulcis, climbing nightshade, fellenwort, felonwood, poisonberry, poisonflower, scarlet berry, snakeberry, trailing bittersweet, trailing nightshade, violet bloom, or woody...
berries. In some species called wolfberries
Wolfberry
Wolfberry, commercially called goji berry, is the common name for the fruit of two very closely related species: Lycium barbarum and L. chinense , two species of boxthorn in the family Solanaceae...
or "longevity fruit" (notably L. barbarum and L. chinense), the fruit is edible.
Most species of Lycium are cosexual (all flowers have both male and female function), however, several species exhibit sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
. Evidence suggests that sexual dimorphism has evolved more than once in the genus. There are species that have both monoecious and dioecious
Dioecious
Dioecy is the property of a group of biological organisms that have males and females, but not members that have organs of both sexes at the same time. I.e., those whose individual members can usually produce only one type of gamete; each individual organism is thus distinctly female or male...
populations, most notably L. californicum
Lycium californicum
Lycium californicum is a spreading shrub in the nightshade family known by the common names California boxthorn and California desert-thorn....
.
Uses
The plant has been known to European herbalistsHerbalism
Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medical herbalism, herbal medicine, herbology, herblore, and phytotherapy...
since ancient times and was traded from the Far East
Far East
The Far East is an English term mostly describing East Asia and Southeast Asia, with South Asia sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons.The term came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 19th century,...
to Europe by the Romans already
Roman trade with India
Roman trade with India through the overland caravan routes via Anatolia and Persia, though at a relative trickle compared to later times, antedated the southern trade route via the Red Sea and monsoons which started around the beginning of the Common Era following the reign of Augustus and his...
, for example via Ariaca
Ariaca
Ariaca was a region of Western India beyond Barigaza, mentioned in ancient geographical sources.According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Ariaca was part of the kingdom of Nambanus, though to be the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana:...
and the port of Barbarikon
Barbarikon
Barbarikon was the name of a sea port near the modern-day city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan, important in the Hellenistic era in Indian Ocean trade...
near today's Karachi
Karachi
Karachi is the largest city, main seaport and the main financial centre of Pakistan, as well as the capital of the province of Sindh. The city has an estimated population of 13 to 15 million, while the total metropolitan area has a population of over 18 million...
, as mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea or Periplus of the Red Sea is a Greco-Roman periplus, written in Greek, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and India...
. In his Naturalis historia, Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
describes boxthorn as a medicinal plant recommended as a treatment for sore eyes and inflammation, as does Pedanius Dioscorides
Pedanius Dioscorides
Pedanius Dioscorides was a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, the author of a 5-volume encyclopedia about herbal medicine and related medicinal substances , that was widely read for more than 1,500 years.-Life:...
in his P. Dioscoridae pharmacorum simplicium reique medicae.
Boxthorn is mentioned in the biblical Book of Proverbs
Book of Proverbs
The Book of Proverbs , commonly referred to simply as Proverbs, is a book of the Hebrew Bible.The original Hebrew title of the book of Proverbs is "Míshlê Shlomoh" . When translated into Greek and Latin, the title took on different forms. In the Greek Septuagint the title became "paroimai paroimiae"...
as besetting the paths of the wicked . In his 1753 publication Species Plantarum
Species Plantarum
Species Plantarum was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work by Carl Linnaeus. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. This means that the first names to be considered validly published in botany are those that appear...
, Linnaeus describes three Lycium species: L. afrum, L. barbarum, and L. europaeum.
The berries may also be used whole; in traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese Medicine refers to a broad range of medicine practices sharing common theoretical concepts which have been developed in China and are based on a tradition of more than 2,000 years, including various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage , exercise , and dietary therapy...
they are always cooked, boiled either by themselves or in combination with other herbs; or as an ingredient in a soup. Whole wolfberries are used in this way for a variety of purposes in traditional Korean medicine
Traditional Korean medicine
Traditional Korean medicine developed with the influence of other traditional medicine. Its techniques in treatment and diagnosis are both similar and unique to other traditional medicine...
and traditional Tibetan medicine
Traditional Tibetan medicine
Traditional Tibetan medicine is a centuries-old traditional medical system that employs a complex approach to diagnosis, incorporating techniques such as pulse analysis and urinalysis, and utilizes behavior and dietary modification, medicines composed of natural materials and physical therapies...
, where boxthorn is called dre-tsher-ma ("ghost thorn"). It is a rare ingredient in kampō
Kampo
, alternatively shortened as just , is the Japanese study and adaptation of Traditional Chinese medicine. The basic works of Chinese medicine came to Japan between the 7th and 9th centuries. Since then, the Japanese have created their own unique herbal medical system and diagnosis...
(traditional Japanese medicine), where the fruit is called kukoshi (クコシ) and the bark jikoppi (ジコッピ); these terms are derived from the Chinese names.
Ecology
Due to its ecologial requirements, boxthorns may be useful as a crop in arid regions. However, at least African Boxthorn (L. ferocissimumLycium ferocissimum
Lycium ferocissimum is a shrub in the nightshade family . The species is native to Cape Province and Orange Free State in South Africa and has become naturalised in Australia and New Zealand. It is listed on the Noxious Weed List for Australian States and Territories and is a declared noxious weed...
) has shown to be able to spread uncontrollably and become an invasive weed in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
.
Lycium species are used as food plants by the larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
e of some Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera is a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world, encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper butterflies, and moth-butterflies...
species including Coleophora vigilis (recorded on L. ferocissimum).
Selected species
- Lycium acutifolium
- Lycium afrum L.
- Lycium ameghinoi
- Lycium amoenum
- Lycium andersoniiLycium andersoniiLycium andersonii is a perennial shrub of the family Solanaceae, the Nightshades. It is commonly known by such names as Anderson Thornbush, Anderson Wolfberry, Anderson Lycium, Anderson Desert Thorn, Anderson Boxthorn, and more ambiguously as "tomatillo", Desert Tomato or "wolf berry"...
– Anderson Boxthorn, Anderson Thornbush, Anderson Wolfberry, Anderson Desert Thorn, Desert Tomato, "tomatilloTomatilloThe tomatillo is a plant of the nightshade family, related to the cape gooseberry, bearing small, spherical and green or green-purple fruit of the same name. Tomatillos are a staple in Mexican cuisine. Tomatillos are grown as annuals throughout the Western Hemisphere...
" - Lycium arenicola
- Lycium australe F.Muell.
- Lycium barbarum – Duke of Argyll's Teaplant, Ningxia Wolfberry, "wolfberry"
- Lycium bosciifolium
- Lycium berlandieri Dunal – Berlandier's Wolfberry
- Lycium brevipesLycium brevipesLycium brevipes is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family known by the common name Baja desert-thorn. It is native to northwestern Mexico and it occurs in California as far as the Sonoran Desert as well as some of the Channel Islands. It grows in the scrub of desert and coastline. It...
- Lycium californicumLycium californicumLycium californicum is a spreading shrub in the nightshade family known by the common names California boxthorn and California desert-thorn....
– California Boxthorn, California Desert-thorn - Lycium carolinianum WalterThomas Walter (botanist)Thomas Walter was a British-born American botanist. He is best known for his book Flora Caroliniana , an early yet fairly complete catalog of the flowering plants of South Carolina.-References:...
– Carolina Desert-thorn, "Christmas berry" - Lycium chilense Bertero
- Lycium chinense – Chinese Teaplant, "wolfberry"
- Lycium cinereum
- Lycium cooperiLycium cooperiLycium cooperi is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family known by the common name peach thorn. It is native to the southwestern United States, where it grows in a variety of desert and mountain habitat types. This is a bushy, erect shrub approaching a maximum height of 4 meters with...
- Lycium decumbens
- Lycium depressum Stocks
- Lycium eenii
- Lycium europaeum L. – European Wolfberry, "wolfberry" (= L. intricatum)
- Lycium exsertum A.Gray
- Lycium ferocissimumLycium ferocissimumLycium ferocissimum is a shrub in the nightshade family . The species is native to Cape Province and Orange Free State in South Africa and has become naturalised in Australia and New Zealand. It is listed on the Noxious Weed List for Australian States and Territories and is a declared noxious weed...
– African Boxthorn - Lycium fremontiiLycium fremontiiLycium fremontii is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family, Solanaceae, that is native to northwestern Mexico and the southernmost mountains and deserts of California and Arizona in the United States...
- Lycium gariepense
- Lycium grandicalyx
- Lycium horridum
- Lycium hirsutum
- Lycium macrodon A.Gray
- Lycium mascarenense A.M. Venter & A.J. Scott (= L. tenue var. sieberi)
- Lycium nodosum
- Lycium oxycarpum Dunal
- Lycium pallidum Miers
- Lycium pilifolium
- Lycium pumilum
- Lycium ruthenicum Murray
- Lycium sandwicense A.Gray – [[ʻŌhelo kai|Ōhelo kai]] (HawaiiHawaiiHawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
) - Lycium schizocalyx
- Lycium schweinfurthii
- Lycium shawii Roem. & Schult. – Arabian Boxthorn
- Lycium sokotranumLycium sokotranumLycium sokotranum is a species of flowering plant in the nightshade family, Solanaceae, that is endemic to Yemen....
- Lycium strandveldense
- Lycium tenue L.
- Lycium tenuispinosum
- Lycium tetrandrum
- Lycium villosum
"Lycium eleagnus", "Lycium eleganus" and "Lycium eleganus barbarum" are obsolete or invented
Nomen nudum
The phrase nomen nudum is a Latin term, meaning "naked name", used in taxonomy...
names often used to promote "authentic" "Tibetan goji".
Formerly placed here
- Serissa japonica (Thunb.) Thunb. (as L. foetidum L.f. or L. japonicum Thunb.)
Islam
- In the Muslim text Sahih MuslimSahih MuslimSahih Muslim is one of the Six major collections of the hadith in Sunni Islam, oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. It is the second most authentic hadith collection after Sahih Al-Bukhari, and is highly acclaimed by Sunni Muslims...
, Book 041, Number 6985, the boxthorn, or gharqad (in Arabic), is described as 'the tree of the Jews':The last hour would not come unless the Muslims will fight against the Jews and the Muslims would kill them until the Jews would hide themselves behind a stone or a tree and a stone or a tree would say: Muslim, oh the servant of Allah, there is a Jew behind me; come and kill him; but the tree Gharqad would not say, for it is the tree of the Jews.
See also
- Bushroot, a fictional mad scientistMad scientistA mad scientist is a stock character of popular fiction, specifically science fiction. The mad scientist may be villainous or antagonistic, benign or neutral, and whether insane, eccentric, or simply bumbling, mad scientists often work with fictional technology in order to forward their schemes, if...
from the DisneyThe Walt Disney CompanyThe Walt Disney Company is the largest media conglomerate in the world in terms of revenue. Founded on October 16, 1923, by Walt and Roy Disney as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio, Walt Disney Productions established itself as a leader in the American animation industry before diversifying into...
cartoon series Darkwing DuckDarkwing DuckDarkWing Duck is an American animated television series produced by The Walt Disney Company that ran from 1991–1992 on both the syndicated programming block The Disney Afternoon and Saturday mornings on ABC. It featured the eponymous anthropomorphic duck superhero whose alter ego is mild-mannered...
who transforms himself into a Lycium nycanthropus-duckDuckDuck is the common name for a large number of species in the Anatidae family of birds, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the Anatidae family; they do not represent a monophyletic group but a form taxon, since swans and geese are not considered...
chimera