Politics of Myanmar
Encyclopedia
The government of Burma (also known as Myanmar) is controlled by the military
(Tatmadaw) styled in the form of a presidential republic
under the 2008 constitution
. A parliamentary government was elected in 1990
, but the military prevented it from convening.
ruled by various dynasties prior to the 19th century. The British colonized Burma in the late 19th century, and it was under the jurisdiction of the British Raj
until 1937.
Burma was ruled as a British colony from the 1885 until 1948. While the Bamar heartland was directly administered (first as a part of India and then, from 1937, as British Burma), ethnic regions outside the heartland were allowed some measure of self-rule along the lines of the Princely States of India. This led to split loyalties among the various ethnic groups to outside powers (either to the British or Japanese) as well between the indigenous people in Burma. The dominant ethnic group in Burma are the Bamar
, who make up approximately sixty-eight percent of the population. During World War II
, many members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered to fight alongside the Japanese in hopes of overthrowing the occupying British forces. Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces in combating the Japanese and Burman forces. This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War Two when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948. By granting independence to Burma, the British government gave the new ruler, Aung San
, control over areas that were not traditionally controlled by the Bamar. This conglomeration of formerly British-owned land created a state that is home to over twenty distinct minority ethnic groups.
From the time of the signing of the Burmese Constitution in 1948, ethnic minorities have been denied Constitutional rights, access to lands that were traditionally controlled by their peoples and participation in the government. The various minority ethnic groups have been consistently oppressed by the dominant Burman majority, but have also suffered at the hands of warlords and regional ethnic alliances. Religion also plays a role in the ethnic conflicts that have taken place. Muslims, Hindus, Christians and Buddhists all live in Burma. These religious differences have led to several incidents that have affected hundreds of thousands of citizens in Burma. In 1991, approximately 250,000 Muslim Rohingyas (an ethnic group from southwestern Burma) were forced from their homes by Burman forces . They crossed the border into Bangladesh, where they were given refugee status and aid from the international community that was not available to them inside Burma.
The current government of Burma is led by Prime Minister (and General) Thein Sein. This current regime has been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both inside and outside of Burma. The Karen, Karenni, and Mon ethnic groups have been forced to seek asylum in neighboring Thailand, where they are also abused by an unfriendly and unsympathetic government. These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the Wa and Shan ethnic groups who have become Internally Displaced Peoples in their own state since being removed from lands by the military junta in 2000. There are reportedly 600,000 of these Internally Displaced Peoples living in Burma today. Many are trying to escape forced labour in the military or for one of the many state-sponsored drug cartels. This displacement of peoples has led to both human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at the hands of the dominant Burman group. The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include but are not limited to the Government of Burma (junta), the Karen National Union
and the Mong Tai Army
.
.
On the 19th of July 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic
, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik
as its first President and U Nu
as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth
. A bicameral parliament
was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies
and a Chamber of Nationalities
. The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of Lower Burma
and Upper Burma
, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.
, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi
.
led a coup d'état
and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the "Burmese Way to Socialism." The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarky
, or economic isolation.
was Senior General Than Shwe
who held the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister
was Khin Nyunt
until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favor of Gen. Soe Win
. Almost all cabinet
offices are held by military officers.
US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organized by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma. However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. For example, the French oil company Total S.A.
and the American oil company Chevron
continue to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline
from Burma to Thailand. Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline. Before it was acquired by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. Asian businesses, such as Daewoo
, continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction.
The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Burma that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military. Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with Levi Strauss
in 1992. From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma activists successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from Burma. These companies included Eddie Bauer
, Liz Claiborne
, Macy's
, J. Crew, JoS. A. Banks
, Children's Place, Burlington Coat Factory
, Wal-Mart
, and Target
. The U.S. government banned all imports from Burma as part of the "Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act" of 2003. Sanctions have been criticized for their adverse effects on the civilian population. However, Burmese democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime.
Human Rights Watch
and Amnesty International
have documented egregious human rights
abuses by the military government. There is no independent judiciary
in Burma and the military government suppresses political activity. The government restricts Internet access, including blocking of Google, Gmail, Yahoo, and Hotmail. The government uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet
to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.
In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma. However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities. In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) and the Union Solidarity and Development Association
.
The military government placed Aung San Suu Kyi
under house arrest again on 31 May 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military. The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November 2005. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan
to Than Shwe
and pressure from ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006. She was released in 2010.
The junta faces increasing international isolation
. Burma's situation was referred to at the UN (United Nations) Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, China and Russia continue to support the junta. Both countries vetoed a UN Security Council resolution on Burma in January 2007.
According to Human Rights Defenders and Promoters
(HRDP), on 18 April 2007, several of its members (Myint Aye, Maung Maung Lay, Tin Maung Oo and Yin Kyi) were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local USDA
Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up. Due to the attack, Myint Hlaing and Maung Maung Lay were badly injured and are now hospitalized. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities and vows to take legal action. Human Rights Defenders and Promoters
was formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights.
amid Cyclone Nargis
. It was the first national vote since the 1990 election. Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman Nyan Win
, inter alia, criticized the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country; In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything." The constitution would bar Aung San Suu Kyi
, from public office. 5 million citizens will vote 24 May in Yangon
and the Irrawaddy Delta
, worst hit by Cyclone Nargis
.
The President is the head of state and head of government. He oversees the Cabinet of Burma
.
The last legislature under the 1974 Constitution was a unicameral People's Assembly, in which 492 seats are elected by popular vote in four-year terms. The last elections were held 27 May 1990, but was never convened.
jurisdiction. The highest court in the land is the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is Aung Toe, and Attorney General Aye Maung.
(1472–92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru’s line. He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton.
, Magway Division
, Mandalay Division
, Sagaing Division
, Tanintharyi Division
and Yangon Division
; the seven states are Chin State
, Kachin State
, Kayin State
, Kayah State
, Mon State
, Rakhine State
and Shan State
.
There are also five Self-administrated zones and a Self-administrated Division "for National races with suitable population"
Within the Sagain Region
Within the Shan State
, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA
, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF
, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol
, IOC
, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN
, UNCTAD, UNESCO
, UNIDO, UPU, WHO
, WMO, WToO, WTrO
, GJC
Military junta
A junta or military junta is a government led by a committee of military leaders. The term derives from the Spanish language junta meaning committee, specifically a board of directors...
(Tatmadaw) styled in the form of a presidential republic
Presidential system
A presidential system is a system of government where an executive branch exists and presides separately from the legislature, to which it is not responsible and which cannot, in normal circumstances, dismiss it....
under the 2008 constitution
Constitution of Burma
The Constitution of Burma ) has changed several times since the country became independent from the United Kingdom. Burma's third and current constitution was published in September 2008 after a referendum.-1947 Constitution:...
. A parliamentary government was elected in 1990
Burmese general election, 1990
General elections were held in Burma on 27 May 1990, the first multi-party elections since 1960, after which the country had been ruled by a military dictatorship...
, but the military prevented it from convening.
Political conditions
Historically, Burma was a monarchyMonarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
ruled by various dynasties prior to the 19th century. The British colonized Burma in the late 19th century, and it was under the jurisdiction of the British Raj
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
until 1937.
Burma was ruled as a British colony from the 1885 until 1948. While the Bamar heartland was directly administered (first as a part of India and then, from 1937, as British Burma), ethnic regions outside the heartland were allowed some measure of self-rule along the lines of the Princely States of India. This led to split loyalties among the various ethnic groups to outside powers (either to the British or Japanese) as well between the indigenous people in Burma. The dominant ethnic group in Burma are the Bamar
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
, who make up approximately sixty-eight percent of the population. During World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, many members of the Bamar ethnic group volunteered to fight alongside the Japanese in hopes of overthrowing the occupying British forces. Meanwhile, many other ethnic groups supported the Allied forces in combating the Japanese and Burman forces. This conflict would come to be very significant in the aftermath of World War Two when Burma was granted its independence from Great Britain in 1948. By granting independence to Burma, the British government gave the new ruler, Aung San
Aung San
Bogyoke Aung San ; 13 February 1915 – 19 July 1947) was a Burmese revolutionary, nationalist, and founder of the modern Burmese army, the Tatmadaw....
, control over areas that were not traditionally controlled by the Bamar. This conglomeration of formerly British-owned land created a state that is home to over twenty distinct minority ethnic groups.
From the time of the signing of the Burmese Constitution in 1948, ethnic minorities have been denied Constitutional rights, access to lands that were traditionally controlled by their peoples and participation in the government. The various minority ethnic groups have been consistently oppressed by the dominant Burman majority, but have also suffered at the hands of warlords and regional ethnic alliances. Religion also plays a role in the ethnic conflicts that have taken place. Muslims, Hindus, Christians and Buddhists all live in Burma. These religious differences have led to several incidents that have affected hundreds of thousands of citizens in Burma. In 1991, approximately 250,000 Muslim Rohingyas (an ethnic group from southwestern Burma) were forced from their homes by Burman forces . They crossed the border into Bangladesh, where they were given refugee status and aid from the international community that was not available to them inside Burma.
The current government of Burma is led by Prime Minister (and General) Thein Sein. This current regime has been responsible for the displacement of several hundred thousand citizens, both inside and outside of Burma. The Karen, Karenni, and Mon ethnic groups have been forced to seek asylum in neighboring Thailand, where they are also abused by an unfriendly and unsympathetic government. These groups are perhaps more fortunate than the Wa and Shan ethnic groups who have become Internally Displaced Peoples in their own state since being removed from lands by the military junta in 2000. There are reportedly 600,000 of these Internally Displaced Peoples living in Burma today. Many are trying to escape forced labour in the military or for one of the many state-sponsored drug cartels. This displacement of peoples has led to both human rights violations as well as the exploitation of minority ethnic groups at the hands of the dominant Burman group. The primary actors in these ethnic struggles include but are not limited to the Government of Burma (junta), the Karen National Union
Karen National Union
The Karen National Union is a political organisation with an armed wing, the Karen National Liberation Army that represents the Karen people of Burma. It operates in Eastern Burma, and has underground networks in other areas of Burma where Karen people live. In Karen, this Karen area is called...
and the Mong Tai Army
Mong Tai Army
The Mong Tai Army is a former ressistance force of the Shan minority in Burma, founded by Khun Sa. It had up to 20 000 armed members and was one of the forces opposing the central government...
.
Independence era
On 4 January 1948, Burma achieved independence from Britain, and became a democracy based on the parliamentary systemParliamentary system
A parliamentary system is a system of government in which the ministers of the executive branch get their democratic legitimacy from the legislature and are accountable to that body, such that the executive and legislative branches are intertwined....
.
On the 19th of July 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik
Sao Shwe Thaik
Sao Shwe Thaik was the first president of the Union of Burma and the last Saopha of Yawnghwe. His full royal style was Kambawsarahta Thiri Pawaramahawuntha Thudamaraza. He was a well-respected Shan political figure in Burma...
as its first President and U Nu
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
. A bicameral parliament
Parliament
A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modeled after that of the United Kingdom. The name is derived from the French , the action of parler : a parlement is a discussion. The term came to mean a meeting at which...
was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies
Chamber of Deputies
Chamber of deputies is the name given to a legislative body such as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or can refer to a unicameral legislature.-Description:...
and a Chamber of Nationalities
Chamber of Nationalities
The Chamber of Nationalities was the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of Burma from 1948 to 1962. Under the 1947 Constitution, bills initiated and passed by the lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, were to be sent to the Chamber of Nationalities for review and revision...
. The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma proper, which consisted of Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
and Upper Burma
Upper Burma
Upper Burma refers to a geographic region of Burma , traditionally encompassing Mandalay and its periphery , or more broadly speaking, Kachin and Shan States....
, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.
AFPFL/Union Government
In 1961, U ThantU Thant
U Thant was a Burmese diplomat and the third Secretary-General of the United Nations, from 1961 to 1971. He was chosen for the post when his predecessor, Dag Hammarskjöld, died in September 1961....
, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, AC is a Burmese opposition politician and the General Secretary of the National League for Democracy. In the 1990 general election, her National League for Democracy party won 59% of the national votes and 81% of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained...
.
Military socialist era
In 1962, General Ne WinNe Win
Ne Win was Burmese a politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and also head of state from 1962 to 1981...
led a coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
and established a nominally socialist military government that sought to follow the "Burmese Way to Socialism." The military expropriated private businesses and followed an economic policy of autarky
Autarky
Autarky is the quality of being self-sufficient. Usually the term is applied to political states or their economic policies. Autarky exists whenever an entity can survive or continue its activities without external assistance. Autarky is not necessarily economic. For example, a military autarky...
, or economic isolation.
SPDC era
The former Head of stateHead of State
A head of state is the individual that serves as the chief public representative of a monarchy, republic, federation, commonwealth or other kind of state. His or her role generally includes legitimizing the state and exercising the political powers, functions, and duties granted to the head of...
was Senior General Than Shwe
Than Shwe
Senior General Than Shwe is a Burmese military leader and politician who was chairman of the State Peace and Development Council from 1992 to 2011. During the period, he held key positions of power including commander-in-chief of the Myanmar Armed Forces and head of Union Solidarity and...
who held the title of "Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council." His appointed prime minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
was Khin Nyunt
Khin Nyunt
General Khin Nyunt is an officer and politician in Myanmar. Khin Nyunt is of Burmese Chinese descent. He held the office of Chief of Intelligence and was Prime Minister from 25 August 2003 until 18 October 2004. He is married to Khin Win Shwe, a medical doctor, and father to a daughter, Thin Le Le...
until 19 October 2004, when he was forcibly deposed in favor of Gen. Soe Win
Soe Win
General Soe Win was the Prime Minister of Burma and Secretary-1 of the State Peace and Development Council from 2004 to 2007. He was known by Burmese dissident groups as "the butcher of Depayin" for his role as mastermind of the 2003 Depayin Massacre, in which 70 National League for Democracy...
. Almost all cabinet
Cabinet (government)
A Cabinet is a body of high ranking government officials, typically representing the executive branch. It can also sometimes be referred to as the Council of Ministers, an Executive Council, or an Executive Committee.- Overview :...
offices are held by military officers.
US and European government sanctions against the military government, combined with consumer boycotts and shareholder pressure organized by Free Burma activists, have succeeded in forcing most western corporations to withdraw from Burma. However, some western oil companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. For example, the French oil company Total S.A.
Total S.A.
Total S.A. is a French multinational oil company and one of the six "Supermajor" oil companies in the world.Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production to power generation, transportation, refining, petroleum product marketing, and...
and the American oil company Chevron
Chevron Corporation
Chevron Corporation is an American multinational energy corporation headquartered in San Ramon, California, United States and active in more than 180 countries. It is engaged in every aspect of the oil, gas, and geothermal energy industries, including exploration and production; refining,...
continue to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline
Yadana Project
The Yadana gas field is an offshore gas field in the Andaman Sea. It is located about offshore to the nearest landfall in Myanmar.-Description:...
from Burma to Thailand. Total (formerly TotalFinaElf) is the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged complicity in human rights abuses along the gas pipeline. Before it was acquired by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. Asian businesses, such as Daewoo
Daewoo
Daewoo or the Daewoo Group was a major South Korean chaebol . It was founded on 22 March 1967 as Daewoo Industrial and was dismantled by the Korean government in 1999...
, continue to invest in Burma, particularly in natural resource extraction.
The United States and European clothing and shoe industry became the target of Free Burma activists for buying from factories in Burma that were wholly or partly owned by the government or the military. Many stopped sourcing from Burma after protests, starting with Levi Strauss
Levi Strauss
Levi Strauss was a German-Jewish immigrant to the United States who founded the first company to manufacture blue jeans. His firm, Levi Strauss & Co., began in 1853 in San Francisco, California.-Origins:...
in 1992. From 1992 to 2003, Free Burma activists successfully forced dozens of clothing and shoe companies to stop sourcing from Burma. These companies included Eddie Bauer
Eddie Bauer
Eddie Bauer Holdings Inc. is a holding company that operates the Eddie Bauer clothing store chain, headquartered in Bellevue, Washington, United States. EBH was formed after Eddie Bauer's former parent company, Spiegel, Inc., went bankrupt in 2003...
, Liz Claiborne
Liz Claiborne
Anne Elisabeth Jane "Liz" Claiborne was a Belgian-born American fashion designer and entrepreneur. Claiborne is best known for founding Liz Claiborne Inc. which in 1986 became the first company founded by a woman to make the Fortune 500...
, Macy's
Macy's
Macy's is a U.S. chain of mid-to-high range department stores. In addition to its flagship Herald Square location in New York City, the company operates over 800 stores in the United States...
, J. Crew, JoS. A. Banks
JoS. A. Bank Clothiers
Joseph A. Bank Clothiers, Inc., also known by the abbreviated name JoS. A. Bank Clothiers, is an American manufacturer-retailers of men's classically-styled tailored and casual clothing, sportswear, footwear and accessories...
, Children's Place, Burlington Coat Factory
Burlington Coat Factory
Burlington Coat Factory Warehouse Corporation is a national department store retailer focusing on clothing and shoes, with over 450 stores in 45 states and Puerto Rico.. In 2006, it was acquired by Bain Capital, LLC in a take-private transaction...
, Wal-Mart
Wal-Mart
Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. , branded as Walmart since 2008 and Wal-Mart before then, is an American public multinational corporation that runs chains of large discount department stores and warehouse stores. The company is the world's 18th largest public corporation, according to the Forbes Global 2000...
, and Target
Target Corporation
Target Corporation, doing business as Target, is an American retailing company headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It is the second-largest discount retailer in the United States, behind Walmart. The company is ranked at number 33 on the Fortune 500 and is a component of the Standard & Poor's...
. The U.S. government banned all imports from Burma as part of the "Burmese Freedom and Democracy Act" of 2003. Sanctions have been criticized for their adverse effects on the civilian population. However, Burmese democracy movement leader Aung San Suu Kyi has repeatedly credited sanctions for putting pressure on the ruling military regime.
Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Its headquarters are in New York City and it has offices in Berlin, Beirut, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Paris, San Francisco, Tokyo,...
and Amnesty International
Amnesty International
Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organisation whose stated mission is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated."Following a publication of Peter Benenson's...
have documented egregious human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
abuses by the military government. There is no independent judiciary
Judiciary
The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes...
in Burma and the military government suppresses political activity. The government restricts Internet access, including blocking of Google, Gmail, Yahoo, and Hotmail. The government uses software-based filtering from US company Fortinet
Fortinet
Fortinet is headquartered in Sunnyvale, California and specializes in network security appliances. Fortinet’s flagship product line is sold under the brand name of FortiGate.-Corporate Overview:...
to limit the materials citizens can access on-line, including free email services, free web hosting and most political opposition and pro-democracy pages.
In 2001, the government permitted NLD office branches to re-open throughout Burma. However, they were shut down or heavily restricted beginning 2004, as part of a government campaign to prohibit such activities. In 2006, many members resigned from NLD, citing harassment and pressure from the Tatmadaw (Armed Forces) and the Union Solidarity and Development Association
Union Solidarity and Development Association
The Union Solidarity and Development Association was a Burmese organisation formed by Myanmar's ruling military junta, the State Law and Order Restoration Council , on 15 September 1993. The USDA comprised 1 Headquarters, 17 State and Division Associations, 66 District Associations and 320...
.
The military government placed Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, AC is a Burmese opposition politician and the General Secretary of the National League for Democracy. In the 1990 general election, her National League for Democracy party won 59% of the national votes and 81% of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained...
under house arrest again on 31 May 2003, following an attack on her convoy in northern Burma by a mob reported to be in league with the military. The regime extended her house arrest for yet another year in late November 2005. Despite a direct appeal by Kofi Annan
Kofi Annan
Kofi Atta Annan is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the UN from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006...
to Than Shwe
Than Shwe
Senior General Than Shwe is a Burmese military leader and politician who was chairman of the State Peace and Development Council from 1992 to 2011. During the period, he held key positions of power including commander-in-chief of the Myanmar Armed Forces and head of Union Solidarity and...
and pressure from ASEAN, the Burmese government extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006. She was released in 2010.
The junta faces increasing international isolation
International isolation
International isolation is a penalty applied by the international community or a sizeable or powerful group of countries, like the United Nations, towards one nation, government or people group...
. Burma's situation was referred to at the UN (United Nations) Security Council for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Burma's government. However, China and Russia continue to support the junta. Both countries vetoed a UN Security Council resolution on Burma in January 2007.
According to Human Rights Defenders and Promoters
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters was formed in 2002 in Burma to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights and help them conduct advocacy....
(HRDP), on 18 April 2007, several of its members (Myint Aye, Maung Maung Lay, Tin Maung Oo and Yin Kyi) were met by approximately a hundred people led by a local USDA
Union Solidarity and Development Association
The Union Solidarity and Development Association was a Burmese organisation formed by Myanmar's ruling military junta, the State Law and Order Restoration Council , on 15 September 1993. The USDA comprised 1 Headquarters, 17 State and Division Associations, 66 District Associations and 320...
Secretary U Nyunt Oo and beaten up. Due to the attack, Myint Hlaing and Maung Maung Lay were badly injured and are now hospitalized. The HRDP believes that this attack was condoned by the authorities and vows to take legal action. Human Rights Defenders and Promoters
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters
Human Rights Defenders and Promoters was formed in 2002 in Burma to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights and help them conduct advocacy....
was formed in 2002 to raise awareness among the people of Burma about their human rights.
New constitution
Myanmar's army-drafted constitution was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on 10 May in the first phase of a two-stage referendumReferendum
A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of...
amid Cyclone Nargis
Cyclone Nargis
Cyclone Nargis , was a strong tropical cyclone that caused the worst natural disaster in the recorded history of Burma. The cyclone made landfall in Burma on Friday, May 2, 2008, causing catastrophic destruction and at least 138,000 fatalities...
. It was the first national vote since the 1990 election. Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman Nyan Win
Nyan Win
Nyan Win is the Chief Minister of Bago Region. He won a Regional Hluttaw seat in an uncontested election in 2010, representing Zigon Township, and was appointed Chief Minister of the region on 30 March 2011. Prior to his election, he was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Myanmar, having been...
, inter alia, criticized the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country; In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything." The constitution would bar Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, AC is a Burmese opposition politician and the General Secretary of the National League for Democracy. In the 1990 general election, her National League for Democracy party won 59% of the national votes and 81% of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained...
, from public office. 5 million citizens will vote 24 May in Yangon
Yangon
Yangon is a former capital of Burma and the capital of Yangon Region . Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006, Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial...
and the Irrawaddy Delta
Irrawaddy Delta
The Irrawaddy Delta or Ayeyarwady Delta lies in the Ayeyarwady Region , the lowest expanse of land in Burma that fans out from the limit of tidal influence at Myan Aung to the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea, 290 km to the south at the mouth of the Ayeyarwady River...
, worst hit by Cyclone Nargis
Cyclone Nargis
Cyclone Nargis , was a strong tropical cyclone that caused the worst natural disaster in the recorded history of Burma. The cyclone made landfall in Burma on Friday, May 2, 2008, causing catastrophic destruction and at least 138,000 fatalities...
.
Executive branch
| Title | Name | Term began |
|---|---|---|
| President President of Burma The President of Burma is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, and leads the executive branch of the Burmese government, and heads the Cabinet of Burma. The president is elected by members of parliament, not by the general population. The Presidential... |
Thein Sein Thein Sein Thein Sein is a Burmese politician and military figure who has been president of Myanmar since March 2011. Previously, he was Prime Minister from 2007 until 2011... |
30 March 2011 |
| Vice President Vice President of Burma The Vice President of Burma also known as Vice President of Myanmar, is the second highest-ranking post in the government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. The office was established by the 2008 Burmese constitution and ranks directly after the President... |
Tin Aung Myint Oo Tin Aung Myint Oo General Thihathura Tin Aung Myint Oo is one of the Vice Presidents of Myanmar. He is also chairman of Burmese Trade Council, having been appointed in November 2007 by Than Shwe, in response to Saffron Revolution demonstrations in October of that year, and Minister of Military Affairs.He graduated... |
30 March 2011 |
| Sai Mauk Kham Sai Mauk Kham Dr Sai Mauk Kham is an ethnic Shan politician and one of the two Vice Presidents of Myanmar. He was elected as Second Vice President of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar on 4 February 2011, after defeating Aye Maung of the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party, by receiving 84% of the votes ... |
30 March 2011 |
The President is the head of state and head of government. He oversees the Cabinet of Burma
Cabinet of Burma
The Cabinet of Burma is the executive body of the Burmese government led by the President.-Qualifications:The Constitution of Burma stipulates that Union Ministers must be a Burmese citizen who has been living in the country for at least 10 consecutive years:# persons who have attained the age of...
.
Members of Government of Burma
| Office | Name |
|---|---|
| Minister of Agriculture & Irrigation | Myint Hlaing, U. |
| Minister of Commerce | Win Myint, U. |
| Minister of Communications, Posts and Telegraphs | Thein Tun, U. |
| Minister of Construction | Khin Maung Myint, U. |
| Minister of Cooperatives | Ohn Myint, U. |
| Minister of Culture | Kyaw San, U. |
| Minister of Defense | Hla Min, Lt. Gen. |
| Minister of Education | Mya Aye, Dr. |
| Minister of Electric Power (1) | Zaw Min, U. |
| Minister of Electric Power (2) | Khin Maung Soe, U. |
| Minister of Energy | Than Htay, U. |
| Minister of Finance and Revenue | Hla Tun, U. |
| Minister of Foreign Affairs | Wunna Maung Lwin Wunna Maung Lwin Wunna Maung Lwin is the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Myanmar. He joined the diplomatic service in 1999, after a long career in the Myanmar Armed Forces. He graduated from the 16th intake of the Defence Services Academy in 1971.-References:... , U. |
| Minister of Forestry | Win Tun, U. |
| Minister of Health | Pe Thet Khin, Dr. |
| Minister of Home Affairs | Ko Ko Ko Ko Ko Ko...Koli Kothi is an upcoming Kannada romance film genre starring Srinagar Kitty and Priyamani in the lead roles. The film is directed by Chandru. Ramana Gogula is the music director of the film. Bhasker and Adhi have jointly produced the venture under Bharani films.- Cast :* Srinagar Kitty*... , Lt. Gen. |
| Minister of Hotels and Tourism | Tint Hsan, U. |
| Minister of Immigration and Population | Khin Yi, U. |
| Minister of Industry (1) | Soe Thein, U. |
| Minister of Industry (2) | Soe Thein, U. |
| Minister of Information | Kyaw Hsan Kyaw Hsan Kyaw Hsan is the current Minister of Culture and Minister of Information of Myanmar. He graduated from the Defence Services Academy's 11th intake in 1969. He is notorious for lying to the public.... , U. |
| Minister of Labor | Aung Kyi, U. |
| Minister of Livestock Breeding and Fisheries | Ohn Myint, U. |
| Minister of Mines | Thein Htaik, U. |
| Minister of National Planning and Economic Development | Tin Naing Thein, U. |
| Minister of Border Affairs | Thein Htay, Lt. Gen. |
| Minister of Rail Transport Ministry of Rail Transportation (Burma) The Ministry of Rail Transportation is the Burma government ministry which oversees railways in Burma.-See also:* Rail transport in Burma* History of rail transport in Burma* Burma Railway* Myanmar Railways* Yangon Central Railway Station... |
Aung Min, U. |
| Minister of Religious Affairs | Thura Myint Maung, U. |
| Minister of Science and Technology | Aye Myint, U. |
| Minister of Social Welfare, Relief and Resettlement | Aung Kyi, U. |
| Minister of Sports | Tint Hsan, U. |
| Minister of Transport | Nyan Tun Aung, U. |
| Minister of Myanma Industrial Developement | Thein Htay, Lt. Gen. |
| Minister of President Office | Thein Nyunt, U. |
| Minister of President Office | Soe Maung, U. |
| Minister of President Office | Kyaw Swa Khine, U. |
| Union Attorney-General | Tun Shin, Dr. |
Legislative branch
Under the 2008 Constitution the legislative power of the Union is shared among the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, Region Hluttaws and State Hluttaws. The Pyidaungsu Hluttaw consists of the People's Assembly (Pyithu Hluttaw) elected on the basis of township as well as population, and the House of Nationalities (Amyotha Hluttaw) with on an equal number of representatives elected from Regions and States. The People's Assembly consists of 440 representatives, with 110 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services. The House of Nationalities consists of 224 representatives with 56 being military personnel nominated by the Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Services.The last legislature under the 1974 Constitution was a unicameral People's Assembly, in which 492 seats are elected by popular vote in four-year terms. The last elections were held 27 May 1990, but was never convened.
| Party | Votes | Seats | % | Pop. | Seats |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| National League for Democracy National League for Democracy The National League for Democracy is a Burmese political party founded on 27 September 1988. Nobel Peace Prize laureate Aung San Suu Kyi serves as its General Secretary. The party won a substantial parliamentary majority in the 1990 Burmese general election. However, the ruling military junta... (NLD) |
7,943,622 | 392 | 58.7 | 79.7 | Shan Nationalities League for Democracy Shan Nationalities League for Democracy The Shan Nationalities League for Democracy is a political party in Myanmar , representing the interests of the Shan minority. At the last parliamentary elections held on 27 May 1990, under the leadership of Khun Htun Oo, the party won a clear representation, became the second party in parliament,... (SNLD) |
222,821 | 23 | 1.7 | 4.7 | Minor parties and independents | 1,606,858 | 12 | 12.1 | 2.4 | Arakan feague for Democracy (AfD) | 160,783 | 11 | 1.2 | 2.2 | National Unity Party National Unity Party (Burma) The National Unity Party is a political party in Burma . It was formed by the military junta as well as members of the Burma Socialist Programme Party to take part in the general election of May 27, 1990. The party was defeated by the National League for Democracy. NUP's headquarters are in Bahan... (NUP) |
2,805,559 | 10 | 21.2 | 2.0 | Mon National Democratic Front (MNDF) | 138,572 | 5 | 1.0 | 1.0 | National Democratic Party for Human Rights | 128,129 | 4 | 1.0 | 0.8 | Chin National feague for Democracy | 51,187 | 3 | 0.4 | 0.1 | Kachin State National Congress for Democracy | 13,994 | 3 | 0.1 | 0.1 | Party for National Democracy | 72,672 | 3 | 0.5 | 0.1 | Union Pa-O National Organisation | 35,389 | 3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | Democratic Organisation for Kayah National Unity | 16,553 | 2 | 0.1 | - | Kayah State Nationalities League for Democracy | 11,664 | 2 | 0.1 | - | Naga Hills Regional Progressive Party | 10,612 | 2 | 0.1 | - | Ta-ang (Palaung) National League for Democracy | 16,553 | 2 | 0.1 | - | Zomi National Congress Zomi National Congress The Zomi National Congress is the name of a political party in Burma, registered in 1988. It was permitted to function as a political organization until 1992, when the Burma military government abolished the party, and banned it from all political activities... (ZNC) |
18,638 | 2 | 0.1 | - |
| Total valid votes (87.7% of total cast) | 13,253,606 | 492 | 100.0 | |
| Invalid votes | 1,858,918 | |||
| Valid votes (72.6% turnout) | 15,112,524 | |||
| Eligible voters | 20,818,313 | |||
| Source: psephos.adam-carr.net | ||||
Judicial system
Burma's judicial system is limited. British-era laws and legal systems remain much intact, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial. The judiciary is not independent of the executive branch. Burma does not accept compulsory International Court of JusticeInternational Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands...
jurisdiction. The highest court in the land is the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is Aung Toe, and Attorney General Aye Maung.
Wareru dhammathat
Wareru dhammathat or the Manu dhammathat was the earliest law-book in Burma. It consists of laws ascribed to the ancient Indian sage, Manu, and brought to Burma by Hindu colonists. The collection was made at Wareru’s command, by monks from the writings of earlier Mon scholars preserved in the monasteries of his kingdom. (Wareru seized Martaban in 1281 and obtained the recognition of China as the ruler of Lower Burma and founded a kingdom which lasted until 1539. Martaban was its first capital, and remained so until 1369. It stretched southwards as far as Tenasserim.)Dhammazedi pyatton
Mon King DhammazediDhammazedi
Dhammazedi was the 16th king of Hanthawaddy, who reigned from 1472 to 1492, and is considered one of the most enlightened rulers in Burmese history, and by some accounts "the greatest" of all Hanthawaddy kings. The former Buddhist monk, educated in the rival kingdom of Ava in his youth, was a...
(1472–92) was the greatest of the Mon rulers of Wareru’s line. He was famous for his wisdom and the collection of his rulings were recorded in the Kalyani stone inscriptions and known as the Dammazedi pyatton.
Administrative divisions
Burma is divided into seven regions (previously called divisions) divisions (taing) and seven states (pyi-nè), classified by ethnic composition. The seven regions are Ayeyarwady Region, Bago DivisionBago Division
Bago Region is an administrative region of Burma, located in the southern central part of the country. It is bordered by Magway Region and Mandalay Region to the north; Kayin State, Mon State and the Gulf of Martaban to the east; Yangon Region to the south and Ayeyarwady Region and Rakhine State...
, Magway Division
Magway Division
Magway Region is an administrative division in central Burma . Magway Region is the largest of Myanmar's seven divisions, with an area of .-Geography:...
, Mandalay Division
Mandalay Division
Mandalay Region is an administrative division of Myanmar. It is located in the center of the country, bordering Sagaing Region and Magway Region to the west, Shan State to the east, and Bago Region and Kayin State to the south. The regional capital is Mandalay. In the south of the division lies...
, Sagaing Division
Sagaing Division
Sagaing Region is an administrative region of Burma , located in the north-western part of the country between latitude 21° 30' north and longitude 94° 97' east...
, Tanintharyi Division
Tanintharyi Division
Tanintharyi Region , is an administrative region of Myanmar, covering the long narrow southern part of the country on the Kra Isthmus. It borders with the Andaman Sea to the west and with the Tenasserim Hills, beyond which lies Thailand, to the east. To the north is the Mon State. The capital of...
and Yangon Division
Yangon Division
Yangon Region is an administrative region of Myanmar. Located in the heart of Lower Myanmar, the division is bordered by Bago Region in the north and east, the Gulf of Martaban in the south, and Ayeyarwady Region in the west. Yangon Region is dominated by its capital city of Yangon, the former...
; the seven states are Chin State
Chin State
Chin State is a state located in western Burma . The Chin State is bordered by Rakhine State in the south, Bangladesh in south-west, Sagaing Division and Magway Division in the east, Indian state of Manipur in the north and Indian state of Mizoram in the west. The Chin ethnic group make up the...
, Kachin State
Kachin State
Kachin State , is the northernmost state of Burma. It is bordered by China to the north and east; Shan State to the south; and Sagaing Division and India to the west. It lies between north latitude 23° 27' and 28° 25' longitude 96° 0' and 98° 44'. The area of Kachin State is . The capital of the...
, Kayin State
Kayin State
Kayin State is a state of Burma . The capital city is Hpa-an.-History:The region that forms today's Kayin State was part of successive Burmese kingdoms since the formation of the Pagan Empire in mid-11th century...
, Kayah State
Kayah State
Kayah State is a state of Myanmar. Situated in eastern Myanmar, it is bounded on the north by Shan State, on the east by Thailand's Mae Hong Son Province, and on the south and west by Kayin State. It lies approximately between 18° 30' and 19° 55' north latitude and between 94°40' and 97° 93' east...
, Mon State
Mon State
Mon State is an administrative division of Myanmar. It is sandwiched between Kayin State on the east, the Andaman Sea on the west, Bago Region on the north and Tanintharyi Region on the south, and has a short border with Thailand's Kanchanaburi Province at its south-eastern tip. The land area is...
, Rakhine State
Rakhine State
Rakhine State is a Burmese state. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between...
and Shan State
Shan State
Shan State is a state of Burma . Shan State borders China to the north, Laos to the east, and Thailand to the south, and five administrative divisions of Burma in the west. Largest of the 14 administrative divisions by land area, Shan State covers 155,800 km², almost a quarter of the total...
.
There are also five Self-administrated zones and a Self-administrated Division "for National races with suitable population"
Within the Sagain Region
- Naga (Leshi, Lahe and Namyun townships)
Within the Shan State
- Palaung (Namshan and Manton townships)
- Kokang (Konkyan and Laukkai townships)
- Pao (Hopong, Hshihseng and Pinlaung townships),
- Danu (Ywangan and Pindaya townships),
- Wa Selfadministrated division (Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Pangsang, Naphan and Metman townships)
International organization participation
AsDBAsian Development Bank
The Asian Development Bank is a regional development bank established on 22 August 1966 to facilitate economic development of countries in Asia...
, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
The International Atomic Energy Agency is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. The IAEA was established as an autonomous organization on 29 July 1957...
, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol
Interpol
Interpol, whose full name is the International Criminal Police Organization – INTERPOL, is an organization facilitating international police cooperation...
, IOC
International Olympic Committee
The International Olympic Committee is an international corporation based in Lausanne, Switzerland, created by Pierre de Coubertin on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president...
, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
, UNCTAD, UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
, UNIDO, UPU, WHO
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
, WMO, WToO, WTrO
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade , which commenced in 1948...
, GJC
Further reading
Burmese democracy and human rights online media
There are a number of web sites for more information, including the following:- HumanRights Abuses in Burma at Globalissues
- www.burmadigest.info—Burma DigestBurma DigestThe Burma Digest is a weekly bilingual online journal, published by the Democracy for Burma Alliance, a web-based campaign group set up by Burmese refugees and human rights activists worldwide. It features articles written both in English and Burmese....
- Irrawaddy
- Irrawaddy
- Mizzima News
- Mizzima News
- Mizzima TV
- DVB Democratic Voice of Burma
- Khit Pyaing, The New Era Journal
- Khit Pyaing, The New Era Journal
- Moe Maka
- Burmanet News