History of plug-in hybrids
Encyclopedia
The history of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) spans a little more than a century, but most of the significant commercial developments have taken place after 2002.
. Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. However, the term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket.
The July 1969 issue of Popular Science
magazine featured an article on the General Motors XP-883
plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six 12-volt lead acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive trans-axle. The gasoline powered engine was connected to the trans-axle via a worm gear
. The car could be plugged into a standard 110 Volt AC outlet for recharging.
In 1971, Dr. Andy Frank
, the inventor of the modern PHEV, begins working
on hybrids and PHEVs. He is professor of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering at the University of California at Davis.
The September 1975 issue of Popular Mechanics
magazine featured a cover story on an experimental "turbo-electric" hybrid that "plugs in overnight for thrifty driving around town." Built by electronics engineer Harry Grepke, the vehicle used eight 12-volt truck batteries and a turbine genset. Grepke claimed an all-electric range
of 50 miles (80.5 km).
In 1989, Audi
produced its first iteration
of the Audi Duo, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100
Avant Quattro
. This car had a 12.6 bhp Siemens
electric motor
which drove the rear wheels. A trunk-mounted nickel
-cadmium
battery supplied energy
to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front wheels were powered by a 2.3-litre five-cylinder engine with an output of 136 bhp. The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.
Beginning around 1990, Professor Andy Frank
of the University of California, Davis
began using student teams to build operational prototype Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. His work attracted industry support and funding from Nissan, Koyo Seiko
, General Motors
, Saturn
, Ford, Visteon
, JATCO, Ovonics
, the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA), Sacramento Municipal Utility District, Southern California Edison
, the United States Department of Energy
, and others. The UC Davis PHEVs won several DOE/USCAR "Future Car" and "Future Truck" national competitions.
Inspired by his work as an EV1 propulsion system engineer, Jeff Ronning began developing concepts for plug-in hybrids in the mid-1990s at then Delco
Remy, Division of GM. EV1 prototypes were sometimes attached with "range-extender" trailers, developed by Alan Cocconi of AC Propulsion. These trailers were simply rolling gen sets that could supply power for long trips. It was only natural to conceive of an EV1 with a small turbo-alternator on board (1995 internal publication). External publications (SAE 971629 and 1999-01-2946) followed expounding the merits of using electrical energy for most local travel and proving it with the data from the US DOT. "Unlimited EV" and "Battery Dominant Hybrid" as well as "Energy Hybrid" were the given names for the architecture because the term "plug-in" hybrid coined by Dr. Andy Frank
was considered at odds with Toyota's position that Prius did not need to be "plugged in" and their opinion that plugging was inconvenient. In 1997 (ten years before Volt) an internal project at the new spin-off, Delphi Corporation, began to convert an EV1 to a PHEV. However, the project was canceled by the corporate directors of technology.
In 1994, the Esoro H301 two-door, four passenger plug-in hybrid sedan was built in Switzerland
by the vehicle prototyping company Esoro AG. Four such prototypes are still on the road. The lightweight (710 kg/1565 lb) vehicle featured a 360 cc engine in parallel with a 34 kW air-cooled AC induction motor
. The 9 kWh nickel-cadmium battery could be recharged in four hours from a 220v electrical wall outlet, or from 30% to 80% state of charge
in about two hours at a steady speed of 120 km/h.
In 1998, Audi premiered a second iteration of the Duo plug-in hybrid, based on the Audi A4
, at the Frankfurt Motor Show. The 1998 Audi Duo featured a parallel configuration similar to its predecessor. At the time, hybrid propulsion was considered as a promising solution to Europe's inner city emissions problems. Audi AG leased ten Duo PHEVs to Solarmobilverein Erlangen in the city of Erlangen
, Bavaria
as part of ELCIDIS (Electric Vehicle City Distribution), an advanced mobility project funded by the European Commission
. Solar recharging stations were envisioned, but were not built. The fleet trial ended in August 2001.
About sixty 1998-1999 Audi Duo PHEVs were built. However, few customers were prepared to pay twice the price as the base model A4 equipped with an identical diesel engine, and series production was stopped.
The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) sponsored the Hybrid Electric Vehicle Alliance to promote and develop original equipment manufacturer
commercialization of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Alliance members include major automakers, national labs, utilities, and the University of California at Davis. EPRI's Hybrid Electric Vehicle Working Group published reports on PHEV attractiveness. Dr. Frank received new support from the European Commission
, Southern California Air Quality Management District, Yolo-Solano Air Quality Management District, California Air Resources Board
, and other governmental agencies.
2001
The U.S. Department of Energy
created the National Center of Hybrid Excellence at UC Davis, with Dr. Frank as Director. Dr. Frank also obtained substantial GM funds to hybridize and plug-in GM's EV1. EPRI's Hybrid Electric Vehicle Working Group (HEVWG) published a report on costs and efficiencies of hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles. The report evaluated a small car, a midsize car, and an SUV, and simulated four powertrains for each vehicle: a conventional powertrain, a parallel HEV
, a PHEV-20, and a PHEV-60.
2002
Entrepreneurs, environmentalists and engineers created the California Cars Initiative CalCars is a non-profit PHEV advocacy and technology development group.
2003
Renault began selling the Elect'Road, a plug-in series hybrid version of their popular Kangoo, in Europe. It was sold alongside Renault's "Electri'cite" electric-drive Kangoo battery electric van. The Elect'Road had a 150 km range using a nickel-cadmium battery
pack and a 500 cc, 16 kW liquid-cooled gasoline "range-extender" engine. It powered two high voltage/high output/low volume alternators, each of which supplied up to 5.5 kW at 132V at 5000 rpm. The operating speed of the internal combustion engine (and therefore the output delivered by the generators) varied according to demand. The fuel tank had a capacity of 10 litres and was housed within the right rear wheel arch. The range extender function was activated by a switch on the dashboard. The on board 3.5 kW charger could charge a depleted battery pack to 95% SOC in about four hours from 220 volts. Passenger compartment heat was powered by the battery pack as well as an auxiliary coolant circuit that was heated by the range extender engine. Renault sold about 500, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, for about 25,000 euros each and redesigned the Elect'road in 2007.
With support from the Southern California Air Quality Management District, the California Air Resources Board
, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
, the Electric Power Research Institute
, and Volkswagen
, Alan Cocconi of AC Propulsion
converted a Volkswagen Jetta
into a plug-in series hybrid. The engine was replaced with a 120 kW electric motor and 8.7 kWh’s worth of lead-acid batteries, which were charged by a trunk-mounted 1.4-liter internal combustion engine from a Volkswagen Lupo
.
Professor Frank's vehicles were shown at the Paris International Auto Show and demonstrated to about 200 Renault engineers at its Paris headquarters. In the same year, Toyota shipped Coulomb, a University of California Davis Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle, to Toyota City to demonstrate it to about 250 engineers and executives at two of Toyota's primary Tier 1 suppliers, Koyo Seiko
, and Aisin AW (Aisin built the 1998-2003 Toyota Prius
hybrid transaxle, as well as those used in the Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid, and Nissan Altima Hybrid).
2004
In September, the California Cars Initiative converted a 2004 Toyota Prius into a prototype of what it calls the PRIUS+. With the addition of 130 kg (300 lb) of lead-acid batteries, the PRIUS+ achieved roughly double the gasoline mileage
of a standard Prius and can make trips of up to 15 km (9.3 mi) using only electric power. The vehicle, which is owned by CalCars technical lead Ron Gremban, is used in daily driving, as well as a test bed for various improvements to the system.
Also in September, DaimlerChrysler displayed a plug-in hybrid version of its popular Mercedes-Benz
Sprinter 311 CDI commercial van at the 2004 Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung
Commercial Vehicle Show in Frankfurt
, Germany
. The diesel-engine PHEV Sprinters had a maximum all electric range of 30 kilometers. Hand-built in Sindelfingen
, Germany by Mercedes-Benz, the vehicles were tested around the clock, and some were placed in commercial fleet environments. The PHEV Sprinter's engine could be turned off by the driver for operation in historic European city centers that had outlawed internal-combustion engines.
By the end of the year, Dr. Frank's student teams had built and operated seven proof-of-concept and proof-of-demonstration prototype Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles, including 6-passenger sedans (Taurus and Sable), Sport Utility Vehicles (Suburban, Explorer), two-seater sports car (GM EV1), and two ground-up 80 mpg sports cars, and the CalCars PRIUS+ prototype and EDrive Systems conversions were demonstrated.
2005
Additional DaimlerChrysler
Mercedes-Benz Sprinter
15-passenger van
PHEV prototypes were completed. EPRI, along with a number of utilities and government agencies, worked with DaimlerChrysler to deliver 4 Sprinter PHEV vans to test fleets.
In August, four companies - Raser Technologies, Maxwell Technologies
, Electrovaya, and Pacific Gas and Electric - formed the Plug-In Hybrid Consortium to help reduce the research and design gap between component suppliers and OEMs and to accelerate the development of critical PHEV components. Since then, nine other component companies and three more utility companies, as well as CalCars
and Plug In America
, have joined the consortium.
have been designing and building working prototypes, installed into a GM Equinox for the Challenge X
competition.
PHEV conversions of IVECO
medium-duty diesel
-powered commercial vehicles, sold as Hybrid Daily Bimodales, are offered by Micro-Vett SPA
of Imola
, Italy
in truck, nine-passenger van, and 20-passenger schoolbus configurations. Micro-Vett offers their conversions with either lead-acid or lithium-ion battery packs, which have an advertised all-electric range of 25 kilometers, or 45 to 100 kilometers, respectively.
February: Hymotion
, a Canadian company, introduced plug-in hybrid upgrade kits in February 2006. Designed for the Toyota Prius and the Ford Escape and Mariner Hybrids, these kits were offered to fleet buyers at first and are projected to be available to the general public in 2007.
April 14: Piaggio, the Italian manufacturer of Vespa scooters, announced that it had built two parallel-architecture plug-in hybrid prototypes based on the standard Vespa LX 50 and X8 125 models.
May 17: Representatives of academia, government, and the utility and auto industries testified before the House Science Subcommittee on Energy in support of proposed legislation that would advance the commercialization of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.
May: Ryan Fulcher and Rich Rudman of Manzanita Micro converted Fulcher's Prius to a plug-in hybrid, using components that would lead to the introduction of a Manzanita Micro charger kit for PHEV conversions.
July 5: Hybrids Plus
of Boulder, Colorado began offering plug-in hybrid conversions of the 2004 and later Toyota Prius, using A123 Li-ion
batteries for either a 15 or 30 miles (48.3 km) all-electric range
. Their first contract was with the Colorado Office of Energy Management and Conservation, which ordered one plug-in Prius conversion. The vehicle was handed over to Colorado OEMC on March 6, 2007.
July 18: Toyota announced that it "plans to develop a hybrid vehicle that will run locally on batteries charged by a typical 120-volt outlet before switching over to a gasoline engine for longer hauls." The next major update to the Toyota Prius is said to use lithium ion batteries. Toyota’s fuel economy target for the upcoming next-generation Prius has been reported to be 40 kilometers/liter (2.5 l/100 km, or 94 mpg US.)
August: PML Flightlink unveiled an in-wheel, plug-in series hybrid conversion of a MINI at the British Motor Show, the MINI QED. PML claimed fuel economy of 80 mpg, 0 to 60 mi/h in 4.5 seconds, top speed of over 150 mi/h, and a range of 1000 miles (1,609.3 km).
October: Hybrids Plus
won a contract to convert a Ford Escape Hybrid to a plug-in hybrid for the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority
.
November 1: Manzanita Micro
sold their first PiPrius conversion kit using their PFC charger and battery regulator as a DC to DC converter
and rapid battery charger
system. Chelan County’s Advanced Vehicle Initiative received the first conversion kit from Manzanita Micro in October 2006. As of April 2007 the fourth and fifth such conversions were underway.
November 29: GM announced plans to introduce a production plug-in hybrid version of Saturn's Greenline Vue SUV
with an all electric range of 10 miles (16.1 km).
January 7: General Motors' Chevrolet Volt
was unveiled at Detroit's North American International Auto Show
. The Volt is part of GM's E-Flex architecture, which is expected to initially feature a plug-in capable, battery-dominant series hybrid architecture. Future E-Flex plug-in hybrid vehicles may use gasoline, diesel, or hydrogen fuel cell power to supplement the vehicle's battery. General Motors envisions an eventual progression of E-Flex vehicles from plug-in hybrids to pure electric vehicles, as battery technology improves. General Motors presented the Volt as a PHEV-40 that starts its engine when 40% of the battery charge remains, and which can achieve a fuel economy of 50 mpg (4.7 l/100 km), even if the vehicle is not plugged in.
February 28: The United States Department of Energy
released a draft of a plan to accelerate the development and deployment of plug-in hybrid vehicle technology. On May 22, five research projects were selected to receive $19 million to further the development of technologies related to PHEVs, such as electric motor power inverters.
March 2: The South Coast Air Quality Management District
in California
approved a $2.6-million contract for the conversion of 20 Ford Escape Hybrids and 10 Toyota Prius
es to plug-in hybrids. The SCAQMD selected Quantum Technologies
and Hymotion
to perform the conversions.
March 14: The Illinois Institute of Technology
delivered a converted plug-in Ford Escape Hybrid to the Chicago
Department of Fleet Management for four to six months of field testing of the vehicle to evaluate the vehicle's performance, as well as improvements in fuel efficiency and emission reduction. The project is sponsored by the City of Chicago, MicroSun Technologies, ComEd, and All Cell, an Illinois Institute of Technology-based technology transfer company formed in 2001 to commercialize lithium-ion batteries in military, medical, portable, and transportation applications.
April 9: Pacific Gas and Electric, California's largest electric company, announced their support for plug-in hybrids with Vehicle to Grid capabilities. PG&E proposed regulatory changes which could allow homeowners to use such vehicles for back-up electricity in the event of a power failure.
April 23: The California Air Resources Board
Independent Expert Panel on Zero Emission Vehicle
s published a report that assessed advanced vehicle technologies and concluded, among other things, that plug-in hybrids "have the potential to provide significant direct societal benefits and are likely to become available in the near future."
April 25: Phoenix Motorcars and UQM Technologies announced a collaborative project to develop a plug-in series hybrid version of the sport utility truck that Phoenix currently sells as an all-electric vehicle. The vehicle is projected to use a small gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine as a range extender and lithium titanate batteries from Altair Nanotechnologies.
May 1: A123Systems
lithium-ion battery company CEO David Vieau announced that A123 plans to market battery packs in 2008 for third-party conversion of hybrids to plug-in hybrids.
May 2: CalCars
announced that it had received a $200,000 grant from Google.org
, the philanthropic arm of Google
, for a two-year period to support its work in educating the public about plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles. In 2006, Google.org announced that it intended to develop a plug-in hybrid of its own.
July 9: Ford Motor Company
CEO Alan Mulally
said he expects Ford to sell plug-in hybrids in five to ten years, the time depending on advances in lithium-ion battery technology. Ford will provide Southern California Edison
with twenty Ford Escape Hybrid sport utility vehicles reconfigured to work as plug-ins by 2009, with the first by the end of this year. Ford announced that it will team up with Southern California Edison
to examine the future of plug-in hybrids in terms of how home and vehicle energy systems will work with the electrical grid.
July 12: Frank J. Gaffney, Jr., the President and C.E.O. of Center for Security Policy
testified before the House
Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming that China will shortly introduce to the USA and other export markets a Chery
car variant at a price to consumers of $13,000 to $15,000.
July 18: Toyota requested permission from Japan’s government to test a prototype plug-in Prius with a lithium-ion battery pack on public roads. After the test, Toyota is expected to lease them to government and municipal fleets, and may introduce the new model at the Tokyo Motor Show in November.
On July 25, 2007, Japan's Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport certified Toyota's plug-in hybrid for use on public roads, making it the first automobile to attain such approval. Toyota plans to conduct road tests to verify its all-electric range. The plug-in Prius was said to have an all-electric range of 13 km (8 mi). But later prototypes shown at the 2008 Paris Auto Show had an electric-only range of "just a little over six miles."
August 9: General Motors vice president Robert Lutz said that GM is on track for Chevrolet Volt
production to begin by 2010. Announcing an agreement with A123Systems
, Lutz said GM would like to have their planned Saturn Vue
plug-in on the roads by 2009.
September 5: Quantum Technologies
and Fisker Coachbuild
, LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive
. Fisker intends to build a US$ 80,000 luxury PHEV-50, the Fisker Karma
, anticipated in late 2009.
September 6: Toyota announced that they reached an agreement with Electricite de France
(EDF) to "jointly test prototype plug-in hybrid vehicles and develop electricity infrastructure for plug-ins".
September 11–23: The Frankfurt Auto Show features plug-in hybrids. The Volvo
"Recharge
" PHEV-60 concept car
was unveiled, and General Motors Corporation exhibited the Opel Flextreme
PHEV-34 concept car
.
September 25: The United States Department of Energy
is providing $17.2 million to further development of advanced batteries, and another $2 million for the study of future plug-ins. A cost-share with the United States Advanced Battery Consortium will allow up to $38 million in battery research and development.
October 9: Chinese manufacturer BYD Automobile Company
, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced that they would be introducing a production PHEV-60 sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD plans to exhibit it in January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show
in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses iron-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70 percent of capacity in 10 minutes.
October 27: Venture Vehicles announced it would produce two versions of the three-wheeled VentureOne, an electric model with a range of 120 miles (193.1 km), and a 100 mpg PHEV version.
November 8: German Environmental Minister Sigmar Gabriel
received a concept paper from Volkswagen
CEO Martin Winterkorn
about Volkswagen's attempts for electric drive and plug-in-hybrid technology.
January 2008: A privately-run waiting list to purchase the Chevy Volt reached 10,000 members. The list, administered by Lyle Dennis, was started one year prior.
January 2008: Assistant professor Yi Cui and colleagues at Stanford University's Department of Materials Science and Engineering have made a discovery to use silicon
nanowire
s to give rechargeable lithium ion batteries 10 times more charge.
On February 7, 2008, Valence Technology
announced it has entered into a contract with The Tanfield Group
Plc (LSE: TAN) to manufacture and supply safe, Lithium Phosphate energy storage systems to power zero emission, all-electric commercial delivery vehicles. The Valence battery systems will be installed in leading-edge vans and trucks produced by Tanfield's UK-based trading division, Smith Electric Vehicles
, the world's largest manufacturer of electric vans and trucks.
On March 27, 2008, the California Air Resources Board
modified their regulations, requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids for sale to Californians during 2012 through 2014. This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000 pure zero emission vehicles, reducing that requirement to 5,000.
April 2008: Raser and FEV series hybrid/extended range EV powertrain plan to have the first prototype vehicle ready to demonstrate in the third quarter of this year installed in a full-size SUV.
On June 4, 2008, "GM's Chevy Volt Is a Go" (Rick Wagoner
, GM chairman and CEO) -- Production Vehicle, in Showrooms in 2010. On June 5, 2008, Toyota Dealers Sold on Hymotion
Plug-In Hybrids. On June 12, 2008, Ford has urged US Government to step up evolution of plug-in hybrids.
On June 26, 2008, Volkswagen
announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on the Golf
compact. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.
In September 2008, Mazda
was reported to be planning PHEVs. On September 23, 2008, Chrysler
announced that they had prototyped a plug-in Jeep Wrangler
and a Chrysler Town and Country
mini-van, both PHEV-40s with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go in to production.
On October 3, the U.S. enacted the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 as part of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008
. The legislation provides tax credits of $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours, up to $7,500 for cars under 10,000 pounds, $10,000 for larger vehicles under 14,000 pounds, $12,500 for bigger trucks under 26,000 pounds, or $15,000 for larger trucks and equipment. The tax credit will be phased out two calendar quarters after the first 250,000 such vehicles are sold, down to 50% for the next six months and 25% for another half year after that.
In mid-October, the Wall Street Journal reported that BYD Auto
's PHEV-60 F3DM hatchback
will be available by November in China. It will sell for equivalent of USD $22,000 and has a 110 km electric-mode driving range.
As a demonstration project, Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), a Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, capable of running on gasoline or E85
.
On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto
's F3DM
PHEV-60 hatchback began selling in China as the first production plug-in hybrid, the first ever sold in the world. It costs the equivalent of USD $22,000 and has a 100 km (62.1 mi) electric-mode driving range.
announced the launching of series production
diesel
-electric plug-in hybrids by 2012. The company plans to sell a series hybrid with the goal of achieving emissions of less than 50 grams of CO2
per kilometer. Two Volvo V70
demonstrators were converted to PHEVs and are undergoing a test trial in real world conditions since December 2009. This demonstration project is a joint venture
with Vattenfall
, a Swedish energy company. As reported by the test drivers, the V70 Plug-in Hybrid demonstrators have an all-electric range
between 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) to 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) . The test plug-in hybrids were built with a button to allow test drivers to manually choose between electricity or diesel engine power at any time.
During its first eight months in the Chinese market, the BYD F3DM
PHEV-60 only sold less than 100 vehicles. Sales of the F3DM began in Hong Kong
in June 2009.
pre-production test cars
began in late 2009 in Japan
and by mid 2010 field testing had began in France
, Germany
, the United Kingdom
, Canada
, and the United States
. The commercial version is expected to cost between to more than the conventional Prius and Toyota announced it expects to sell 20,000 units a year initially.
On October 2010 Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar
at the 2010 Paris Motor Show
, a plug-in series hybrid concept car
designed for flex-fuel operation on ethanol
, or methanol
as well as regular gasoline
. The lithium battery
pack provides an all-electric range
of 60 kilometres (37.3 mi), and the 1.2-liter flex-fuel engine kicks in to allow to extend the range to more than 500 kilometres (310.7 mi).
General Motors
began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt
in the United States in December 2010. The Volt has an all-electric range
of 35 miles (56.3 km) according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency
.
By June 30, 2011, the Volt had sold 3,071 units.
, with an all-electric range
of 50 miles (80.5 km), began in the U.S. in July 2011. Initial production is limited to 5 cars a week, and Fisker Automotive
expects to rise production to 300 cars a week by November 2011.
1899-1999
Hybrid vehicles were produced beginning as early as 1899 by Lohner-PorschePorsche
Porsche Automobil Holding SE, usually shortened to Porsche SE a Societas Europaea or European Public Company, is a German based holding company with investments in the automotive industry....
. Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. However, the term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket.
The July 1969 issue of Popular Science
Popular Science
Popular Science is an American monthly magazine founded in 1872 carrying articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. Popular Science has won over 58 awards, including the ASME awards for its journalistic excellence in both 2003 and 2004...
magazine featured an article on the General Motors XP-883
General Motors XP-883
The XP-883 was an experimental plug-in hybrid car demonstrated by General Motors in 1969. Primarily intended as a commuter vehicle, the very small car had a fiberglass body with a design resembling the then-future Chevrolet Vega or Ford Pinto...
plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six 12-volt lead acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive trans-axle. The gasoline powered engine was connected to the trans-axle via a worm gear
Worm drive
A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm meshes with a worm gear...
. The car could be plugged into a standard 110 Volt AC outlet for recharging.
In 1971, Dr. Andy Frank
Andrew A. Frank
Dr. Andrew Alfonso Frank is an American professor of mechanical and aeronautical engineering at UC Davis. He is recognized as the father of modern plug-in hybrids,, and coined the now-common term. He has a B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, a M.S. , from the University of...
, the inventor of the modern PHEV, begins working
on hybrids and PHEVs. He is professor of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering at the University of California at Davis.
The September 1975 issue of Popular Mechanics
Popular Mechanics
Popular Mechanics is an American magazine first published January 11, 1902 by H. H. Windsor, and has been owned since 1958 by the Hearst Corporation...
magazine featured a cover story on an experimental "turbo-electric" hybrid that "plugs in overnight for thrifty driving around town." Built by electronics engineer Harry Grepke, the vehicle used eight 12-volt truck batteries and a turbine genset. Grepke claimed an all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
of 50 miles (80.5 km).
In 1989, Audi
Audi
Audi AG is a German automobile manufacturer, from supermini to crossover SUVs in various body styles and price ranges that are marketed under the Audi brand , positioned as the premium brand within the Volkswagen Group....
produced its first iteration
Iteration
Iteration means the act of repeating a process usually with the aim of approaching a desired goal or target or result. Each repetition of the process is also called an "iteration," and the results of one iteration are used as the starting point for the next iteration.-Mathematics:Iteration in...
of the Audi Duo, a plug-in parallel hybrid based on the Audi 100
Audi 100
The restyled C2 Audi 100 was launched in 1976, with an in-line five-cylinder engine...
Avant Quattro
Quattro
quattro is the name used by Audi AG to indicate that four-wheel drive technologies or systems are used on specific models of the Audi automobiles....
. This car had a 12.6 bhp Siemens
Siemens
Siemens may refer toSiemens, a German family name carried by generations of telecommunications industrialists, including:* Werner von Siemens , inventor, founder of Siemens AG...
electric motor
Electric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
which drove the rear wheels. A trunk-mounted nickel
Nickel
Nickel is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile...
-cadmium
Cadmium
Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc, it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low...
battery supplied energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
to the motor that drove the rear wheels. The vehicle's front wheels were powered by a 2.3-litre five-cylinder engine with an output of 136 bhp. The intent was to produce a vehicle which could operate on the engine in the country and electric mode in the city. Mode of operation could be selected by the driver. Just ten vehicles are believed to have been made; one drawback was that due to the extra weight of the electric drive, the vehicles were less efficient when running on their engines alone than standard Audi 100s with the same engine.
Beginning around 1990, Professor Andy Frank
Andrew A. Frank
Dr. Andrew Alfonso Frank is an American professor of mechanical and aeronautical engineering at UC Davis. He is recognized as the father of modern plug-in hybrids,, and coined the now-common term. He has a B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, a M.S. , from the University of...
of the University of California, Davis
University of California, Davis
The University of California, Davis is a public teaching and research university established in 1905 and located in Davis, California, USA. Spanning over , the campus is the largest within the University of California system and third largest by enrollment...
began using student teams to build operational prototype Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. His work attracted industry support and funding from Nissan, Koyo Seiko
Koyo Seiko
Koyo Seiko merged with Toyoda Machinery USA Jan. 1, 2006, to become JTEKT, a leading manufacturer of ball and roller bearings, automotive steering systems, drive line products and machine tools.Toyota Motor Corp...
, General Motors
General Motors
General Motors Company , commonly known as GM, formerly incorporated as General Motors Corporation, is an American multinational automotive corporation headquartered in Detroit, Michigan and the world's second-largest automaker in 2010...
, Saturn
Saturn
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest planet in the Solar System, after Jupiter. Saturn is named after the Roman god Saturn, equated to the Greek Cronus , the Babylonian Ninurta and the Hindu Shani. Saturn's astronomical symbol represents the Roman god's sickle.Saturn,...
, Ford, Visteon
Visteon
Visteon is one of the world's largest suppliers of automotive parts. The company formed in 1997 and spun off from the Ford Motor Company in 2000. In 2005, Visteon moved to new headquarters in Van Buren Township, Michigan...
, JATCO, Ovonics
Ovonics
Energy Conversion Devices is headquartered in Rochester Hills, Michigan.United Solar Ovonic, LLC is its wholly owned subsidiary located in Auburn Hills, Michigan...
, the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA), Sacramento Municipal Utility District, Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison , the largest subsidiary of Edison International , is the primary electricity supply company for much of Southern California, USA. It provides 14 million people with electricity...
, the United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
, and others. The UC Davis PHEVs won several DOE/USCAR "Future Car" and "Future Truck" national competitions.
Inspired by his work as an EV1 propulsion system engineer, Jeff Ronning began developing concepts for plug-in hybrids in the mid-1990s at then Delco
Delco
Delco may refer to:* Delaware County, Ohio* Delaware County, Pennsylvania* Delco, North Carolina* Delco Electronics...
Remy, Division of GM. EV1 prototypes were sometimes attached with "range-extender" trailers, developed by Alan Cocconi of AC Propulsion. These trailers were simply rolling gen sets that could supply power for long trips. It was only natural to conceive of an EV1 with a small turbo-alternator on board (1995 internal publication). External publications (SAE 971629 and 1999-01-2946) followed expounding the merits of using electrical energy for most local travel and proving it with the data from the US DOT. "Unlimited EV" and "Battery Dominant Hybrid" as well as "Energy Hybrid" were the given names for the architecture because the term "plug-in" hybrid coined by Dr. Andy Frank
Andrew A. Frank
Dr. Andrew Alfonso Frank is an American professor of mechanical and aeronautical engineering at UC Davis. He is recognized as the father of modern plug-in hybrids,, and coined the now-common term. He has a B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, a M.S. , from the University of...
was considered at odds with Toyota's position that Prius did not need to be "plugged in" and their opinion that plugging was inconvenient. In 1997 (ten years before Volt) an internal project at the new spin-off, Delphi Corporation, began to convert an EV1 to a PHEV. However, the project was canceled by the corporate directors of technology.
In 1994, the Esoro H301 two-door, four passenger plug-in hybrid sedan was built in Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
by the vehicle prototyping company Esoro AG. Four such prototypes are still on the road. The lightweight (710 kg/1565 lb) vehicle featured a 360 cc engine in parallel with a 34 kW air-cooled AC induction motor
Induction motor
An induction or asynchronous motor is a type of AC motor where power is supplied to the rotor by means of electromagnetic induction. These motors are widely used in industrial drives, particularly polyphase induction motors, because they are robust and have no brushes...
. The 9 kWh nickel-cadmium battery could be recharged in four hours from a 220v electrical wall outlet, or from 30% to 80% state of charge
State of charge
State of charge is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for the battery pack in a battery electric vehicle , hybrid vehicle , or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle...
in about two hours at a steady speed of 120 km/h.
In 1998, Audi premiered a second iteration of the Duo plug-in hybrid, based on the Audi A4
Audi A4
The first generation Audi A4 debuted in 1994, with production starting November 1994. It was built on the Volkswagen Group B5 platform, which it shared with the fourth generation Volkswagen Passat . It had a front-mounted longitudinal engine and front-wheel drive...
, at the Frankfurt Motor Show. The 1998 Audi Duo featured a parallel configuration similar to its predecessor. At the time, hybrid propulsion was considered as a promising solution to Europe's inner city emissions problems. Audi AG leased ten Duo PHEVs to Solarmobilverein Erlangen in the city of Erlangen
Erlangen
Erlangen is a Middle Franconian city in Bavaria, Germany. It is located at the confluence of the river Regnitz and its large tributary, the Untere Schwabach.Erlangen has more than 100,000 inhabitants....
, Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
as part of ELCIDIS (Electric Vehicle City Distribution), an advanced mobility project funded by the European Commission
European Commission
The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
. Solar recharging stations were envisioned, but were not built. The fleet trial ended in August 2001.
About sixty 1998-1999 Audi Duo PHEVs were built. However, few customers were prepared to pay twice the price as the base model A4 equipped with an identical diesel engine, and series production was stopped.
2000-2005
2000The Electric Power Research Institute
Electric Power Research Institute
The Electric Power Research Institute conducts research on issues related to the electric power industry in USA. EPRI is a nonprofit organization funded by the electric utility industry. EPRI is primarily a US based organization, receives international participation...
(EPRI) sponsored the Hybrid Electric Vehicle Alliance to promote and develop original equipment manufacturer
Original Equipment Manufacturer
An original equipment manufacturer, or OEM, manufactures products or components that are purchased by a company and retailed under that purchasing company's brand name. OEM refers to the company that originally manufactured the product. When referring to automotive parts, OEM designates a...
commercialization of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Alliance members include major automakers, national labs, utilities, and the University of California at Davis. EPRI's Hybrid Electric Vehicle Working Group published reports on PHEV attractiveness. Dr. Frank received new support from the European Commission
European Commission
The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
, Southern California Air Quality Management District, Yolo-Solano Air Quality Management District, California Air Resources Board
California Air Resources Board
The California Air Resources Board, also known as CARB or ARB, is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, CARB is a department within the...
, and other governmental agencies.
2001
The U.S. Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
created the National Center of Hybrid Excellence at UC Davis, with Dr. Frank as Director. Dr. Frank also obtained substantial GM funds to hybridize and plug-in GM's EV1. EPRI's Hybrid Electric Vehicle Working Group (HEVWG) published a report on costs and efficiencies of hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles. The report evaluated a small car, a midsize car, and an SUV, and simulated four powertrains for each vehicle: a conventional powertrain, a parallel HEV
Hybrid electric vehicle
A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle which combines a conventional internal combustion engine propulsion system with an electric propulsion system. The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel economy than a conventional...
, a PHEV-20, and a PHEV-60.
- Terminology note: A plug-in hybrid's all-electric rangeAll-electric rangeAll-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
is designated by PHEV-(miles) or PHEV(kilometers)km representing the distance the vehicle can travel on battery power alone. For example, a PHEV-20 can travel 20 miles without using its internal combustion engine, or about 32 kilometers, so it may also be designated as PHEV32km.
2002
Entrepreneurs, environmentalists and engineers created the California Cars Initiative CalCars is a non-profit PHEV advocacy and technology development group.
2003
Nickel-cadmium battery
The nickel–cadmium battery ' is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes....
pack and a 500 cc, 16 kW liquid-cooled gasoline "range-extender" engine. It powered two high voltage/high output/low volume alternators, each of which supplied up to 5.5 kW at 132V at 5000 rpm. The operating speed of the internal combustion engine (and therefore the output delivered by the generators) varied according to demand. The fuel tank had a capacity of 10 litres and was housed within the right rear wheel arch. The range extender function was activated by a switch on the dashboard. The on board 3.5 kW charger could charge a depleted battery pack to 95% SOC in about four hours from 220 volts. Passenger compartment heat was powered by the battery pack as well as an auxiliary coolant circuit that was heated by the range extender engine. Renault sold about 500, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, for about 25,000 euros each and redesigned the Elect'road in 2007.
With support from the Southern California Air Quality Management District, the California Air Resources Board
California Air Resources Board
The California Air Resources Board, also known as CARB or ARB, is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, CARB is a department within the...
, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory , located in Golden, Colorado, is the United States' primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a government-owned, contractor-operated facility; it is funded through...
, the Electric Power Research Institute
Electric Power Research Institute
The Electric Power Research Institute conducts research on issues related to the electric power industry in USA. EPRI is a nonprofit organization funded by the electric utility industry. EPRI is primarily a US based organization, receives international participation...
, and Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen is a German automobile manufacturer and is the original and biggest-selling marque of the Volkswagen Group, which now also owns the Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, SEAT, and Škoda marques and the truck manufacturer Scania.Volkswagen means "people's car" in German, where it is...
, Alan Cocconi of AC Propulsion
AC Propulsion
AC Propulsion is a San Dimas, California, USA company founded in 1992 by Alan Cocconi that specialises in alternating current-based drivetrain systems for electric vehicles. Tom Gage is currently the company's CEO. The company produces goods such as electric vehicle drive systems and their top of...
converted a Volkswagen Jetta
Volkswagen Jetta
Although the Golf had reached considerable success, in the North American markets, Volkswagen observed that the hatchback body style lacked some of the appeal to those who preferred the traditional three-box configuration...
into a plug-in series hybrid. The engine was replaced with a 120 kW electric motor and 8.7 kWh’s worth of lead-acid batteries, which were charged by a trunk-mounted 1.4-liter internal combustion engine from a Volkswagen Lupo
Volkswagen Lupo
The Lupo is a city car manufactured by German automaker Volkswagen from 1998 to 2005.-Model history:The Lupo was introduced in 1998 to fill a gap at the bottom of the VW model range caused by the increasing size and weight of the VW Polo. Rivals included the Ford Ka, the Opel/Vauxhall Agila and...
.
Professor Frank's vehicles were shown at the Paris International Auto Show and demonstrated to about 200 Renault engineers at its Paris headquarters. In the same year, Toyota shipped Coulomb, a University of California Davis Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle, to Toyota City to demonstrate it to about 250 engineers and executives at two of Toyota's primary Tier 1 suppliers, Koyo Seiko
Koyo Seiko
Koyo Seiko merged with Toyoda Machinery USA Jan. 1, 2006, to become JTEKT, a leading manufacturer of ball and roller bearings, automotive steering systems, drive line products and machine tools.Toyota Motor Corp...
, and Aisin AW (Aisin built the 1998-2003 Toyota Prius
Toyota Prius
The Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size hatchback, formerly a compact sedan developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation...
hybrid transaxle, as well as those used in the Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Camry Hybrid, and Nissan Altima Hybrid).
2004
Mileage
-Motor Vehicles:* Fuel economy in automobiles * Distance travelled as measured by an odometer...
of a standard Prius and can make trips of up to 15 km (9.3 mi) using only electric power. The vehicle, which is owned by CalCars technical lead Ron Gremban, is used in daily driving, as well as a test bed for various improvements to the system.
Also in September, DaimlerChrysler displayed a plug-in hybrid version of its popular Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes-Benz
Mercedes-Benz is a German manufacturer of automobiles, buses, coaches, and trucks. Mercedes-Benz is a division of its parent company, Daimler AG...
Sprinter 311 CDI commercial van at the 2004 Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung
Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung
The Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung , also known as the Frankfurt Motor Show or Frankfurt Auto Show, is one of the world's largest motor shows. It is held biennially in Frankfurt, Germany. The show occupies 12 buildings.The IAA is organized by the Association of the German Automotive Industry...
Commercial Vehicle Show in Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Frankfurt am Main , commonly known simply as Frankfurt, is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany, with a 2010 population of 688,249. The urban area had an estimated population of 2,300,000 in 2010...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
. The diesel-engine PHEV Sprinters had a maximum all electric range of 30 kilometers. Hand-built in Sindelfingen
Sindelfingen
Sindelfingen is a German town near Stuttgart at the headwaters of the Schwippe that is the site of a Mercedes-Benz assembly plant.-History:* 1155 First documented mention of Sindelfingen...
, Germany by Mercedes-Benz, the vehicles were tested around the clock, and some were placed in commercial fleet environments. The PHEV Sprinter's engine could be turned off by the driver for operation in historic European city centers that had outlawed internal-combustion engines.
By the end of the year, Dr. Frank's student teams had built and operated seven proof-of-concept and proof-of-demonstration prototype Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles, including 6-passenger sedans (Taurus and Sable), Sport Utility Vehicles (Suburban, Explorer), two-seater sports car (GM EV1), and two ground-up 80 mpg sports cars, and the CalCars PRIUS+ prototype and EDrive Systems conversions were demonstrated.
2005
Additional DaimlerChrysler
DaimlerChrysler
Daimler AG is a German car corporation. By unit sales, it is the thirteenth-largest car manufacturer and second-largest truck manufacturer in the world. In addition to automobiles, Daimler manufactures buses and provides financial services through its Daimler Financial Services arm...
Mercedes-Benz Sprinter
Mercedes-Benz Sprinter
The Mercedes-Benz Sprinter is a light and heavy commercial vehicle, built by Daimler AG of Stuttgart, Germany as a van, chassis cab and minibus, and sold as a Mercedes model, except in the U.S. where it is built from complete knock down kits and was sold by Freightliner until 2010 when Mercedes...
15-passenger van
Van
A van is a kind of vehicle used for transporting goods or groups of people.In British English usage, it can be either specially designed or based on a saloon or sedan car, the latter type often including derivatives with open backs...
PHEV prototypes were completed. EPRI, along with a number of utilities and government agencies, worked with DaimlerChrysler to deliver 4 Sprinter PHEV vans to test fleets.
In August, four companies - Raser Technologies, Maxwell Technologies
Maxwell Technologies
Maxwell Technologies is a developer and manufacturer of energy storage and power delivery-related products.-History:The company was founded in 1965 as Maxwell Laboratories, originally as a government contractor, providing advanced physics, pulsed power, space effects analysis and other research and...
, Electrovaya, and Pacific Gas and Electric - formed the Plug-In Hybrid Consortium to help reduce the research and design gap between component suppliers and OEMs and to accelerate the development of critical PHEV components. Since then, nine other component companies and three more utility companies, as well as CalCars
CalCars
CalCars is a charitable, non-profit organization founded in 2002 to promote plug-in hybrid electric vehicles as a key to addressing oil dependence and global warming both nationally and internationally...
and Plug In America
Plug In America
Plug In America is a 501 non-profit educational organization that promotes and advocates the use of plug-in cars, trucks and sports utlilty vehicles powered by domestic and renewable electricity which it claims will help reduce dependence on fossil fuels, improve the global environment and...
, have joined the consortium.
2006
At the UC Davis Hybrid Center, teams led by Professor Andrew A. FrankAndrew A. Frank
Dr. Andrew Alfonso Frank is an American professor of mechanical and aeronautical engineering at UC Davis. He is recognized as the father of modern plug-in hybrids,, and coined the now-common term. He has a B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, a M.S. , from the University of...
have been designing and building working prototypes, installed into a GM Equinox for the Challenge X
Challenge X
Challenge X: Crossover to Sustainable Mobility, known more commonly as Challenge X, is a four-year competition series amongst engineering students from across North America. Its purpose is to advance vehicle technology towards a goal of sustainable mobility.The headline sponsors of the competition...
competition.
PHEV conversions of IVECO
Iveco
Iveco, an acronym for Industrial Vehicle Corporation, originally an alliance of European commercial vehicle manufacturers such as Fiat , Unic and Magirus. Iveco is now an Italian truck, bus, and diesel engine manufacturer, based in Turin...
medium-duty diesel
Diesel engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber...
-powered commercial vehicles, sold as Hybrid Daily Bimodales, are offered by Micro-Vett SPA
Micro-Vett
Micro-Vett S.p.A. is Italian company producing electric, hybrid and bimodal vehicles, its located in Imola. It works closely with other Italian automotive companieslike Fiat, Piaggio and Iveco...
of Imola
Imola
thumb|250px|The Cathedral of Imola.Imola is a town and comune in the province of Bologna, located on the Santerno river, in the Emilia-Romagna region of north-central Italy...
, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
in truck, nine-passenger van, and 20-passenger schoolbus configurations. Micro-Vett offers their conversions with either lead-acid or lithium-ion battery packs, which have an advertised all-electric range of 25 kilometers, or 45 to 100 kilometers, respectively.
February: Hymotion
Hymotion
A123 Hymotion is a company founded in 2005 in Toronto, Canada that introduced plug-in hybrid electric vehicle upgrade kits in February 2006...
, a Canadian company, introduced plug-in hybrid upgrade kits in February 2006. Designed for the Toyota Prius and the Ford Escape and Mariner Hybrids, these kits were offered to fleet buyers at first and are projected to be available to the general public in 2007.
April 14: Piaggio, the Italian manufacturer of Vespa scooters, announced that it had built two parallel-architecture plug-in hybrid prototypes based on the standard Vespa LX 50 and X8 125 models.
May 17: Representatives of academia, government, and the utility and auto industries testified before the House Science Subcommittee on Energy in support of proposed legislation that would advance the commercialization of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.
May: Ryan Fulcher and Rich Rudman of Manzanita Micro converted Fulcher's Prius to a plug-in hybrid, using components that would lead to the introduction of a Manzanita Micro charger kit for PHEV conversions.
Hybrids Plus
Hybrids Plus was a company devoted to converting hybrid electric vehicles to plug-in hybrids , including vehicle-to-grid capable PHEVs...
of Boulder, Colorado began offering plug-in hybrid conversions of the 2004 and later Toyota Prius, using A123 Li-ion
Lithium ion polymer battery
Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries are rechargeable batteries...
batteries for either a 15 or 30 miles (48.3 km) all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
. Their first contract was with the Colorado Office of Energy Management and Conservation, which ordered one plug-in Prius conversion. The vehicle was handed over to Colorado OEMC on March 6, 2007.
July 18: Toyota announced that it "plans to develop a hybrid vehicle that will run locally on batteries charged by a typical 120-volt outlet before switching over to a gasoline engine for longer hauls." The next major update to the Toyota Prius is said to use lithium ion batteries. Toyota’s fuel economy target for the upcoming next-generation Prius has been reported to be 40 kilometers/liter (2.5 l/100 km, or 94 mpg US.)
August: PML Flightlink unveiled an in-wheel, plug-in series hybrid conversion of a MINI at the British Motor Show, the MINI QED. PML claimed fuel economy of 80 mpg, 0 to 60 mi/h in 4.5 seconds, top speed of over 150 mi/h, and a range of 1000 miles (1,609.3 km).
October: Hybrids Plus
Hybrids Plus
Hybrids Plus was a company devoted to converting hybrid electric vehicles to plug-in hybrids , including vehicle-to-grid capable PHEVs...
won a contract to convert a Ford Escape Hybrid to a plug-in hybrid for the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority
The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority , established in 1975, is a public benefit corporation, located in Albany, New York, with regional offices in NYC, Buffalo, and West Valley....
.
November 1: Manzanita Micro
Manzanita Micro
Manzanita Micro is a Kingston, Washington-based manufacturer of battery regulators, battery chargers, and plug-in hybrid vehicle conversion kits. Their products are intended for electric vehicles.- External links :* *...
sold their first PiPrius conversion kit using their PFC charger and battery regulator as a DC to DC converter
DC to DC converter
A DC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of direct current from one voltage level to another. It is a class of power converter.- Usage :...
and rapid battery charger
Battery charger
A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or rechargeable battery by forcing an electric current through it.The charge current depends upon the technology and capacity of the battery being charged...
system. Chelan County’s Advanced Vehicle Initiative received the first conversion kit from Manzanita Micro in October 2006. As of April 2007 the fourth and fifth such conversions were underway.
November 29: GM announced plans to introduce a production plug-in hybrid version of Saturn's Greenline Vue SUV
Saturn VUE
The Saturn Vue is a compact crossover SUV that was sold by General Motors' Saturn marque, and at one time was Saturn's best-selling model. It was the first vehicle to use the GM Theta platform when it was introduced in 2002. A second generation model was launched in 2007 for the 2008 model as a...
with an all electric range of 10 miles (16.1 km).
2007
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
was unveiled at Detroit's North American International Auto Show
North American International Auto Show
The North American International Auto Show is an annual auto show held in Detroit, Michigan at Cobo Center, usually in January. It is among the largest auto shows in North America.-History:...
. The Volt is part of GM's E-Flex architecture, which is expected to initially feature a plug-in capable, battery-dominant series hybrid architecture. Future E-Flex plug-in hybrid vehicles may use gasoline, diesel, or hydrogen fuel cell power to supplement the vehicle's battery. General Motors envisions an eventual progression of E-Flex vehicles from plug-in hybrids to pure electric vehicles, as battery technology improves. General Motors presented the Volt as a PHEV-40 that starts its engine when 40% of the battery charge remains, and which can achieve a fuel economy of 50 mpg (4.7 l/100 km), even if the vehicle is not plugged in.
February 28: The United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
released a draft of a plan to accelerate the development and deployment of plug-in hybrid vehicle technology. On May 22, five research projects were selected to receive $19 million to further the development of technologies related to PHEVs, such as electric motor power inverters.
March 2: The South Coast Air Quality Management District
South Coast Air Quality Management District
The South Coast Air Quality Management District , formed in 1976, is the air pollution agency responsible mainly for regulating stationary sources of air pollution for most of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside County, and all of Orange County...
in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
approved a $2.6-million contract for the conversion of 20 Ford Escape Hybrids and 10 Toyota Prius
Toyota Prius
The Toyota Prius is a full hybrid electric mid-size hatchback, formerly a compact sedan developed and manufactured by the Toyota Motor Corporation...
es to plug-in hybrids. The SCAQMD selected Quantum Technologies
Quantum Technologies
Quantum Technologies is an American technology design and manufacturing company based in Irvine, California. A public company with products which include advanced systems for the Automotive, Aerospace, Energy and Security markets....
and Hymotion
Hymotion
A123 Hymotion is a company founded in 2005 in Toronto, Canada that introduced plug-in hybrid electric vehicle upgrade kits in February 2006...
to perform the conversions.
March 14: The Illinois Institute of Technology
Illinois Institute of Technology
Illinois Institute of Technology, commonly called Illinois Tech or IIT, is a private Ph.D.-granting university located in Chicago, Illinois, with programs in engineering, science, psychology, architecture, business, communications, industrial technology, information technology, design, and law...
delivered a converted plug-in Ford Escape Hybrid to the Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
Department of Fleet Management for four to six months of field testing of the vehicle to evaluate the vehicle's performance, as well as improvements in fuel efficiency and emission reduction. The project is sponsored by the City of Chicago, MicroSun Technologies, ComEd, and All Cell, an Illinois Institute of Technology-based technology transfer company formed in 2001 to commercialize lithium-ion batteries in military, medical, portable, and transportation applications.
April 9: Pacific Gas and Electric, California's largest electric company, announced their support for plug-in hybrids with Vehicle to Grid capabilities. PG&E proposed regulatory changes which could allow homeowners to use such vehicles for back-up electricity in the event of a power failure.
April 23: The California Air Resources Board
California Air Resources Board
The California Air Resources Board, also known as CARB or ARB, is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, CARB is a department within the...
Independent Expert Panel on Zero Emission Vehicle
Zero-emissions vehicle
A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV, is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates , hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. Although not considered emission...
s published a report that assessed advanced vehicle technologies and concluded, among other things, that plug-in hybrids "have the potential to provide significant direct societal benefits and are likely to become available in the near future."
April 25: Phoenix Motorcars and UQM Technologies announced a collaborative project to develop a plug-in series hybrid version of the sport utility truck that Phoenix currently sells as an all-electric vehicle. The vehicle is projected to use a small gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine as a range extender and lithium titanate batteries from Altair Nanotechnologies.
May 1: A123Systems
A123Systems
A123 Systems develops and manufactures advanced lithium-ion batteries and battery systems for the transportation, electric grid and commercial markets. The company has about 2,500 employees globally and is headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts. Founded in 2001 by Dr. Yet-Ming Chiang, Dr...
lithium-ion battery company CEO David Vieau announced that A123 plans to market battery packs in 2008 for third-party conversion of hybrids to plug-in hybrids.
May 2: CalCars
CalCars
CalCars is a charitable, non-profit organization founded in 2002 to promote plug-in hybrid electric vehicles as a key to addressing oil dependence and global warming both nationally and internationally...
announced that it had received a $200,000 grant from Google.org
Google.org
Google.org is the charitable arm of Internet search engine company Google.The organization has committed over $100 million in investments and grants as of May 2010. To fund the organization, Google granted them 3 million shares during their initial public offering. As of August 2011, Google.org's 3...
, the philanthropic arm of Google
Google
Google Inc. is an American multinational public corporation invested in Internet search, cloud computing, and advertising technologies. Google hosts and develops a number of Internet-based services and products, and generates profit primarily from advertising through its AdWords program...
, for a two-year period to support its work in educating the public about plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles. In 2006, Google.org announced that it intended to develop a plug-in hybrid of its own.
Ford Motor Company
Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker based in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. The automaker was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. In addition to the Ford and Lincoln brands, Ford also owns a small stake in Mazda in Japan and Aston Martin in the UK...
CEO Alan Mulally
Alan Mulally
Alan Roger Mulally is an American engineer and business executive who is currently the President and Chief Executive Officer of the Ford Motor Company...
said he expects Ford to sell plug-in hybrids in five to ten years, the time depending on advances in lithium-ion battery technology. Ford will provide Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison , the largest subsidiary of Edison International , is the primary electricity supply company for much of Southern California, USA. It provides 14 million people with electricity...
with twenty Ford Escape Hybrid sport utility vehicles reconfigured to work as plug-ins by 2009, with the first by the end of this year. Ford announced that it will team up with Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison
Southern California Edison , the largest subsidiary of Edison International , is the primary electricity supply company for much of Southern California, USA. It provides 14 million people with electricity...
to examine the future of plug-in hybrids in terms of how home and vehicle energy systems will work with the electrical grid.
July 12: Frank J. Gaffney, Jr., the President and C.E.O. of Center for Security Policy
Center for Security Policy
The Center for Security Policy is a Washington, D.C. think tank that focuses on national security issues. The Center was founded in 1988 by Frank Gaffney, Jr....
testified before the House
United States House of Representatives
The United States House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the United States Congress, the bicameral legislature which also includes the Senate.The composition and powers of the House are established in Article One of the Constitution...
Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming that China will shortly introduce to the USA and other export markets a Chery
Chery Automobile
Chery Automobile Co Ltd is a state-owned automobile manufacturer in the People's Republic of China.Chery became the 7th most-productive Chinese vehicle manufacturer in 2010, selling nearly 700,000 units.-History:...
car variant at a price to consumers of $13,000 to $15,000.
July 18: Toyota requested permission from Japan’s government to test a prototype plug-in Prius with a lithium-ion battery pack on public roads. After the test, Toyota is expected to lease them to government and municipal fleets, and may introduce the new model at the Tokyo Motor Show in November.
On July 25, 2007, Japan's Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport certified Toyota's plug-in hybrid for use on public roads, making it the first automobile to attain such approval. Toyota plans to conduct road tests to verify its all-electric range. The plug-in Prius was said to have an all-electric range of 13 km (8 mi). But later prototypes shown at the 2008 Paris Auto Show had an electric-only range of "just a little over six miles."
August 9: General Motors vice president Robert Lutz said that GM is on track for Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
production to begin by 2010. Announcing an agreement with A123Systems
A123Systems
A123 Systems develops and manufactures advanced lithium-ion batteries and battery systems for the transportation, electric grid and commercial markets. The company has about 2,500 employees globally and is headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts. Founded in 2001 by Dr. Yet-Ming Chiang, Dr...
, Lutz said GM would like to have their planned Saturn Vue
Saturn VUE
The Saturn Vue is a compact crossover SUV that was sold by General Motors' Saturn marque, and at one time was Saturn's best-selling model. It was the first vehicle to use the GM Theta platform when it was introduced in 2002. A second generation model was launched in 2007 for the 2008 model as a...
plug-in on the roads by 2009.
September 5: Quantum Technologies
Quantum Technologies
Quantum Technologies is an American technology design and manufacturing company based in Irvine, California. A public company with products which include advanced systems for the Automotive, Aerospace, Energy and Security markets....
and Fisker Coachbuild
Fisker Coachbuild
For the manufacturer of the Fisker Karma, see Fisker AutomotiveFisker Coachbuild is a car design firm based in Orange County, California. The company produces custom sportscars. Its current models are the Tramonto and Latigo CS...
, LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive
Fisker Automotive
Fisker Automotive is an American automaker based in Anaheim, California. The company's first product, the Fisker Karma is among the world's first true electric vehicles with extended range...
. Fisker intends to build a US$ 80,000 luxury PHEV-50, the Fisker Karma
Fisker Karma
The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in...
, anticipated in late 2009.
September 6: Toyota announced that they reached an agreement with Electricite de France
Électricité de France
Électricité de France S.A. is the second largest French utility company. Headquartered in Paris, France, with €65.2 billion in revenues in 2010, EDF operates a diverse portfolio of 120,000+ megawatts of generation capacity in Europe, Latin America, Asia, the Middle East and Africa.EDF is one of...
(EDF) to "jointly test prototype plug-in hybrid vehicles and develop electricity infrastructure for plug-ins".
September 11–23: The Frankfurt Auto Show features plug-in hybrids. The Volvo
Volvo
AB Volvo is a Swedish builder of commercial vehicles, including trucks, buses and construction equipment. Volvo also supplies marine and industrial drive systems, aerospace components and financial services...
"Recharge
Volvo ReCharge
The Volvo ReCharge is a plug-in hybrid concept car created by Volvo. The vehicle is designed to run purely on electricity from on-board batteries for up to —which is a large enough distance to cover the daily commutes of most Americans, which is around...
" PHEV-60 concept car
Concept car
A concept vehicle or show vehicle is a car made to showcase new styling and or new technology. They are often shown at motor shows to gauge customer reaction to new and radical designs which may or may not have a chance of being produced....
was unveiled, and General Motors Corporation exhibited the Opel Flextreme
Opel Flextreme
The Opel Flextreme is a diesel plug-in hybrid concept car created by Opel.It is based on the same GM E-Flex series hybrid platform used in the Chevy Volt, but using a diesel rather than gasoline engine. It can travel on its lithium-ion battery before a small diesel engine starts charging the battery...
PHEV-34 concept car
Concept car
A concept vehicle or show vehicle is a car made to showcase new styling and or new technology. They are often shown at motor shows to gauge customer reaction to new and radical designs which may or may not have a chance of being produced....
.
September 25: The United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
is providing $17.2 million to further development of advanced batteries, and another $2 million for the study of future plug-ins. A cost-share with the United States Advanced Battery Consortium will allow up to $38 million in battery research and development.
October 9: Chinese manufacturer BYD Automobile Company
BYD Auto
BYD Automobile Co Ltd is a Chinese automobile manufacturer based in Shenzhen, Guangdong Province...
, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced that they would be introducing a production PHEV-60 sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD plans to exhibit it in January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show
North American International Auto Show
The North American International Auto Show is an annual auto show held in Detroit, Michigan at Cobo Center, usually in January. It is among the largest auto shows in North America.-History:...
in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses iron-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70 percent of capacity in 10 minutes.
October 27: Venture Vehicles announced it would produce two versions of the three-wheeled VentureOne, an electric model with a range of 120 miles (193.1 km), and a 100 mpg PHEV version.
November 8: German Environmental Minister Sigmar Gabriel
Sigmar Gabriel
Sigmar Gabriel is a German politician currently chairing the Social Democratic Party of Germany .On 15 December 1999, after the resignation of Gerhard Glogowski, who had succeeded Gerhard Schröder in office, Gabriel became Minister-President of Lower Saxony and served until 4 March 2003...
received a concept paper from Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen is a German automobile manufacturer and is the original and biggest-selling marque of the Volkswagen Group, which now also owns the Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, SEAT, and Škoda marques and the truck manufacturer Scania.Volkswagen means "people's car" in German, where it is...
CEO Martin Winterkorn
Martin Winterkorn
Martin Winterkorn is the Chairman of the Board of Management of Volkswagen AG, the parent company of the Volkswagen Group, and Chairman of the Supervisory Board of Audi and Porsche Automobil Holding SE....
about Volkswagen's attempts for electric drive and plug-in-hybrid technology.
2008
On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced they would start selling lithium battery plug-in hybrids by 2010.January 2008: A privately-run waiting list to purchase the Chevy Volt reached 10,000 members. The list, administered by Lyle Dennis, was started one year prior.
January 2008: Assistant professor Yi Cui and colleagues at Stanford University's Department of Materials Science and Engineering have made a discovery to use silicon
Silicon
Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. A tetravalent metalloid, it is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon, the nonmetal directly above it in the periodic table, but more reactive than germanium, the metalloid directly below it in the table...
nanowire
Nanowire
A nanowire is a nanostructure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer . Alternatively, nanowires can be defined as structures that have a thickness or diameter constrained to tens of nanometers or less and an unconstrained length. At these scales, quantum mechanical effects are important —...
s to give rechargeable lithium ion batteries 10 times more charge.
On February 7, 2008, Valence Technology
Valence Technology
Valence Technology, Inc. develops and manufactures advanced lithium iron phosphate cathode materials as well as programmable battery modules and trays. Valence's products are used in electric vehicle and Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles such as cars, scooters, motorbikes, commercial vehicles such...
announced it has entered into a contract with The Tanfield Group
Tanfield Group
The Tanfield Group, formerly Comeleon, has changed its main focus from automotive components and imaging equipment to electric vehicle manufacturing and specialist engineering. As Comeleon, the company made 3D images for mobile phones and other devices, but saw the bottom drop out of its key...
Plc (LSE: TAN) to manufacture and supply safe, Lithium Phosphate energy storage systems to power zero emission, all-electric commercial delivery vehicles. The Valence battery systems will be installed in leading-edge vans and trucks produced by Tanfield's UK-based trading division, Smith Electric Vehicles
Smith Electric Vehicles
Smith Electric Vehicles is the world's leading manufacturers of electric commercial vehicles; battery-powered vans, and trucks Smith Electric Vehicles has always focused on the commercial vehicle market – it does not produce electric cars and has never done so.In 2011 after its United States...
, the world's largest manufacturer of electric vans and trucks.
On March 27, 2008, the California Air Resources Board
California Air Resources Board
The California Air Resources Board, also known as CARB or ARB, is the "clean air agency" in the government of California. Established in 1967 in the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board, CARB is a department within the...
modified their regulations, requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids for sale to Californians during 2012 through 2014. This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000 pure zero emission vehicles, reducing that requirement to 5,000.
April 2008: Raser and FEV series hybrid/extended range EV powertrain plan to have the first prototype vehicle ready to demonstrate in the third quarter of this year installed in a full-size SUV.
On June 4, 2008, "GM's Chevy Volt Is a Go" (Rick Wagoner
Rick Wagoner
George Richard "Rick" Wagoner, Jr. is an American businessman and former Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of General Motors. Wagoner resigned as Chairman and CEO at General Motors on March 29, 2009, at the request of the White House...
, GM chairman and CEO) -- Production Vehicle, in Showrooms in 2010. On June 5, 2008, Toyota Dealers Sold on Hymotion
Hymotion
A123 Hymotion is a company founded in 2005 in Toronto, Canada that introduced plug-in hybrid electric vehicle upgrade kits in February 2006...
Plug-In Hybrids. On June 12, 2008, Ford has urged US Government to step up evolution of plug-in hybrids.
On June 26, 2008, Volkswagen
Volkswagen
Volkswagen is a German automobile manufacturer and is the original and biggest-selling marque of the Volkswagen Group, which now also owns the Audi, Bentley, Bugatti, Lamborghini, SEAT, and Škoda marques and the truck manufacturer Scania.Volkswagen means "people's car" in German, where it is...
announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on the Golf
Volkswagen Golf
The Volkswagen Golf is a small family car manufactured by Volkswagen since 1974 and marketed worldwide across six generations, in various body configurations and under various nameplates – as the Volkswagen Rabbit in the United States and Canada , and as the Volkswagen Caribe in Mexico .The...
compact. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.
In September 2008, Mazda
Mazda
is a Japanese automotive manufacturer based in Fuchū, Aki District, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan.In 2007, Mazda produced almost 1.3 million vehicles for global sales...
was reported to be planning PHEVs. On September 23, 2008, Chrysler
Chrysler
Chrysler Group LLC is a multinational automaker headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan, USA. Chrysler was first organized as the Chrysler Corporation in 1925....
announced that they had prototyped a plug-in Jeep Wrangler
Jeep Wrangler
The Jeep Wrangler is a subcompact four-wheel drive sport utility vehicle and an off-road vehicle manufactured by American automaker Chrysler, under its Jeep marque – and now in its fourth generation. It is a successor to the famous World War II 'Jeep' vehicle by way of the Willys civilian...
and a Chrysler Town and Country
Chrysler Town and Country
The first Chrysler Town & Country minivan was introduced in 1989 alongside the Plymouth Voyager and Dodge Caravan. Sharing the body of the long-wheelbase Grand Voyager/Grand Caravan's Chrysler S platform, the Town & Country was externally distinguished by its chrome waterfall grille, crystal...
mini-van, both PHEV-40s with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go in to production.
On October 3, the U.S. enacted the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 as part of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008
Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008
The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 (Division A of , commonly referred to as a bailout of the U.S. financial system, is a law enacted in response to the subprime mortgage crisis...
. The legislation provides tax credits of $2,500 plus $417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours, up to $7,500 for cars under 10,000 pounds, $10,000 for larger vehicles under 14,000 pounds, $12,500 for bigger trucks under 26,000 pounds, or $15,000 for larger trucks and equipment. The tax credit will be phased out two calendar quarters after the first 250,000 such vehicles are sold, down to 50% for the next six months and 25% for another half year after that.
In mid-October, the Wall Street Journal reported that BYD Auto
BYD Auto
BYD Automobile Co Ltd is a Chinese automobile manufacturer based in Shenzhen, Guangdong Province...
's PHEV-60 F3DM hatchback
BYD F3DM
The BYD F3DM is a plug-in hybrid compact sedan manufactured by BYD Auto with an all-electric range of and a hybrid electric powertrain that can extend the range an additional . The F3DM is the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid automobile and went on sale to government agencies and...
will be available by November in China. It will sell for equivalent of USD $22,000 and has a 110 km electric-mode driving range.
As a demonstration project, Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), a Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid, capable of running on gasoline or E85
E85
E85 is an abbreviation for an ethanol fuel blend of up to 85% denatured ethanol fuel and gasoline or other hydrocarbon by volume. E85 is commonly used by flex-fuel vehicles in the US, Canada, and Europe. Some of the benefits of E85 over conventional gasoline powered vehicles include the potential...
.
On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto
BYD Auto
BYD Automobile Co Ltd is a Chinese automobile manufacturer based in Shenzhen, Guangdong Province...
's F3DM
BYD F3DM
The BYD F3DM is a plug-in hybrid compact sedan manufactured by BYD Auto with an all-electric range of and a hybrid electric powertrain that can extend the range an additional . The F3DM is the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid automobile and went on sale to government agencies and...
PHEV-60 hatchback began selling in China as the first production plug-in hybrid, the first ever sold in the world. It costs the equivalent of USD $22,000 and has a 100 km (62.1 mi) electric-mode driving range.
2009
On June 1, 2009, VolvoVolvo
AB Volvo is a Swedish builder of commercial vehicles, including trucks, buses and construction equipment. Volvo also supplies marine and industrial drive systems, aerospace components and financial services...
announced the launching of series production
Mass production
Mass production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines...
diesel
Diesel engine
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber...
-electric plug-in hybrids by 2012. The company plans to sell a series hybrid with the goal of achieving emissions of less than 50 grams of CO2
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
per kilometer. Two Volvo V70
Volvo V70
The Volvo V70 is a mid-size five-door estate car / station wagon manufactured by Volvo Cars since 2000. It is closely related to the S70, S60 and S80 saloons, as well as the four-wheel drive Cross Country and XC70....
demonstrators were converted to PHEVs and are undergoing a test trial in real world conditions since December 2009. This demonstration project is a joint venture
Joint venture
A joint venture is a business agreement in which parties agree to develop, for a finite time, a new entity and new assets by contributing equity. They exercise control over the enterprise and consequently share revenues, expenses and assets...
with Vattenfall
Vattenfall
Vattenfall is a Swedish power company. The name Vattenfall is Swedish for waterfall, and is an abbreviation of its original name, Royal Waterfall Board...
, a Swedish energy company. As reported by the test drivers, the V70 Plug-in Hybrid demonstrators have an all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
between 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) to 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) . The test plug-in hybrids were built with a button to allow test drivers to manually choose between electricity or diesel engine power at any time.
During its first eight months in the Chinese market, the BYD F3DM
BYD F3DM
The BYD F3DM is a plug-in hybrid compact sedan manufactured by BYD Auto with an all-electric range of and a hybrid electric powertrain that can extend the range an additional . The F3DM is the world's first mass produced plug-in hybrid automobile and went on sale to government agencies and...
PHEV-60 only sold less than 100 vehicles. Sales of the F3DM began in Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
in June 2009.
2010
A global demonstration program involving 600 Toyota Prius Plug-inToyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid
The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid is a mid-size plug-in hybrid electric vehicle to be produced by Toyota Motor Corporation and scheduled to be released to the market beginning in January 2012...
pre-production test cars
Pre-production car
Pre-production cars are vehicles that allow the automaker to find problems before a new model goes on sale to the public. Pre-production cars come after prototypes, or development mules which themselves are preceded by concept cars...
began in late 2009 in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
and by mid 2010 field testing had began in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, and the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. The commercial version is expected to cost between to more than the conventional Prius and Toyota announced it expects to sell 20,000 units a year initially.
On October 2010 Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar
Lotus CityCar
The Lotus Ethos is a fully plug-in hybrid concept car that was unveiled at the 2010 Paris Motor Show as the "Lotus CityCar". The vehicle was developed by Lotus Engineering, a separate division from Lotus Cars...
at the 2010 Paris Motor Show
2010 Paris Motor Show
The 2010 Paris Motor Show took place from 2 October to 17 October 2010, in Paris Expo, Porte de Versailles.For 2010, the theme of the special exhibition was "The Incredible Collection 2: automobile manufacturers collections and museums."- Production cars :...
, a plug-in series hybrid concept car
Concept car
A concept vehicle or show vehicle is a car made to showcase new styling and or new technology. They are often shown at motor shows to gauge customer reaction to new and radical designs which may or may not have a chance of being produced....
designed for flex-fuel operation on ethanol
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
, or methanol
Methanol fuel
Methanol is an alternative fuel for internal combustion and other engines, either in combination with gasoline or directly . It is used in racing cars and in China...
as well as regular gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, translucent, petroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain...
. The lithium battery
Lithium battery
Lithium batteries are disposable batteries that have lithium metal or lithium compounds as an anode. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from 1.5 V to about 3.7 V, over twice the voltage of an ordinary zinc–carbon battery or alkaline battery...
pack provides an all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
of 60 kilometres (37.3 mi), and the 1.2-liter flex-fuel engine kicks in to allow to extend the range to more than 500 kilometres (310.7 mi).
General Motors
General Motors
General Motors Company , commonly known as GM, formerly incorporated as General Motors Corporation, is an American multinational automotive corporation headquartered in Detroit, Michigan and the world's second-largest automaker in 2010...
began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt
Chevrolet Volt
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010, and is the most fuel-efficient compact car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency...
in the United States in December 2010. The Volt has an all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
of 35 miles (56.3 km) according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
.
By June 30, 2011, the Volt had sold 3,071 units.
2011
Deliveries of the Fisker KarmaFisker Karma
The Fisker Karma is a plug-in hybrid luxury sports sedan produced by Fisker Automotive and manufactured at Valmet Automotive in Finland. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rated the Karma's combined city/highway fuel economy at equivalent in all-electric mode, and at in...
, with an all-electric range
All-electric range
All-electric range is the driving range of a vehicle using only power from its electric battery pack to traverse a given driving cycle. In the case of a battery electric vehicle, it means the total range per charge. For a plug-in hybrid , it means the range of the vehicle in charge-depleting mode...
of 50 miles (80.5 km), began in the U.S. in July 2011. Initial production is limited to 5 cars a week, and Fisker Automotive
Fisker Automotive
Fisker Automotive is an American automaker based in Anaheim, California. The company's first product, the Fisker Karma is among the world's first true electric vehicles with extended range...
expects to rise production to 300 cars a week by November 2011.
See also
- History of the electric vehicleHistory of the electric vehicleThe history of the electric vehicle began in the mid-19th century. An electrical vehicle held the vehicular land speed record until around 1900. The high cost, low top speed and short range of electric vehicles, compared to later internal combustion vehicles, led to a worldwide decline in their use...
- History of the hybrid electric vehicle
- Plug-in electric vehiclePlug-in electric vehicleA plug-in electric vehicle is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels...