Genetic history of the British Isles
Encyclopedia
The genetic history of the British Isles is the subject of research within the larger field of human population genetics
. It has developed in parallel with DNA testing technologies capable of identifying genetic similarities and differences between populations. The conclusions of population genetics regarding the British Isles
in turn draw upon and contribute to the larger field of understanding the history of human
ity in the British Isles generally, complementing work in linguistics, archeology
, history
and genealogy
.
Research concerning the most important routes of migration into the British Isles is the subject of debate. Apart from the most obvious route across the narrowest point of the English Channel
into Kent
, other routes may have been important over the millennia, including a land bridge
in the Mesolithic
period, and also maritime connections along the Atlantic coast.
In addition, the periods of the most important migrations are also contested. While the Neolithic
introduction of farming technologies from Europe
is frequently proposed as a period of major population change in the British Isles, such technology could either have been learned by locals from a small number of immigrants, or may have been put into effect by colonists who significantly changed the population.
Other potentially important historical periods of migration which have been subject to consideration in this field include the introduction of Celtic
languages and technologies (during the Bronze
and Iron
Ages), the Roman
era, the period of Anglo-Saxon
influx, the Viking
era, the Norman invasion of 1066 and the era of European wars of religion
. There are also similarly many potential eras of movement between different parts of the British Isles.
who used polymorphisms
from proteins found within human blood
(such as the ABO blood groups
, Rhesus blood antigens, HLA loci
, immunoglobulins
, G-6-P-D isoenzymes, amongst others). One of the lasting proposals of this study with regards to Europe is that within most of Europe, the majority of genetic diversity may best be explained by immigration coming from the southeast towards the northwest or in other words from the Middle East towards Britain and Ireland. He proposed at the time that the introduction of farming technology might be the best explanation for this.
Later published studies used mitochondrial DNA
to study the female line of descent. It became possible to use Y chromosome
DNA to study male descent. As opposed to large scale sampling within the genome, Y DNA and mitochondrial DNA represent specific types of genetic descent and can therefore reflect only particular aspects of past human movement.
For Britain, major research projects aimed at collecting more data include the Oxford Genetic Atlas Project (OGAP), which was associated with Brian Sykes of Oxford University and more recently the People of the British Isles, also associated with Oxford.
In 2007, Bryan Sykes
produced an analysis of 6000 samples from the OGAP project in his book Blood of the Isles. Later, Stephen Oppenheimer
in his 2006 book The Origins of the British used the data from , and for Europe. In opposition to Neolithic origin theories, which remain strong, Sykes and Oppenheimer argued for significant immigration from Iberia
into Britain and Ireland. Much of this argument was based upon Y DNA evidence, however by 2010 several major Y DNA studies presented more complete data, showing that the oldest-surviving male lineages had mostly migrated to Britain from the Balkans
, and ultimately from the Middle East
, not from Iberia.
Another subject in the literature which has been widely discussed is whether genetics can show signs of Germanic
invasions particularly in England. In a widely cited but not unanimously accepted article, went as far as arguing that the Y DNA data showed signs of a racial "apartheid" in Anglo-Saxon
England. That there are relatively clear signs of Germanic contact in parts of Britain is accepted and shown in other studies such as .
In Ireland population genetic studies have been undertaken by a team under Dan Bradley, including surname studies. Databases on Britain and Ireland, as well as on various surnames are being built up from personal DNA tests, for example at FamilyTreeDNA
. A widely reported article in this area was , which provided Y DNA evidence that in some cases Irish surname groups were highly dominated by single male lines, presumed to be those of dynastic founders such as Niall of the Nine Hostages
.
Recently use has been made of technologies which can test hundreds of thousands of possible mutation points (SNP
s) in the rest of the human genome
(the autosomal DNA). The results of these large studies have shown that the main patterns of relatedness between European populations are simply geographical, meaning that the British and Irish are simply most genetically related to the people in neighboring countries. This has not yet led to any new theories concerning migrations.
It has been proposed that Y chromosome diversity tends to change more quickly than the overall population, because at least sometimes, some male lines move more quickly than the general population, meaning that the most common Y chromosomes in areas will reflect relatively recent "waves" of human movement.
broke mitochondrial results into twelve haplogroups for various regions of the Isles. He has given maps and proposals concerning ancient migrations for Ireland
, Scotland
, Wales
and England
.
Sykes and Oppenheimer have each given nicknames to various haplogroups to allow easier recognition, including the principal ones in the Isles. Below the normal scientific names are given, followed by the popularized "clan names" of Sykes, and in some cases also of Oppenheimer:-
mtDNA
...and within U...
Sykes found that the maternal clan (haplogroup) pattern was similar throughout England but with a definite trend from east and north to the south and west. The minor clans are mainly found in the east of England.
Sykes found Haplogroup H to be dominant in Ireland and Wales. A few differences were found between north, mid and south Wales. There was a closer link between north and mid Wales
that either had with the south.
Sykes found that 10% of the Irish population were in Haplogroup U5 called Ursula. He calculated a date of 7300 BC for the entry of this lineage into Ireland. Similar dates were proposed for the other mitochondrial haplogroups, implying that mitochondrial lines in Ireland are far older there than the arrival of Iron Age
Celt
s. Little difference was found between the maternal clans in the four provinces.
produced an analysis of 6000 samples from the OGAP project in his book Blood of the Isles. designating five main Y-DNA
haplogroups for various regions of the Isles. As with mitochondrial haplogroups not only Sykes but also Stephen Oppenheimer chose to popularize the concept by giving them "clan names". The following gives their normal scientific names.
Haplogroup R1b is dominant in Western Europe, not only Britain and Ireland. While it was once seen as a lineage connecting the British Isles to Iberia (where it is also common) opinions concerning its origins have changed, with estimates of age tending to go down from Palaeolithic to Neolithic or even younger and analysis of the branching within this line now being seen to support the view that at least concerning the majority of R1b in Europe, it has its roots in the Middle East and has spread northwestward from there. The R1b types found in Britain and Ireland are dominated by R-P312, which on the continent is found mainly west of the Rhine but at least in England there is also a significant presence of R-U106, which is found east of the Rhine and also in North Sea
areas such as Denmark
and Holland.
Haplogroup I is a grouping of several quite distantly related lineages. These may be the only pre-Neolithic Y lineages left in Europe. Looking at the three main clusters, according to , with up-dated nomenclature according ISOGG:-
Haplogroup R1a, a distant cousin of R1b, is most common from Eastern Europe to India. In Britain it is associated with probable Scandinavian immigration during periods of Viking settlement.
Haplogroups E1b1b and J in Europe are regarded as markers of movements from southeastern Europe to northwestern and therefore as a potential markers of introduced technology such as farming. At least in the case of E1b1b a more recent Roman era move from the Mediterranean area has been proposed by .
A1, a Y chromosome genetic marker which is west African specific. Haplogroup A1 is rare and has only ever been found 25 times, again only in people of African origin. Haplogroup A1 is a subclade of Haplogroup A
which geneticists believe originated in Eastern or Southern Africa
. The individuals had no knowledge of any African heritage in their family. The researchers hypothesized that the presence of this haplogroup in Yorkshire could stem from the recruitment of Africans for the construction of Hadrian's Wall
by the Romans or result from intermarriage with an African slave, some of whom rose quite high in society. According to Bryan Sykes
, some English people's genetics suggest that they are "descended from north African, Middle Eastern and Roman clans", and that "although the Romans ruled from AD 43 until 410, they left a tiny
genetic footprint."
In the North Welsh town of Abergele
there is a very high percentage of haplogroup E1b1b1 (33%), which is thought to have dispersed around Europe mainly from the Balkans
.
Geneticists have shown that former American president Thomas Jefferson
, who might have been of Welsh descent, along with two other British men out of 85 British men with the surname Jefferson, carry the rare Y chromosome marker T
which is typically found in East Africa
and the Middle East
. Haplogroup T is rare in Europe but phylogenetic network
analysis of its Y-STR
(short tandem repeat
) haplotype shows that it is most closely related to an Egyptian T haplotype. The presence of scattered and diverse European haplotypes within the network is nonetheless consistent with Jefferson's patrilineage belonging to an ancient and rare indigenous European type.
Population genetics
Population genetics is the study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four main evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow. It also takes into account the factors of recombination, population subdivision and population...
. It has developed in parallel with DNA testing technologies capable of identifying genetic similarities and differences between populations. The conclusions of population genetics regarding the British Isles
British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands off the northwest coast of continental Europe that include the islands of Great Britain and Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. There are two sovereign states located on the islands: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and...
in turn draw upon and contribute to the larger field of understanding the history of human
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
ity in the British Isles generally, complementing work in linguistics, archeology
History of the British Isles
The history of the British Isles has witnessed intermittent periods of competition and cooperation between the people that occupy the various parts of Great Britain, Ireland, and the smaller adjacent islands, which together make up the British Isles, as well as with France, Germany, the Low...
, history
History of the British Isles
The history of the British Isles has witnessed intermittent periods of competition and cooperation between the people that occupy the various parts of Great Britain, Ireland, and the smaller adjacent islands, which together make up the British Isles, as well as with France, Germany, the Low...
and genealogy
Genealogy
Genealogy is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral traditions, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees of its members...
.
Research concerning the most important routes of migration into the British Isles is the subject of debate. Apart from the most obvious route across the narrowest point of the English Channel
English Channel
The English Channel , often referred to simply as the Channel, is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates southern England from northern France, and joins the North Sea to the Atlantic. It is about long and varies in width from at its widest to in the Strait of Dover...
into Kent
Kent
Kent is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of...
, other routes may have been important over the millennia, including a land bridge
Doggerland
Doggerland is a name given by archaeologists and geologists to a former landmass in the southern North Sea that connected the island of Great Britain to mainland Europe during and after the last Ice Age, surviving until about 6,500 or 6,200 BCE, though gradually being swallowed by rising sea levels...
in the Mesolithic
Mesolithic
The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....
period, and also maritime connections along the Atlantic coast.
In addition, the periods of the most important migrations are also contested. While the Neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
introduction of farming technologies from Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
is frequently proposed as a period of major population change in the British Isles, such technology could either have been learned by locals from a small number of immigrants, or may have been put into effect by colonists who significantly changed the population.
Other potentially important historical periods of migration which have been subject to consideration in this field include the introduction of Celtic
Celtic languages
The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic"; a branch of the greater Indo-European language family...
languages and technologies (during the Bronze
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
and Iron
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
Ages), the Roman
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire from AD 43 until ca. AD 410.The Romans referred to the imperial province as Britannia, which eventually comprised all of the island of Great Britain south of the fluid frontier with Caledonia...
era, the period of Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...
influx, the Viking
Viking
The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, explored and settled in wide areas of Europe, Asia and the North Atlantic islands from the late 8th to the mid-11th century.These Norsemen used their famed longships to...
era, the Norman invasion of 1066 and the era of European wars of religion
European wars of religion
The European wars of religion were a series of wars waged in Europe from ca. 1524 to 1648, following the onset of the Protestant Reformation in Western and Northern Europe...
. There are also similarly many potential eras of movement between different parts of the British Isles.
Research projects and influential publications
At an international and especially European level, a major turning point in publication and discussion of genetic evidence for ancient movements of people was that of Luigi Luca Cavalli-SforzaLuigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza
Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza is an Italian population geneticist born in Genoa, who has been a professor at Stanford University since 1970 .-Books:...
who used polymorphisms
Polymorphism (biology)
Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
from proteins found within human blood
Blood
Blood is a specialized bodily fluid in animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells....
(such as the ABO blood groups
ABO blood group system
The ABO blood group system is the most important blood type system in human blood transfusion. The associated anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are usually produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food,...
, Rhesus blood antigens, HLA loci
Major histocompatibility complex
Major histocompatibility complex is a cell surface molecule encoded by a large gene family in all vertebrates. MHC molecules mediate interactions of leukocytes, also called white blood cells , which are immune cells, with other leukocytes or body cells...
, immunoglobulins
Antibody
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, termed an antigen...
, G-6-P-D isoenzymes, amongst others). One of the lasting proposals of this study with regards to Europe is that within most of Europe, the majority of genetic diversity may best be explained by immigration coming from the southeast towards the northwest or in other words from the Middle East towards Britain and Ireland. He proposed at the time that the introduction of farming technology might be the best explanation for this.
Later published studies used mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate...
to study the female line of descent. It became possible to use Y chromosome
Y chromosome
The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in most mammals, including humans. In mammals, it contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development if present. The human Y chromosome is composed of about 60 million base pairs...
DNA to study male descent. As opposed to large scale sampling within the genome, Y DNA and mitochondrial DNA represent specific types of genetic descent and can therefore reflect only particular aspects of past human movement.
For Britain, major research projects aimed at collecting more data include the Oxford Genetic Atlas Project (OGAP), which was associated with Brian Sykes of Oxford University and more recently the People of the British Isles, also associated with Oxford.
In 2007, Bryan Sykes
Bryan Sykes
Bryan Sykes is a former Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Oxford and a current Fellow of Wolfson College.Sykes published the first report on retrieving DNA from ancient bone...
produced an analysis of 6000 samples from the OGAP project in his book Blood of the Isles. Later, Stephen Oppenheimer
Stephen Oppenheimer
Stephen Oppenheimer is a British paediatrician, geneticist, and writer. He is a member of Green Templeton College, Oxford and an honorary fellow of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, and carries out and publishes research in the fields of genetics and human prehistory.-Career:Oppenheimer...
in his 2006 book The Origins of the British used the data from , and for Europe. In opposition to Neolithic origin theories, which remain strong, Sykes and Oppenheimer argued for significant immigration from Iberia
Iberia
The name Iberia refers to three historical regions of the old world:* Iberian Peninsula, in Southwest Europe, location of modern-day Portugal and Spain** Prehistoric Iberia...
into Britain and Ireland. Much of this argument was based upon Y DNA evidence, however by 2010 several major Y DNA studies presented more complete data, showing that the oldest-surviving male lineages had mostly migrated to Britain from the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
, and ultimately from the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
, not from Iberia.
Another subject in the literature which has been widely discussed is whether genetics can show signs of Germanic
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...
invasions particularly in England. In a widely cited but not unanimously accepted article, went as far as arguing that the Y DNA data showed signs of a racial "apartheid" in Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...
England. That there are relatively clear signs of Germanic contact in parts of Britain is accepted and shown in other studies such as .
In Ireland population genetic studies have been undertaken by a team under Dan Bradley, including surname studies. Databases on Britain and Ireland, as well as on various surnames are being built up from personal DNA tests, for example at FamilyTreeDNA
FamilyTreeDNA
Family Tree DNA is a commercial genetic genealogy company based in Houston, Texas with its partner laboratory, Arizona Research Labs, housed at the University of Arizona. Family Tree DNA offers analysis of autosomal DNA, YDNA, and mtDNA to individuals for genealogical purposes based on DNA samples...
. A widely reported article in this area was , which provided Y DNA evidence that in some cases Irish surname groups were highly dominated by single male lines, presumed to be those of dynastic founders such as Niall of the Nine Hostages
Niall of the Nine Hostages
Niall Noígíallach , or in English, Niall of the Nine Hostages, son of Eochaid Mugmedón, was an Irish king, the eponymous ancestor of the Uí Néill kindred who dominated Ireland from the 6th century to the 10th century...
.
Recently use has been made of technologies which can test hundreds of thousands of possible mutation points (SNP
Single nucleotide polymorphism
A single-nucleotide polymorphism is a DNA sequence variation occurring when a single nucleotide — A, T, C or G — in the genome differs between members of a biological species or paired chromosomes in an individual...
s) in the rest of the human genome
Human genome
The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs plus the small mitochondrial DNA. 22 of the 23 chromosomes are autosomal chromosome pairs, while the remaining pair is sex-determining...
(the autosomal DNA). The results of these large studies have shown that the main patterns of relatedness between European populations are simply geographical, meaning that the British and Irish are simply most genetically related to the people in neighboring countries. This has not yet led to any new theories concerning migrations.
It has been proposed that Y chromosome diversity tends to change more quickly than the overall population, because at least sometimes, some male lines move more quickly than the general population, meaning that the most common Y chromosomes in areas will reflect relatively recent "waves" of human movement.
Mitochondrial DNA
In 2007, Bryan SykesBryan Sykes
Bryan Sykes is a former Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Oxford and a current Fellow of Wolfson College.Sykes published the first report on retrieving DNA from ancient bone...
broke mitochondrial results into twelve haplogroups for various regions of the Isles. He has given maps and proposals concerning ancient migrations for Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
, Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
and England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
.
Sykes and Oppenheimer have each given nicknames to various haplogroups to allow easier recognition, including the principal ones in the Isles. Below the normal scientific names are given, followed by the popularized "clan names" of Sykes, and in some cases also of Oppenheimer:-
mtDNA
- Haplogroup H (mtDNA)Haplogroup H (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup H is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup that likely originated in Southwest Asia 25,000-30,000 YBP.-Origin:...
Helena (Sykes), Helina (Oppenheimer) - Haplogroup I (mtDNA)Haplogroup I (mtDNA)-Origin:Its ancestral haplogroup was N1. Its closest relative is N1e. Haplogroup I is believed to have arisen somewhere in Eurasia some 30,000 years before present, and been one of the first haplogroups to move into Europe.-Distribution:...
Isha - Haplogroup J (mtDNA)Haplogroup J (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup J is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.Haplogroup J derives from the haplogroup JT, which also gave rise to Haplogroup T. In his popular book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mtDNA haplogroup Jasmine...
Jasmine - Haplogroup T (mtDNA)Haplogroup T (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup T is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Known Origins:Mitochondrial Haplogroup T derives from the haplogroup JT, which also gave rise to haplogroup J...
Tara - Haplogroup V (mtDNA)Haplogroup V (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup V is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origin:Haplogroup V is believed to have originated around the Western Mediterranean region, approximately 13,600 years before present- possibly on Iberia...
Velda (Sykes), Vera (Oppenheimer) - Haplogroup W (mtDNA)Haplogroup W (mtDNA)-Distribution:Haplogroup W appears in Europe, West and South Asia.It is everywhere found as minority clade, with the highest concentration being in Northern Pakistan...
Wanda - Haplogroup X (mtDNA)Haplogroup X (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup X is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup. It has a widespread global distribution but no major regions of distinct localization.-Origin:...
Xenia - Haplogroup U (mtDNA)Haplogroup U (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origins:Haplogroup U descends from a woman in the Haplogroup R branch of the phylogenetic tree, who lived around 55,000 years ago...
Europa (Oppenheimer)
...and within U...
- Haplogroup U2 (mtDNA) Uta
- Haplogroup U3 (mtDNA) Uma
- Haplogroup U4 (mtDNA) Ulrika
- Haplogroup U5 (mtDNA) Ursula
Sykes found that the maternal clan (haplogroup) pattern was similar throughout England but with a definite trend from east and north to the south and west. The minor clans are mainly found in the east of England.
Sykes found Haplogroup H to be dominant in Ireland and Wales. A few differences were found between north, mid and south Wales. There was a closer link between north and mid Wales
Mid Wales
Mid Wales is the name given to the central region of Wales. The Mid Wales Regional Committee of the National Assembly for Wales covered the counties of Ceredigion and Powys and the area of Gwynedd that had previously been the district of Meirionydd. A similar definition is used by the BBC...
that either had with the south.
Sykes found that 10% of the Irish population were in Haplogroup U5 called Ursula. He calculated a date of 7300 BC for the entry of this lineage into Ireland. Similar dates were proposed for the other mitochondrial haplogroups, implying that mitochondrial lines in Ireland are far older there than the arrival of Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
Celt
Celt
The Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Roman-era Europe who spoke Celtic languages.The earliest archaeological culture commonly accepted as Celtic, or rather Proto-Celtic, was the central European Hallstatt culture , named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria....
s. Little difference was found between the maternal clans in the four provinces.
Y DNA
In 2007, Bryan SykesBryan Sykes
Bryan Sykes is a former Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Oxford and a current Fellow of Wolfson College.Sykes published the first report on retrieving DNA from ancient bone...
produced an analysis of 6000 samples from the OGAP project in his book Blood of the Isles. designating five main Y-DNA
Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups
In human genetics, a Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by differences in the non-recombining portions of DNA from the Y chromosome ....
haplogroups for various regions of the Isles. As with mitochondrial haplogroups not only Sykes but also Stephen Oppenheimer chose to popularize the concept by giving them "clan names". The following gives their normal scientific names.
- Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)The point of origin of R1b is thought to lie in Eurasia, most likely in Western Asia. T. Karafet et al. estimated the age of R1, the parent of R1b, as 18,500 years before present....
. Oisin (Sykes), Ruisko (Oppenheimer). Oppenheimer attempted to divide this in 16 clusters. (See for an attempt to "deconstruct" these.) - Haplogroup I (Y-DNA)Haplogroup I (Y-DNA)In human genetics, Haplogroup I is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup, a subgroup of haplogroup IJ, itself a derivative of Haplogroup IJK....
. Wodan (Sykes), Ivan (Oppenheimer). Oppenheimer was able to divide this into 3 clear clusters. The two most important were - I1 (Ian)
- I2 (Ingert), now known as I2b
- Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)Haplogroup R1a is the phylogenetic name of a major clade of Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups. In other words, it is a way of grouping a significant part of all modern men according to a shared male-line ancestor. It is common in many parts of Eurasia and is frequently discussed in human...
. Sigurd (Sykes), Rostov (Oppenheimer) - Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA). Eshu (Sykes)
- Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)In human genetics, Haplogroup J is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is one of the major male lines of all living men...
. Re (Sykes)
Haplogroup R1b is dominant in Western Europe, not only Britain and Ireland. While it was once seen as a lineage connecting the British Isles to Iberia (where it is also common) opinions concerning its origins have changed, with estimates of age tending to go down from Palaeolithic to Neolithic or even younger and analysis of the branching within this line now being seen to support the view that at least concerning the majority of R1b in Europe, it has its roots in the Middle East and has spread northwestward from there. The R1b types found in Britain and Ireland are dominated by R-P312, which on the continent is found mainly west of the Rhine but at least in England there is also a significant presence of R-U106, which is found east of the Rhine and also in North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
areas such as Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
and Holland.
Haplogroup I is a grouping of several quite distantly related lineages. These may be the only pre-Neolithic Y lineages left in Europe. Looking at the three main clusters, according to , with up-dated nomenclature according ISOGG:-
- I1a in Rootsi et al., now known as I1, is mainly associated with ScandinaviaScandinaviaScandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
in modern populations and is common in several parts of England. - I1b in Rootsi et al., now known as I2a is associated with the BalkansBalkansThe Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
and are not common in Britain and Ireland. - I1c in Rootsi et al., now known as I2b is less clearly associated with any particular part of Europe.
Haplogroup R1a, a distant cousin of R1b, is most common from Eastern Europe to India. In Britain it is associated with probable Scandinavian immigration during periods of Viking settlement.
Haplogroups E1b1b and J in Europe are regarded as markers of movements from southeastern Europe to northwestern and therefore as a potential markers of introduced technology such as farming. At least in the case of E1b1b a more recent Roman era move from the Mediterranean area has been proposed by .
Uncommon Y haplogroups
Geneticists have found that seven men with a rare Yorkshire surname carry a genetic signature previously found only in people of African origin. All the men had haplogroupHaplogroup
In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor having the same single nucleotide polymorphism mutation in both haplotypes. Because a haplogroup consists of similar haplotypes, this is what makes it possible to predict a haplogroup...
A1, a Y chromosome genetic marker which is west African specific. Haplogroup A1 is rare and has only ever been found 25 times, again only in people of African origin. Haplogroup A1 is a subclade of Haplogroup A
Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup A refers to a group of y-chromosome lineages that were among the first to branch off from the root of the human y-chromosome phylogeny...
which geneticists believe originated in Eastern or Southern Africa
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. Within the region are numerous territories, including the Republic of South Africa ; nowadays, the simpler term South Africa is generally reserved for the country in English.-UN...
. The individuals had no knowledge of any African heritage in their family. The researchers hypothesized that the presence of this haplogroup in Yorkshire could stem from the recruitment of Africans for the construction of Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall was a defensive fortification in Roman Britain. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall, lesser known of the two because its physical remains are less evident today.The...
by the Romans or result from intermarriage with an African slave, some of whom rose quite high in society. According to Bryan Sykes
Bryan Sykes
Bryan Sykes is a former Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Oxford and a current Fellow of Wolfson College.Sykes published the first report on retrieving DNA from ancient bone...
, some English people's genetics suggest that they are "descended from north African, Middle Eastern and Roman clans", and that "although the Romans ruled from AD 43 until 410, they left a tiny
genetic footprint."
In the North Welsh town of Abergele
Abergele
Abergele is a community and old Roman trading town, situated on the north coast of Wales between the holiday resorts of Colwyn Bay and Rhyl, in Conwy County Borough. Its northern suburb of Pensarn lies on the Irish Sea coast and is known for its beach, where it is claimed by some that a ghost ship...
there is a very high percentage of haplogroup E1b1b1 (33%), which is thought to have dispersed around Europe mainly from the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
.
Geneticists have shown that former American president Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence and the Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom , the third President of the United States and founder of the University of Virginia...
, who might have been of Welsh descent, along with two other British men out of 85 British men with the surname Jefferson, carry the rare Y chromosome marker T
Haplogroup T (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup T is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. From 2002 to 2008, it was known as Haplogroup K2. It should not be confused with the mitochondrial DNA haplogroup T, of the same name....
which is typically found in East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Haplogroup T is rare in Europe but phylogenetic network
Phylogenetic network
A phylogenetic network is any graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships between nucleotide sequences, genes, chromosomes, genomes, or species . They are employed when reticulate events such as hybridization, horizontal gene transfer, recombination, or gene duplication and loss are...
analysis of its Y-STR
Y-STR
A Y-STR is a short tandem repeat on the Y-chromosome. Y-STRs are often used in forensics, paternity, and genealogical DNA testing.-Nomenclature:Y-STRs are assigned names by the HUGO gene nomenclature committee....
(short tandem repeat
Tandem repeat
Tandem repeats occur in DNA when a pattern of two or more nucleotides is repeated and the repetitions are directly adjacent to each other. -Example:An example would be:in which the sequence A-T-T-C-G is repeated three times.-Terminology:...
) haplotype shows that it is most closely related to an Egyptian T haplotype. The presence of scattered and diverse European haplotypes within the network is nonetheless consistent with Jefferson's patrilineage belonging to an ancient and rare indigenous European type.
See also
- Prehistoric BritainPrehistoric BritainFor the purposes of this article, Prehistoric Britain is that period of time between the first arrival of humans on the land mass now known as Great Britain and the start of recorded British history...
- Settlement of Great Britain and IrelandSettlement of Great Britain and IrelandThe British Isles have experienced a long history of migration from across Europe. Over the millennia, successive waves of immigrants have come to the Isles, a process that is continuing today. The ancient migrations have mainly come via two routes: along the Atlantic coast and from...
- Historical immigration to Great BritainHistorical immigration to Great BritainHistorical immigration to Great Britain concerns the inward movement of people, cultural and ethnic groups into island Great Britain before 1922, Immigration during and after 1922 is dealt with at the article Immigration to the United Kingdom .Modern humans first arrived in Great Britain during the...
- Celtic invasion of Great Britain
- Anglo-Saxon invasion of Great Britain
- Nordic migration to Britain
- List of haplogroups of historical and famous figures
- Archaeogenetics of the Near EastArchaeogenetics of the Near EastThe archaeogenetics of the Near East involves the study of aDNA or ancient DNA, identifying haplogroups and haplotypes of ancient skeletal remains from both YDNA and mtDNA for populations of the Ancient Near East The archaeogenetics of the Near East involves the study of aDNA or ancient DNA,...
- Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Genetic history of EuropeGenetic history of EuropeThe genetic history of Europe can be inferred from the patterns of genetic diversity across continents and time. The primary data to develop historical scenarios coming from sequences of mitochondrial, Y-chromosome and autosomal DNA from modern populations and if available from ancient DNA...
- Genetic history of ItalyGenetic history of ItalyDuring prehistory Italy was populated by different but very similar Indo-European groups, later collectively listed amongst the Ancient peoples of Italy, of whom the Italic one was predominant....
- Genetics and archaeogenetics of South AsiaGenetics and archaeogenetics of South AsiaThe study of the genetics and archaeogenetics of the ethnic groups of South Asia aims at uncovering these groups' genetic history. The geographic position of India makes Indian populations important for the study of the early dispersal of all human populations on the Eurasian continent.The Indian...
Literature
- A study headed by Dr Bradley was published in the American Journal of Human GeneticsAmerican Journal of Human GeneticsThe American Journal of Human Genetics is a medical journal in the field of human genetics. Since its inception in 1948 by the American Society of Human Genetics, the journal has provided a record of research and review relating to heredity in humans and to the application of genetic principles in...
. Geneticists find Celtic links to Spain and Portugal also here http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/capelli-CB-03.pdf. Also see Supplementary Data. - Hill, C. Origins of the English. Also here http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/KingJobling09.TiG.SurnamesReview.pdf
- Malmström et al 2009
- Miles, David. The Tribes of Britain,
- Mithen, Steven 2003. After the Ice: A Global Human History 20,000-5000 BC. Phoenix (Orion Books Ltd.), London. ISBN 978-0-7538-1392-8
- Stringer, Chris. 2006. Homo Britanicus. Penguin BooksPenguin BooksPenguin Books is a publisher founded in 1935 by Sir Allen Lane and V.K. Krishna Menon. Penguin revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its high quality, inexpensive paperbacks, sold through Woolworths and other high street stores for sixpence. Penguin's success demonstrated that large...
Ltd., London. ISBN 978-0-713-99795-8.