European Black Pine
Encyclopedia
Pinus nigra, the European Black Pine, is a moderately variable species of pine
, occurring across southern Mediterranean Europe
from Spain
to the Crimea
, in Asia Minor
and on Cyprus
, and in the high mountains of the Maghreb
in North Africa
.
Pinus nigra is a tree of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
biome
.
The majority of the range is in Turkey
. It is found in the higher elevations of the South Apennine mixed montane forests
ecoregion
in southern Italy
and the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests
ecoregion in Sicily
. There are remnant populations in the Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests
ecoregion, and in the higher Atlas Mountains
in Morocco
and Algeria
.
It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to 2000 metres (6,561.7 ft), most commonly from 250–1600 m (820.2–5,249.3 ft). Several of the varieties have distinct English names.
, growing to 20–55 m (65.6–180.4 ft) tall at maturity. The bark is grey to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The leaves ("needles") are in thinner and more flexible in western populations (see 'Taxonomy' section below).
The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are 5–10 cm (rarely to 11 cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale grey-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark grey, 6–8 mm long, with a yellow-buff wing 20–25 mm long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. Sexual maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.
Pinus nigra is moderately fast growing, at about 30–70 cm (11.8–27.6 in) per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long lived, with some trees over 500 years old. It needs full sun to grow well, is intolerant of shade, and is resistant to snow and ice damage.
) treat several of the varieties at subspecific rank, but this reflects tradition rather than sound taxonomy, as the distinctions between the taxa are small.
Subspecies
In Mediterranean Europe
and Asia Minor
—Western Asia trees usually associated with this species include Scots Pine
(Pinus sylvestris), Serbian Spruce
(Picea omorika), Bosnian Pine
(Pinus heldreichii), Norway Spruce
(Picea abies), Lebanon Cedar
(Cedrus libani), European Silver Fir (Abies alba) and related fir
s. Several species of juniper
(Juniperus spp.), and various broadleaf trees are associates.
Climate and provenance
The eastern Pinus nigra subsp. nigra exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30°C) than the western Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii (hardy to about −25°C).
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on limestone
, while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on podzolic soils.
(Pine resinosa), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel
, and in paper
manufacture.
In the United Kingdom
, Pinus nigra is important both as a timber tree in plantation
s (primarily Corsican Pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the fungus
Dothistroma septosporum, resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there. In the United States it is of low importance as a timber
species.
European Black Pine is planted as a street tree, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road deicing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including ozone
), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the United Kingdom the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks. In both the United States and United Kingdom most of the European Black Pines planted are from Austrian sources, the Pinus nigra subsp. nigra and Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra seed selections.
Pinus nigra is planted for windbreak
s and shelterbelts in the U.S., recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains
on medium to deep moist or upland soils.
Invasive species
Pinus nigra has become naturalised
in a few areas of the United States. In New Zealand
it is considered an invasive species
and noxious weed, along with Lodgepole Pine—Pinus contorta
and Scots Pine—Pinus sylvestris
, due to their habitat conversion nature in tussock grassland
plant communities, shading out the native
bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
, occurring across southern Mediterranean Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
from Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
to the Crimea
Crimea
Crimea , or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea , is a sub-national unit, an autonomous republic, of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name...
, in Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
and on Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
, and in the high mountains of the Maghreb
Maghreb
The Maghreb is the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. It includes five countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara...
in North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
.
Distribution
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome, defined by the World Wildlife Fund, characterized by dry summers and rainy winters. Summers are typically hot in low-lying inland locations but can be cool near some seas, as near San Francisco, which have a sea of cool waters...
biome
Biome
Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. Some parts of the earth have more or less the same kind of abiotic and biotic factors spread over a...
.
The majority of the range is in Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
. It is found in the higher elevations of the South Apennine mixed montane forests
South Apennine mixed montane forests
The South Apennine mixed montane forests is an Ecoregion, in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Biome, located in southern Italy and Sicily....
ecoregion
Ecoregion
An ecoregion , sometimes called a bioregion, is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than an ecozone and larger than an ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, geographically distinct assemblages of natural...
in southern Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests
Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests
The Thyrrenian-Adriatic Sclerophyllous and Mixed Forests Ecoregion, in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Biome, is in southern Italy, Sicily, Corsica, and the Dalmatian Islands.-Major forest zones:...
ecoregion in Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
. There are remnant populations in the Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests
Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests
Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests is an ecoregion, in the temperate coniferous forest Biome, which occupies the high mountain ranges of North Africa and southern Spain. The term is also a botanically recognized plant association in the African and Mediterranean literature...
ecoregion, and in the higher Atlas Mountains
Atlas Mountains
The Atlas Mountains is a mountain range across a northern stretch of Africa extending about through Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of in southwestern Morocco. The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert...
in Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
and Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
.
It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to 2000 metres (6,561.7 ft), most commonly from 250–1600 m (820.2–5,249.3 ft). Several of the varieties have distinct English names.
Description
Pinus nigra is a large evergreen treeTree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
, growing to 20–55 m (65.6–180.4 ft) tall at maturity. The bark is grey to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The leaves ("needles") are in thinner and more flexible in western populations (see 'Taxonomy' section below).
The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are 5–10 cm (rarely to 11 cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale grey-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark grey, 6–8 mm long, with a yellow-buff wing 20–25 mm long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. Sexual maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.
Pinus nigra is moderately fast growing, at about 30–70 cm (11.8–27.6 in) per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long lived, with some trees over 500 years old. It needs full sun to grow well, is intolerant of shade, and is resistant to snow and ice damage.
Taxonomy
The species is divided into two subspecies, each further subdivided into three varieties. Some authorities (e.g. Flora EuropaeaFlora Europaea
The Flora Europaea is a 5-volume encyclopedia of plants, published between 1964 and 1993 by Cambridge University Press. The aim was to describe all the national Floras of Europe in a single, authoritative publication that helped readers identify any wild or widely cultivated plant in Europe to the...
) treat several of the varieties at subspecific rank, but this reflects tradition rather than sound taxonomy, as the distinctions between the taxa are small.
Subspecies
- Pinus nigra subsp. nigra in the east of the range, from AustriaAustriaAustria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, northeast and central ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, east to the Crimea and TurkeyTurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
. Needles stout, rigid, 1.5–2 mm diameter, with 3–6 layers of thick-walled hypodermal cells.- Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra (syn. Pinus nigra var. austriaca, Pinus nigra subsp. dalmatica) Austrian Pine. Austria, Balkan PeninsulaBalkansThe Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
(except southern Greece). - Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. caramanica Turkish Black Pine. Turkey, CyprusCyprusCyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
, southern GreeceGreeceGreece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
. - Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. pallasiana (syn. Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana) Crimean Pine. Crimea.
- Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra (syn. Pinus nigra var. austriaca, Pinus nigra subsp. dalmatica) Austrian Pine. Austria, Balkan Peninsula
- Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii in the west of the range, from south ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
to south FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, SpainSpainSpain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
and north AfricaNorth AfricaNorth Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
. Needles slender, more flexible, 0.8–1.5 mm diameter, with 1–2 layers of thin-walled hypodermal cells.- Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii var. salzmannii Pyreneean Pine. in the PyreneesPyreneesThe Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
and southern France, northern Spain. - Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii var. corsicana (syn. Pinus nigra subsp. laricio, Pinus nigra var. maritima) Corsican Pine. CorsicaCorsicaCorsica is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located west of Italy, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the island of Sardinia....
, SicilySicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, southern Italy. - Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii var. mauretanica Atlas Mountains Black Pine. MoroccoMoroccoMorocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
, AlgeriaAlgeriaAlgeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
.
- Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii var. salzmannii Pyreneean Pine. in the Pyrenees
Ecology
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
—Western Asia trees usually associated with this species include Scots Pine
Scots Pine
Pinus sylvestris, commonly known as the Scots Pine, is a species of pine native to Europe and Asia, ranging from Scotland, Ireland and Portugal in the west, east to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains, and as far north as well inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia...
(Pinus sylvestris), Serbian Spruce
Serbian Spruce
Picea omorika is a rare, local spruce, endemic to the Drina River valley in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina near Višegrad and western Serbia, with a total range of only about 60 ha, between 800–1,600 m altitude...
(Picea omorika), Bosnian Pine
Bosnian Pine
The Bosnian Pine is a species of pine native to Bosnia but is also found in the mountains of southeastern Europe, in southwestern Bulgaria, Bosnia, Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, northern Greece , and locally in southern Italy ,...
(Pinus heldreichii), Norway Spruce
Norway Spruce
Norway Spruce is a species of spruce native to Europe. It is also commonly referred to as the European Spruce.- Description :...
(Picea abies), Lebanon Cedar
Lebanon Cedar
Cedrus libani is a species of cedar native to the mountains of the Mediterranean region.There are two distinct types that are considered to be different subspecies or varieties. Lebanon cedar or Cedar of Lebanon Cedrus libani is a species of cedar native to the mountains of the Mediterranean...
(Cedrus libani), European Silver Fir (Abies alba) and related fir
Fir
Firs are a genus of 48–55 species of evergreen conifers in the family Pinaceae. They are found through much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occurring in mountains over most of the range...
s. Several species of juniper
Juniper
Junipers are coniferous plants in the genus Juniperus of the cypress family Cupressaceae. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are between 50-67 species of juniper, widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, from the Arctic, south to tropical Africa in the Old World, and to the...
(Juniperus spp.), and various broadleaf trees are associates.
Climate and provenance
The eastern Pinus nigra subsp. nigra exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30°C) than the western Pinus nigra subsp. salzmannii (hardy to about −25°C).
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
, while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on podzolic soils.
Lumber
The European Black Pine wood is similar to that of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Red PineRed Pine
Pinus resinosa, commonly known as the red pine or Norway pine, is pine native to North America. The Red Pine occurs from Newfoundland west to Manitoba, and south to Pennsylvania, with several smaller, disjunct populations occurring in the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia and West Virginia, as well...
(Pine resinosa), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel
Fuel
Fuel is any material that stores energy that can later be extracted to perform mechanical work in a controlled manner. Most fuels used by humans undergo combustion, a redox reaction in which a combustible substance releases energy after it ignites and reacts with the oxygen in the air...
, and in paper
Paper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
manufacture.
In the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Pinus nigra is important both as a timber tree in plantation
Plantation
A plantation is a long artificially established forest, farm or estate, where crops are grown for sale, often in distant markets rather than for local on-site consumption...
s (primarily Corsican Pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the fungus
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
Dothistroma septosporum, resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there. In the United States it is of low importance as a timber
Timber
Timber may refer to:* Timber, a term common in the United Kingdom and Australia for wood materials * Timber, Oregon, an unincorporated community in the U.S...
species.
Ornamental tree
In the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
European Black Pine is planted as a street tree, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road deicing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including ozone
Ozone
Ozone , or trioxygen, is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope...
), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the United Kingdom the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks. In both the United States and United Kingdom most of the European Black Pines planted are from Austrian sources, the Pinus nigra subsp. nigra and Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra seed selections.
Pinus nigra is planted for windbreak
Windbreak
A windbreak or shelterbelt is a plantation usually made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion. They are commonly planted around the edges of fields on farms. If designed properly, windbreaks around a...
s and shelterbelts in the U.S., recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains
Great Plains
The Great Plains are a broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, which lies west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada. This area covers parts of the U.S...
on medium to deep moist or upland soils.
Invasive species
Pinus nigra has become naturalised
Naturalisation (biology)
In biology, naturalisation is any process by which a non-native organism spreads into the wild and its reproduction is sufficient to maintain its population. Such populations are said to be naturalised....
in a few areas of the United States. In New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
it is considered an invasive species
Invasive species
"Invasive species", or invasive exotics, is a nomenclature term and categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in native habitats, with several definitions....
and noxious weed, along with Lodgepole Pine—Pinus contorta
Lodgepole Pine
Lodgepole Pine, Pinus contorta, also known as Shore Pine, is a common tree in western North America. Like all pines, it is evergreen.-Subspecies:...
and Scots Pine—Pinus sylvestris
Scots Pine
Pinus sylvestris, commonly known as the Scots Pine, is a species of pine native to Europe and Asia, ranging from Scotland, Ireland and Portugal in the west, east to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains, and as far north as well inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia...
, due to their habitat conversion nature in tussock grassland
Grassland
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants . However, sedge and rush families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica...
plant communities, shading out the native
Native plant
Native plant is a term to describe plants endemic or naturalized to a given area in geologic time.This includes plants that have developed, occur naturally, or existed for many years in an area...
bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.
See also
- Index: Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Biome
- Index: Flora of the Mediterranean