This article contrasts the views of a number of churches regarding Eucharistic theology

Eucharist

The Eucharist , also called Holy Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar, the Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance...

:

Roman Catholic Church

• Transubstantiation
  Transubstantiation
  In Roman Catholic theology, transubstantiation means the change, in the Eucharist, of the substance of wheat bread and grape wine into the substance of the Body and Blood, respectively, of Jesus, while all that is accessible to the senses remains as before.The Eastern Orthodox...
  
   as a statement of what is changed when the bread and wine are consecrated, not an explanation of the means or mode by which the Real Presence
  Real Presence
  Real Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech , or by his power .Not all Christian traditions accept this dogma...
  
   is effected, since "[t]he signs of bread and wine become, in a way surpassing understanding, the Body and Blood of Christ."
• Christ is really (not just in sign or symbol), truly (not just subjectively or metaphorically) and substantially (not just in his power) present in the Eucharist.
• Because the Real Presence
  Real Presence
  Real Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech , or by his power .Not all Christian traditions accept this dogma...
  
   of Christ in the Eucharist is indeed real, not merely figurative or virtual, Eucharistic adoration
  Eucharistic adoration
  Eucharistic adoration is a practice in the Roman Catholic Church, and in a few Anglican and Lutheran churches, in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful....
  
   (adoration of the Eucharist as the body, blood, soul and divinity of Jesus Christ) is practised.
• The Eucharist is a sacrifice in that it re-presents (makes present again) the sacrifice of the cross. The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice. Christ, of course, is not sacrificed again because the Cross cannot be repeated. The Mass is a liturgical representation of a sacrifice that makes present what it represents through the action of God in an unbloody manner.
• Theological development: Saint Ignatius of Antioch
  Ignatius of Antioch
  Ignatius of Antioch was among the Apostolic Fathers, was the third Bishop of Antioch, and was a student of John the Apostle. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of very early Christian theology...
  
  , Saint Justin Martyr
  Justin Martyr
  Justin Martyr, also known as just Saint Justin , was an early Christian apologist. Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and a dialogue survive. He is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church....
  
  , the first writer to describe the celebration in Rome of the Eucharist, Saint Ambrose
  Ambrose
  Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose , was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was one of the four original doctors of the Church.-Political career:Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family between about...
  
  , Saint Thomas Aquinas
  Thomas Aquinas
  Thomas Aquinas, O.P. , also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis...
  
  , the Council of Trent
  Council of Trent
  The Council of Trent was the 16th-century Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. It is considered to be one of the Church's most important councils. It convened in Trent between December 13, 1545, and December 4, 1563 in twenty-five sessions for three periods...
  
  .
• Closed communion
  Closed communion
  Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of Holy Communion to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation...
  
  , admitting Christians not in full communion
  Full communion
  In Christian ecclesiology, full communion is a relationship between church organizations or groups that mutually recognize their sharing the essential doctrines....
  
   with the Church only in the circumstances indicated in the Code of Canon Law, canon 144 §§3-4 and the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, canon 671 §§3-4
• Frequency and conditions: All Catholics are obliged to attend celebration of the Eucharist at least on every Sunday and on other days known as holy days of obligation
  Holy Day of Obligation
  In the Catholic Church, Holy Days of Obligation or Holidays of Obligation, less commonly called Feasts of Precept, are the days on which, as of the Code of Canon Law states,-Eastern Catholic Churches:...
  
  . Priests are highly encouraged to celebrate the Eucharist daily, and the laity are likewise highly recommended to communicate daily. Catholics are obliged to receive Holy Communion at least once a year (at Easter time). While they are free to attend Mass without conditions, they may receive Holy Communion only if they are in a state of grace (free from unconfessed mortal sin, which destroys the supernatural life of charity within the soul) and if they observe the prescribed pre-Communion fast, which for Latin Rite Catholics is one hour before the reception of Holy Communion. Priests celebrating the Eucharist are bound by the same rules.

Eastern Orthodox Church

• The Eucharistic mystery bears an objective Real Presence
  Real Presence
  Real Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech , or by his power .Not all Christian traditions accept this dogma...
  
  . The bread and wine are believed to become the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ Jesus (a mode of thought supported by such verses as John 6:55) through the operation of the Holy Spirit. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs: without going into details, it is satisfied in accepting that the change is a mystery beyond human understanding.
• The Church's spiritual and bodily sacrifice (by way of prayer, fasting, and confession
  Confession
  This article is for the religious practice of confessing one's sins.Confession is the acknowledgment of sin or wrongs...
  
  ) is, in a mystical and inexplicable union, fully one with Christ's actual sacrifice on the cross.
• The primary theological developments in regard to the Eucharist are mainly derived from earlier Church Fathers
  Church Fathers
  The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
  
  , especially the teachings of John Chrysostom
  John Chrysostom
  John Chrysostom , Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. He is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic...
  
  , Ignatius of Antioch
  Ignatius of Antioch
  Ignatius of Antioch was among the Apostolic Fathers, was the third Bishop of Antioch, and was a student of John the Apostle. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of very early Christian theology...
  
  , and the Cappadocian Fathers
  Cappadocian Fathers
  The Cappadocian Fathers are Basil the Great , who was bishop of Caesarea; Basil's brother Gregory of Nyssa , who was bishop of Nyssa; and a close friend, Gregory of Nazianzus , who became Patriarch of Constantinople...
  
  , among others.
• The Divine Liturgy
  Divine Liturgy
  Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. As such, it is used in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches. Armenian Christians, both of the Armenian Apostolic Church and of the Armenian Catholic Church, use the same term...
  
   is never celebrated in private, as it is considered necessarily communal; there must be at least two or three people to receive Holy Communion. An exception to this is hermit
  Hermit
  A hermit is a person who lives, to some degree, in seclusion from society.In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Christian who lives the eremitic life out of a religious conviction, namely the Desert Theology of the Old Testament .In the...
  
  s who have been ordained hieromonk
  Hieromonk
  Hieromonk , also called a Priestmonk, is a monk who is also a priest in the Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholicism....
  
  s but have no one to serve with them.
• Closed communion
  Closed communion
  Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of Holy Communion to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation...
  
   is almost exclusively administered. Communion is given only to baptized, chrismated
  Chrismation
  Chrismation is the name given in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches, as well as in the Assyrian Church of the East, Anglican, and in Lutheran initiation rites, to the Sacrament or Sacred Mystery more commonly known in the West as confirmation, although Italian...
  
   Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession. The priest administers the Body and Blood of Christ with a spoon directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice. From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion.
• The Eucharist is generally celebrated at least weekly on Sundays (and often on Saturdays also), on the "Great Feasts" and on Pascha
  Easter
  Easter is the central feast in the Christian liturgical year. According to the Canonical gospels, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. His resurrection is celebrated on Easter Day or Easter Sunday...
  
   (Easter). Some laity partake of Holy Communion only four times a year. Members are encouraged to participate as often as it is offered, provided they are properly prepared through prayer, fasting, and recent confession
  Confession
  This article is for the religious practice of confessing one's sins.Confession is the acknowledgment of sin or wrongs...
  
  . It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul. However, many spiritual advisors advocate frequent reception provided that it is done in the proper spirit and not casually, with full preparation (such as prayer, fasting, and recent confession
  Confession
  This article is for the religious practice of confessing one's sins.Confession is the acknowledgment of sin or wrongs...
  
  ) and discernment (see Eucharistic discipline
  Eucharistic discipline
  Eucharistic discipline is the term applied to the regulations and practices associated with an individual preparing for the reception of the Eucharist...
  
  ).

Anglican Churches

• There is a divergence of opinion over eucharistic theology, which broadly corresponds to the lines of churchmanship
  Churchmanship
  Within Anglicanism the term churchmanship is sometimes used to refer to distinct understandings of church doctrine and liturgical practice by members of the Church of England and other churches of the Anglican communion...
  
   within Anglicanism. Roman Catholic transubstantiation, Lollard consubstantiation
  Consubstantiation
  Consubstantiation is a theological doctrine that attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in concrete metaphysical terms. It holds that during the sacrament, the fundamental "substance" of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine,...
  
  , Lutheran sacramental union
  Sacramental Union
  Sacramental union is the Lutheran theological doctrine of the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Christian Eucharist....
  
  , and Calvinist pneumatic (i.e., spiritual) presence, can all be found. Which of these views is considered to represent "authentic" Anglican eucharistic theology depends on wider theological and ecclesiological
  Ecclesiology
  Today, ecclesiology usually refers to the theological study of the Christian church. However when the word was coined in the late 1830s, it was defined as the science of the building and decoration of churches and it is still, though rarely, used in this sense.In its theological sense, ecclesiology...
  
   understandings of Anglicanism, in particular the role of pre-English Reformation
  English Reformation
  The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church....
  
   doctrine and practices, versus a more Magisterial Reformation
  Magisterial Reformation
  The Magisterial Reformation is a phrase that "draws attention to the manner in which the Lutheran and Calvinist reformers related to secular authorities, such as princes, magistrates, or city councils", i.e. "the magistracy"...
  
   theology, in interpreting the Book of Common Prayer
  Book of Common Prayer
  The Book of Common Prayer is the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion, as well as by the Continuing Anglican, "Anglican realignment" and other Anglican churches. The original book, published in 1549 , in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English...
  
   (which has its origins in the works of Thomas Cranmer
  Thomas Cranmer
  Thomas Cranmer was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I. He helped build a favourable case for Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon which resulted in the separation of the English Church from...
  
  ) and the Thirty-Nine Articles
  Thirty-Nine Articles
  The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion are the historically defining statements of doctrines of the Anglican church with respect to the controversies of the English Reformation. First established in 1563, the articles served to define the doctrine of the nascent Church of England as it related to...
  
   (an Anglican formulary developed in the sixteenth century).
• High Church
  High church
  The term "High Church" refers to beliefs and practices of ecclesiology, liturgy and theology, generally with an emphasis on formality, and resistance to "modernization." Although used in connection with various Christian traditions, the term has traditionally been principally associated with the...
  
   Anglicans tend to believe in the literal, carnal (bodily) Presence. While a minority of Anglo-Catholics adhere to transubstantiation (despite its denunciation in Article XXVIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles), the majority of High Church Anglicans do not and are content simply to let the mystery of the manifestation of Christ remain a mystery. In practice, High Church parishes tend to celebrate the Eucharist weekly (or more frequently) and prefer the term "Eucharist" or "Mass". Reservation and adoration of the sacrament
  Sacrament
  A sacrament is a sacred rite recognized as of particular importance and significance. There are various views on the existence and meaning of such rites.-General definitions and terms:...
  
   are common practice among many "High Church" Anglicans. The pioneering Anglo-Catholic Edward Bouverie Pusey
  Edward Bouverie Pusey
  Edward Bouverie Pusey was an English churchman and Regius Professor of Hebrew at Christ Church, Oxford. He was one of the leaders of the Oxford Movement.-Early years:...
  
   argued for a theology of sacramental union.
• Low Church
  Low church
  Low church is a term of distinction in the Church of England or other Anglican churches initially designed to be pejorative. During the series of doctrinal and ecclesiastic challenges to the established church in the 16th and 17th centuries, commentators and others began to refer to those groups...
  
   Anglicans, in accordance with the Articles of Religion
  Thirty-Nine Articles
  The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion are the historically defining statements of doctrines of the Anglican church with respect to the controversies of the English Reformation. First established in 1563, the articles served to define the doctrine of the nascent Church of England as it related to...
  
  , reject the doctrine of transubstantiation
  Transubstantiation
  In Roman Catholic theology, transubstantiation means the change, in the Eucharist, of the substance of wheat bread and grape wine into the substance of the Body and Blood, respectively, of Jesus, while all that is accessible to the senses remains as before.The Eastern Orthodox...
  
   as well as reservation itself and adoration of the reserved sacrament. Low Church Anglicans believe in Pneumatic presence, or that Christ is mystically present in the faithful participation of the sacrament, but his physical person is in no way attached to the elements, nor do the elements become his physical body and blood. This view is similar to the views of other Reformed bodies, such as the Presbyterians and the Continental Reformed Churches. Low Church parishes tend to celebrate the Eucharist less frequently (e.g., monthly, but this varies from place to place) and prefer the terms used in the historic Book of Common Prayer, "Holy Communion" or "Lord's Supper".
• Between the High and Low Church positions lies the view that Anglicanism (as a Broad Church
  Broad church
  Broad church is a term referring to latitudinarian churchmanship in the Church of England, in particular, and Anglicanism, in general. From this, the term is often used to refer to secular political organisations, meaning that they encompass a broad range of opinion.-Usage:After the terms high...
  
  ) permits a range of theological views, each of which (with the possible exception of the Roman Catholic notion of transubstantiation) is an equally welcome expression of Eucharistic theology within the Anglican context. In practical terms, most Broad Church Anglicans believe Christ is spiritually present in the elements — a theology of consubstantionism or Sacramental Union.

Lutheran Churches

• Primary theological development from Martin Luther
  Martin Luther
  Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
  
  , Philipp Melanchthon
  Philipp Melanchthon
  Philipp Melanchthon , born Philipp Schwartzerdt, was a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems...
  
  , and the Lutheran Book of Concord
  Book of Concord
  The Book of Concord or Concordia is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century...
  
   of the 16th century.
• Eucharistic theology: the sacramental union
  Sacramental Union
  Sacramental union is the Lutheran theological doctrine of the Real Presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Christian Eucharist....
  
   is the mode of the Real Presence
  Real Presence
  Real Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech , or by his power .Not all Christian traditions accept this dogma...
  
  , the means is the mandate and institution of Christ
  Jesus
  Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
  
  . This mandate and institution is expressed in the Lutheran divine service as the Words of Institution
  Words of Institution
  The Words of Institution are words echoing those of Jesus himself at his Last Supper that, when consecrating bread and wine, Christian Eucharistic liturgies include in a narrative of that event...
  
   or the Verba. Statement of Martin Luther
  Martin Luther
  Martin Luther was a German priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517...
  
  :

Why then should we not much more say in the Supper, "This is my body", even though bread and body are two distinct substances, and the word "this" indicates the bread? Here, too, out of two kinds of objects a union has taken place, which I shall call a "sacramental union", because Christ's body and the bread are given to us as a sacrament. This is not a natural or personal union, as is the case with God and Christ. It is also perhaps a different union from that which the dove has with the Holy Spirit, and the flame with the angel, but it is also assuredly a sacramental union (WA 26, 442; LW 37, 299-300).

• Body and Blood are "in, with, and under the forms" of bread and wine:

For the reason why, in addition to the expressions of Christ and St. Paul (the bread in the Supper is the body of Christ or the communion of the body of Christ), also the forms: under the bread, with the bread, in the bread [the body of Christ is present and offered], are employed, is that by means of them the papistical transubstantiation may be rejected and the sacramental union of the unchanged essence of the bread and of the body of Christ indicated (FC SD VII, 35; Triglot Concordia, 983; emphasis added). Lutherans do not seek to explain the change, and some designate their beliefs as consubstantiation

Consubstantiation

Consubstantiation is a theological doctrine that attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in concrete metaphysical terms. It holds that during the sacrament, the fundamental "substance" of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine,...

, while others reject the designation of their doctrine as consubstantiation in contradistinction to the transubstantiation of the Roman Catholic Church, which they also reject (see also, Smalcald Articles http://www.bookofconcord.org/smalcald.html).

• Lutherans do not believe that the eucharistic sacrifice (sacrifice of praise) of the Lord's Supper is propitiatory or that it "repeats" Christ's sacrifice on the cross. However, Lutheran denominations put a great emphasis on the importance of the Sacrament of the Eucharist, and of the main branches of the Reformation Era, the Lutheran view of "Real Presence" is regarded by many theologians to be the closest in theory and practice to the Sacrament of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

• Many congregations in Lutheran Church bodies practice closed communion. For example, in the LCMS and WELS, closed communion is practiced (meaning the Lutheran Eucharistic catechetical
  Luther's Small Catechism
  Luther's Small Catechism was written by Martin Luther and published in 1529 for the training of children. Luther's Small Catechism reviews The Ten Commandments, The Apostles' Creed, The Lord's Prayer, The Sacrament of Holy Baptism, The Office of the Keys & Confession, and The Sacrament of the...
  
   instruction as well as membership in a church body that shares the same Lutheran confession of faith is required for all people before receiving the Eucharist.). Recently, more liberal synods like the ELCA practice open communion (meaning the Eucharist is offered to adults without being members of the national church body, as long as they are a baptized
  Baptism
  In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
  
   Christian). Lutherans are to offer the Eucharist each Sunday. The weekly Eucharist has been strongly encouraged by the bishops and priests/pastors and is now the common practice among all Lutherans.

Moravian Church

Most Moravians hold an understanding of Holy Communion that is similar to Lutherans; however, because the exact meaning of the Eucharist is not defined in Scripture, all understandings of the ceremony are accepted. Each individual believer must arrive at their own understanding of the Eucharistic experience. As a result, during the Moravian service of Holy Communion, only the scriptural words of institution are used, and thematic hymns are sung during the serving of the sacrament. Believers may understand the ceremony to be Transsubstantiation, Consubstantiation

Consubstantiation

Consubstantiation is a theological doctrine that attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in concrete metaphysical terms. It holds that during the sacrament, the fundamental "substance" of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine,...

, or that Christ is spiritually present.

The Moravian Church practices open communion. All baptized Christians who have confirmed their faith may join in Holy Communion.

Reformed Churches

• Eucharistic theology: historically, real spiritual presence, i.e., pneumatic presence.
• Reformed theology has taught that Jesus' body is seated in heaven at the right hand of God and therefore is not present in the elements nor do the elements turn into his body. When the eucharist is received, however, not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real") are received in a pneumatic (spiritual) sense, but these are only received by those partakers who eat worthily (i.e., repentantly) with faith. The Holy Spirit unites the Christian with Jesus though they are separated by a great distance.
• See, e.g., Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 19; Belgic Confession, Article 35; open communion
  Open communion
  Open communion is the practice of Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive Holy Communion...
  
  .
• Theology in this tradition is in flux, and recent agreements, especially A Formula for Agreement, between these denominations and the Lutherans have stressed that: "The theological diversity within our common confession provides both the complementarity needed for a full and adequate witness to the gospel (mutual affirmation) and the corrective reminder that every theological approach is a partial and incomplete witness to the Gospel (mutual admonition) (A Common Calling, page 66)." Hence, in seeking to come to consensus about the Real Presence, the churches have written:

"During the Reformation both Reformed and Lutheran Churches exhibited an evangelical intention when they understood the Lord's Supper in the light of the saving act of God in Christ. Despite this common intention, different terms and concepts were employed which. . . led to mutual misunderstanding and misrepresentation. Properly interpreted, the differing terms and concepts were often complementary rather than contradictory (Marburg Revisited, pp. 103-104);"

and further:

"In the Lord's Supper the risen Christ imparts himself in body and blood, given up for all, through his word of promise with bread and wine....we proclaim the death of Christ through which God has reconciled the world with himself. We proclaim the presence of the risen Lord in our midst. Rejoicing that the Lord has come to us, we await his future coming in glory....Both of our communions, we maintain, need to grow in appreciation of our diverse eucharistic traditions, finding mutual enrichment in them. At the same time both need to grow toward a further deepening of our common experience and expression of the mystery

Sacred Mysteries

The term sacred mysteries generally denotes the area of supernatural phenomena associated with a divinity or a religious ideology.-Pre-Christian religious mysteries:...

 of our Lord's Supper (A Formula for Agreement)."

• Communion is now celebrated either the First Sunday of the Month or some congregations weekly. In the past is was generally held less frequently than some . In the Church of Scotland
  Church of Scotland
  The Church of Scotland, known informally by its Scots language name, the Kirk, is a Presbyterian church, decisively shaped by the Scottish Reformation....
  
   Holy Communion in the past was traditionally held four times a year, the first Sunday of March, June, September and December, though many churches hold it more frequently . It was traditionally taken by all confirmed members of the church, but nowadays is also often open to children baptized in the church.

Methodist Churches

• primary theological development from John Wesley
  John Wesley
  John Wesley was a Church of England cleric and Christian theologian. Wesley is largely credited, along with his brother Charles Wesley, as founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield...
  
   & Charles Wesley
  Charles Wesley
  Charles Wesley was an English leader of the Methodist movement, son of Anglican clergyman and poet Samuel Wesley, the younger brother of Anglican clergyman John Wesley and Anglican clergyman Samuel Wesley , and father of musician Samuel Wesley, and grandfather of musician Samuel Sebastian Wesley...
  
  , 18th century Anglicans
• Because of historical roots, much Methodist Eucharistic thought is similar to "Broad Church" Anglican thought; some elements of "High Church" and "Low Church" Anglicanism can be found among Methodists, with United Methodists tending to be more "High" in theology if not in practice.
• Eucharist commonly celebrated on Sundays and Holy Days, like Christmas Eve and Christmas Day, but never without a congregation. While monthly observance was once the most commonly found experience, since the 1980s weekly celebration has become more common, and not just on Sundays.
• Eucharistic theology: "Jesus Christ...is truly present in Holy Communion...The divine presence is a living reality and can be experienced by participants; it is not a remembrance of the Last Supper and the Crucifixion only." (from This Holy Mystery), i.e., Real Presence
  Real Presence
  Real Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech , or by his power .Not all Christian traditions accept this dogma...
  
  .
• see John Wesley
  John Wesley
  John Wesley was a Church of England cleric and Christian theologian. Wesley is largely credited, along with his brother Charles Wesley, as founding the Methodist movement which began when he took to open-air preaching in a similar manner to George Whitefield...
  
  , Open communion
  Open communion
  Open communion is the practice of Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive Holy Communion...
  
  , This Holy Mystery

Baptists and related Protestants

• primary theological development from 16th and 17th centuries
• Eucharistic theology: Memorialism
  Memorialism
  Memorialism is the belief held by many Protestant denominations that the elements of bread and wine in the Eucharist are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus, the feast being primarily a memorial meal. The theory comes largely from the work of Reformed theologian Huldrych Zwingli...
  
  
• Independent Baptist hold to the Relational Presence
• Calvinistic Baptists, in agreement with Presbyterians and the Reformed churches, hold to the doctrine of Pneumatic Presence. The doctrine is articulated in the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith
  1689 Baptist Confession of Faith
  The 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith was written by Particular Baptists, who held to a Calvinistic Soteriology in England to give a formal expression of their Christian faith from a Baptist perspective...
  
   and the Catechism
  Keach's Catechism
  The Keach's Catechism is a Reformed Baptist catechism consisting of a set of 118 basic questions and answers from scripture teaching readers the basics of the Reformed Baptist faith.The Catechism is similar to the earlier Heidelberg Catechism and Westminster Catechism except for the sections on...
  
  .
• "The bread and cup that symbolize the broken body and shed blood offered by Christ remind us today of God's great love for us..." http://www.abc-usa.org/identity/bible.html
• see Huldrych Zwingli
  Huldrych Zwingli
  Ulrich Zwingli was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism...
  
  , open communion
  Open communion
  Open communion is the practice of Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive Holy Communion...
  
  

Quakers and the Salvation Army

• primary theological development from 17th century
• Eucharistic theology: suspension/Memorialism
  Memorialism
  Memorialism is the belief held by many Protestant denominations that the elements of bread and wine in the Eucharist are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus, the feast being primarily a memorial meal. The theory comes largely from the work of Reformed theologian Huldrych Zwingli...
  
  
• "The bread and wine remind us of Jesus' body and blood." http://www.request.org.uk/main/dowhat/communion/communion02.htm
• see George Fox
  George Fox
  George Fox was an English Dissenter and a founder of the Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as the Quakers or Friends.The son of a Leicestershire weaver, Fox lived in a time of great social upheaval and war...
  
  
• Quakers understand all of life as being sacramental and thus do not practice baptism or holy communion. "We believe in the baptism of the Holy Spirit and in communion with that Spirit. If the believer experiences such spiritual baptism and communion, then no rite or ritual is necessary. ...The Quaker ideal is to make every meal at every table a Lord's Supper." http://www.firstfriendswhittier.org/welcome/sacraments.html
• Quakers and Salvationists do not practice Holy Communion in their worship, believing it was not meant to be a perpetually mandated ritual

External links

• Lutheran full communion with Reformed Churches (Presbyterian Church USA, Reformed Church in America, United Church of Christ)