Early Medieval Ireland 800–1166
Encyclopedia
The History of Ireland 800–1169 covers the period in the history of Ireland
from the first Viking
raids to the Norman invasion
. The first two centuries of this period are characterised by Viking raids and the subsequent Norse
settlements along the coast. Viking ports were established at Dublin, Wexford
, Waterford
, Cork
and Limerick
, which became the first large towns in Ireland.
Ireland consisted of many semi-independent túatha, and during the whole period attempts were made by various factions to gain political control over the whole of the island. For the first two centuries of our period this was mainly a rivalry between High Kings of Ireland from the northern and southern branch of the Uí Néill
. The one who came closest to being de facto king over the whole of Ireland however was Brian Boru
, the first high king in historical times not belonging to Uí Néill.
Following Brian's death at the battle of Clontarf
in 1014, the political situation became more complex with rivalry for highkingship from several clanns and dynasties. Brian's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling over territory led indirectly to invasion of the Normans
under Richard de Clare
in 1169.
Due to the rich amount of written sources, the study of Irish history 800–1169 has to a large extent focused on gathering, interpretation and textual criticism
of these. Only recently have other sources of historical knowledge received more attention, in particular archaeology
. Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford
, Waterford
and Limerick
, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established in this period.
The first part of the period from 800 to 1014 is well-studied; the "Viking age" has attracted the interest of historians for quite some time. The period between 1014 and 1169 has received less attention. In the words of Sean Duffy, this period
In trying to interpret the history of early Ireland, one of the most frequently asked questions addressed by historians is how early it is possible to speak of an Irish nation, a natio encompassing the whole island of Ireland. Early poet-historians like Flann Mainistrech
constructed a history of a monarchy of all Ireland going back to St Patrick and beyond. Only a hundred years after Flann, Gerald of Wales described the Irish society in his Topographia Hibernica
as utterly primitive and savage. At the beginning of modern scholarly interpretation of Irish history, Eoin MacNeill
s and G.H. Orpen came to opposite conclusions analysing the same period. Orpen saw an anarchic country still in ‘a tribal state’; he could see no natio, no wider community in Ireland than the tribe. MacNeill stressed the reality of the high-kingship of Ireland and the existence of many of those institutions of government which Orpen found wanting, and claimed that Irish law had a national character.
A large body of contemporary and near-contemporary material on early medieval Ireland has survived. From the titles of works mentioned in these sources, it is clear that a great deal of additional material has now been lost. The surviving materials usually exist in the form of much later copies, and it is only from comparison of the various texts that the original documents can be reconstructed.
Extant Irish annals
are ultimately derived from the now-lost Chronicle of Ireland
which was probably being compiled in the midlands of Ireland by around 800. All include material derived from other sources, or added at a later date. The Annals of Ulster
and the Annals of Innisfallen cover most of this period, but has a gap between 1132 and 1155. The Annals of Clonmacnoise
survive only in an eccentric 17th century English translation, and the Annals of Tigernach
for this period are lost with Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh
's abbreviated copy known as the Chronicon Scotorum
supplying only part of the missing material. The Annals of the Four Masters
are late, and include some material of doubtful origin. While the annals provide a considerable amount of information, they are generally terse, and most focus their attention on the doings of the Uí Néill
and of churchmen.
In addition to the annals, a large number of genealogies survive along with geographical and legal texts, poetry, sagas and hagiography.
In the 12th century, propaganda text like Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil
and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib were composed. Even though the historical accuracy of these accounts is dubious, especially the Cogad has had a great impact on the interpretation of Irish medieval history until recently.
, in terms of society, culture and language. People lived in rural communities, and the only larger settlements was monastic towns of varying sizes. The monasteries played an important part in society not just with regards to religious and cultural life but also economy and politics. Christianization
had begun in the 5th century, and by the early 9th century the island was almost wholly Christian. However, the Martyrology of Tallaght
(written sometime in the 8th century or 9th century) hints that paganism had not yet been fully uprooted.
Eoin MacNeill
identified the "oldest certain fact in the political history of Ireland" as the existence in late prehistory of a pentarchy, probably consisting of the cóiceda or "fifths" of the Ulaid
(Ulster), the Connachta
(Connacht), the Laigin
(Leinster), Mumu (Munster
) and Mide
(Meath), although some accounts discount Mide and split Mumu in two. This is not an accurate description of the political landscape c. 800,Ó Cróinín also points out the irony of "at no time in the historical period did the political division represented by the word cóiced... ...have a tangible existence" but when discussing the political subdivisions of Ireland at this time it is still useful to refer to this system; if Laigin and Mide are combined as Leinster, it roughly corresponds with the modern four provinces of Ireland
.
The Uí Néill
, divided in two main branches known as "Northern Uí Néill" and "Southern Uí Néill" was the leading dynasty in Ireland.They may not have been as dominant in earlier history as medieval sources tend to claim, according to Ó Corráin, "The Vikings & Ireland" they :"paraded illustrious ancestors and their claim to precedence was expressed in an elaborate mythography that passed for history." The Northern Uí Néill controlled the north-western part of Ireland, and was divided into two leading branches, the Cenél Conaill
in the west and Cenél nEógain
, also known as the kingdom of Ailech
. Cenél nEógain had become the more powerful of the two in 789, and had expanded east and southwards, gaining control over the important monastic centre Armagh
and the large sub-kingdom of Airgíalla
. The traditional kingdom of Ulaid, dominated by Dál Fiatach
and Dál nAraidi
, was now more or less confined to the area east of the river Bann
.
The central region of Mide had been dominated by what became known as the "southern Uí Néill" since the 7th century. Until the 8th century, the Síl nÁedo Sláine
(also known as the kingdom of Brega) was pre-eminent, from 728 the western dynasty of Clann Cholmáin
was dominant.
In Laigin, Uí Dúnlainge
was the dominant dynasty c. 800. They were closely associated with the large monastery of Kildare
. Their main rival for dominance in Leinster, the Uí Cheinnselaig
had not been able to claim the title king of Leinster since 728. The Uí Cheinnselaig now controlled a territory in the south-eastern part of Leinster, and had close links to the monastery of Ferns
.
The kingdom of Osraige
, occupying roughly the same area as the present County Kilkenny
, was considered part of Munster. Munster was dominated by the Eóganachta
, centred around Cashel
and with Emly
as ecclesiastical centre. The Dál gCais
(not yet known under this name) had defeated the Corcu Modruad in 744 and taken control over the area in present County Clare
from which they would later rise to dominance, but were not yet a significant power in Munster. Eóganachta rivalled the Uí Néill in power and influence, and claimed suzerainty over the southern part of Ireland. This claim was in part anchored within the legendary ancient division of the island in Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga
, "Conn
s half" (north) and "Mug
s half" (south).
During the 7th century the Uí Briúin
had emerged in Connacht, and since the first half of the 8th century been the dominant dynasty. Uí Briúin also influenced the kingdom of Breifne
on the southern borders of the Northern Uí Néill.
raid in Irish history occurred in 795 when Vikings, possibly from Norway
looted the island of Lambay
.Ó Corráin, The Vikings & Ireland, p. 9. The annals name the site of this attack as Rechru, a name that could mean either modern Lambay Island or Rathlin
. This was followed by a raid on the coast of Brega
in 798, and raids on the coast of Connacht
in 807. These early Viking raids were generally small in scale and quick.
These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture starting the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of the early raiders came from the fjords of western Norway. They are believed to have sailed first to Shetland, then south to Orkney. The Vikings would have then sailed down the Atlantic coast of Scotland
, and then over to Ireland. During these early raids the Vikings also travelled to the west coast of Ireland to the Skellig Islands
located off the coast of County Kerry
. The early raids on Ireland seem to have been aristocratic free enterprise, and named leaders appear in the Irish annals: Saxolb (Soxulfr) in 837, Turges
(Þurgestr) in 845, Agonn (Hákon) in 847.
Thomas Charles-Edwards
credits Áed for "the absence of any major Viking attacks on Ireland during his reign after 798". The annals gives no reference, however, to Áed at any time being involved with warfare against Viking raiders.
Áed was connected to the monastic community at Armagh, and a supporter of the familia of Patrick. His rivals for supremacy within Uí Néill, the Clann Cholmáin and the Cenél Conaill, had on the other hand supported the familia of Columba
. During Áeds reign the Columban familia, following several Viking raids against Iona
, established a new monastery at Kells
, a royal site in the possession of Armagh. Byrne states that "...the foundation [of Kells] marked the resolution of any remaining rivalry between the Columban and Patrician churches...". That the community of Columba in 817 tried to have Áed excommunicated may show that not all rivalry was resolved after all.
acceded to the kingship of Munster
in 820, beginning a 130-year domination by this branch of Eóganachta. Combining military campaigns with manipulation of ecclesiastical affairs, he embarked a policy of aggressive expansion to counter the growth in power of the Uí Néill. Conchobar mac Donnchada
succeeded Áed Oirdnide as Uí Néill over-king in 819, and soon found himself challenged by Feidlimid, both by Feidlimid launching raids into Mide and Connacht and by him interfering (as would be the Uí Néill view) in the affairs of Armagh. Conchobar and Feidlimid met at Birr
in 827 to discuss peace terms, and the very fact that "the king of Munster could force the high-king to a peace conference is indicative of Feidlimid's growing power".
Conchobar was succeeded by Niall Caille in 833. With Niall, we for the first time see a reference in the annals of a Uí Néill leading an army against the Vikings, he defeated Viking raiders in Derry
the same year. He sought to further expand Uí Néill influence in the south, in 835 he led an army to Leinster and installed Bran mac Fáeláin
as king of Leinster, and also invaded Mide. This brought him in conflict with Feidlimid however, and in 838 a conference (rígdál mór - "great royal meeting") between Niall and Feidlimid was held.Hudson, Niall Caille. According to Hudson, "Any agreement made there has not survived, although the report of the meeting from a Munster chronicle with a bias towards the southern prince claims that Niall submitted to Feidlimid, while a contemporary northern chronicle has no report of the proceedings." This meeting did not result in any lasting peace though, in 840 Feidlimid led an army into Mide and encamped at Tara and thereby challenged the Uí Néill also in the north. In 841 however, Feidlimid was routed in battle by Niall in Leinster. His successors in the south would not be able to challenge the north again to this extent until some 150 years later.
or British
bases. The first known longports were at Linn Dúachaill (Annagassan
) and Duiblinn (on the River Liffey
, at or near present Dublin).The first report of Vikings spending the winter in Ireland is from Lough Neagh
840-41, the first overwintered in Dublin 841-42. They were also moving further inland to attack, often using rivers such as the Shannon, and then retreating to their coastal bases. The raidingparties also increased in size, becoming regular armies - in 837 the annals report a fleet of sixty longship
s on the Liffey, carrying 1.500 men.
One of the first named Viking leaders was Thorgest (in Latin Turgesius). The Annals of the Four Masters
connect him with attacks on Connacht
, Mide and the church at Clonmacnoise
in 844. He was captured and drowned in Lough Owel
by Máel Sechnaill mac Maíl Ruanaid
, King of Mide
.
In 848 a Norse army was defeated at Sciath Nechtain by Ólchobar mac Cináeda
of Munster and Lorcán mac Cellaig
of Leinster. For the first the leader of the Vikings is described as royalty from Lochlann
. Máel Sechnaill, now High king, defeated another army at Forrach the same year. These victories form the background of an embassy sent to the Frankish emperor Charles the Bald
, reported in the Annales Bertiniani
.
In 853 Olaf
, identified as a "son of the king of Lochlann", came to Ireland. Lochlann has been understood as (a district of) present Norway
, it is now considered more plausible that it refers to a Scandinavian colony in the Western Isles
of Scotland.For a longer discussion on the location on Lochlann, see Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Scotland and Ireland in the Ninth Century" Olaf assumed leadership of the Vikings in Ireland, probably in some way shared with his kinsman Ivar
, first mentioned in the Irish Annals in 857. Olaf and Ivar remained active in Ireland and around the Irish Sea
for the next two decades. The descendants of Ivar, the Uí Ímair
, would be an important political factor for the next two centuries.
had become king of Osraige in 842
. Cerball had successfully defeated Viking raiders in 846 and 847, but from 858
he is allied with Olaf and Ivar against Máel Sechnaill, campaigning in Leinster and Munster, and in 859
also raiding Máel Sechnaills heartlands in Mide, though Cerball had to submit to Máel Sechnaill later the same year. These alliances were by no means permanent. In 860
Cerball was allied with Máel Sechnaill in a campaign against Áed Findliath of the Northern Uí Néill, while Olaf and Ivar has allied themselves with Áed. In 870
, however, Cerball and Áed appeared as allies in Leinster.
Máel Sechnaill had more success as high-king than his predecessors Niall Caille and Conchobar Donnchada in dealing with the south, and forced Munster into submission in 858 and as noted above Osraige in 859. He also asserted control over Ulaid, Leinster and Connacht, and was in his obituary in the Annals of Ulster described as ri h-Erenn uile, king of all Ireland. The last years of his reign he had however experienced serious opposition from his Uí Néill kinsmen of Ailech and Brega, allied with the Norse of Dublin. Byrne
notes: "Máel Sechnaill's unprecedented success in achieving the high-kingship of all Ireland was marred by the chronic complaint of Irish politics: having united the Ulaid, Munster, Osraige, Connacht and Leinster, he was attacked at the end of his reign by a combination of Uí Néill kings."
Áed Findliath was king of Ailech and the leading king within the Northern Uí Néill. After the death of Máel Sechnaill he is counted in the regal lists as high king, following the established scheme where this alternated between Cenél nEógain in the north and Clann Cholmáin of Mide. His kingship was disputed though, and he did not come close to being an actual king over Ireland. He could count some successes against the Norse however, most notably burning all the Norse longports in the north in 866. Áed seem to have used the opportunity while Olaf was involved in warfare in Pictland, presumably bringing a large contingent of the Norse forces in Ireland with him. The Vikings never managed to establish permanent settlements in the north. Ó Corráin
observes: "Ironically, [Áed Findliath's] success may have held back the economic development of the north and ultimately prevented the growth of port towns like those on the east and south coasts, on which the Leinster and Munster kings subsequently depended for much of their wealth."
The last report of Olaf is when he and Ivar returns to Dublin in 871
from Alba
. Ivar died in 873
. In his obituary, the Annals of Ulster call Ivar "king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain". With their disappearance, there were frequent changes of leadership among the Norse in Ireland and a great deal of internecine conflict is reported for the following decades.
In 902
Máel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin
of Leinster joined forces against Dublin, and "The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]".AU 902.2 Note that the untranslated text http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A.html reads: "Indarba n-gennti a h-Ere, .í. longport Atha Cliath o Mael Findia m. Flandacain co feraibh Bregh & o Cerball m. Muiricain co Laignibh...", that is "longport", not "fortress".
grandsons or great grandsons of Ivar, no other patronym was given for these, which makes it difficult trace their lineage. Modern scholarly literature also refer to later descendants as "of the Uí Ímair". However, "a collective term for all the descendants of Ívarr is lacking in the medieval Irish chronicles"Downham, "Viking Kings...", p. 6. remained active around the Irish sea
, there are reports of their activities in Pictland, Strathclyde
, Northumbria
and Man
. In 914 a new Viking fleet appeared in Waterford Harbour
, and soon the Uí Ímair followed, again taking control over Viking activities in Ireland. Ragnall
arrived with a fleet in Waterford, while Sitric landed at Cenn Fuait (possibly near Leixlip
) in Leinster. Niall Glúndub
had followed Flann Sinna as Uí Néill over-king in 916, and he marched into Munster against Ragnall, but no decisive engagement followed. The men of Leinster under Augaire mac Ailella
attacked Sithric but were heavily defeated in the Battle of Confey
. This victory allowed Sithric to re-establish Norse control over Dublin. Ragnall left Ireland again in 918, and became king of York
.The identity between the Ragnall of Waterford and Ragnall (Rögnvald) of York has been questioned, see Downham, Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland, p. 94.
With Sithric in Dublin and Ragnall in York, an axis Dublin-York had been established which would have influence on both England and Ireland for the next half a century.
A new and more intensive period of settlement in Ireland began in 914. Between 914 and 922, Waterford
, Cork
, Dublin, Wexford
and Limerick
were established.The archaeology of the early viking age in Ireland "The second and more intensive period of settlement was characterised by the establishment of a series of towns. Waterford (914), Cork (c.915), Dublin (917), Wexford (c.921) and Limerick (922)." Significant excavations in Dublin and Waterford in the 20th century has unearthed much of the Viking heritage of those cities.
The Vikings founded many other coastal towns, and after several generations of coexistence and intermarriage a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (often called Norse-Gaels
or Hiberno-Norse). This Norse influence is reflected in the Norse-derived names of many contemporary Irish kings (e.g. Magnus, Lochlann or Sitric), and DNA evidence in some residents of these coastal cities to this day. A genetics paper in 2006 by Dr Brian McEvoy found that most men with Irish-Viking surnames carried typically Irish genes. This suggests that Viking settlements may have had a Scandinavian elite but with most of the inhabitants being indigenous Irish.
Niall Glúndub marched on Dublin in September 919, but his forces were met by Sihtric at Islandbridge and suffered a decisive defeat, with Niall and numerous other Irish leaders among the casualties. Dublin was secured for the Norse, and in 920 Sitric left for York and following Ragnalls death succeeded him as ruler there in 921. Their kinsman Gofraid
assumed control of Dublin. Gofraid was active as a Viking raider and slaver, but there were signs during his reign that the Norse were not just mere Vikings any more. During a raid at Armagh in 921 Gofraid "...spared the prayerhouses... ...and the sick from destruction", considerations never taken by the raiders of the previous century. Another was the intense campaigns led by Dublin in eastern Ulster from 921 to 927, where the purpose seem to have been conquest in order to create a Scandinavian kingdom like the one on the eastern side of the Irish sea.
Dublins ambitions in Ulster was halted by a series of defeats inflicted upon the them by Muirchertach mac Néill
, the son of Niall Glúndub. According to Benjamin Hudson, "Muirchertach was one of the most successful generals of his day and was described as the ‘Hector of the Irish’". In the annals, it is Donnchad Donn
from Clann Cholmáin who is titled "high king" after Niall however, and Muirchertach did not succeed his father as king of Ailech either until 938. Apart from his victories over the Norse, Muirchertach successfully lead campaigns forcing other provincial kingdoms into submission, most notably taking the king of Munster Cellachán Caisil
captive in 941. The same year he led a fleet to the Hebrides, collecting tribute there.Hudson, "Muirchertach mac Néill (d. 943)", Hudson also notes that "As a descendant of the kings of Dál Riata, being the great-grandson of the Scottish king Cináed mac Alpin, he may have considered that he had hereditary interests in the region."
When Sihtric died in 927 Gofraid left for York, trying to assume kingship there. He was driven out by Athelstan
, and returned to Dublin half a year later. The Vikings of Limerick, had taken Dublin in his absence. Gofraid retook the city, but the struggle between Limerick continued well after Gofraids death in 934. He was succeeded by his son, Amlaíb, who inflicted a decisive defeat on Limerick in 937. The same year Amlaíb went to Northumbria and allied himself with Constantine II of Scotland
and Owen I of Strathclyde. This coalition was defeated by Athelstan at Brunanburh
, but after Athelstans death in 939 Amlaíb was made king of York. He was joined by a kinsman with the same name, Amlaíb son of Sihtric, known as Amlaíb Cuarán.
Congalach mac Máel Mithig, known as Cnogba, succeeded Donnchad Donn as Uí Néill overking in 944 (Muirchertag, who otherwise might have been the obvious successor had been killed in 943). Congalach was king of Brega and a member of Síl nÁedo Sláine
, and the first of this dynasty called "High King" since Cináed mac Írgalaig
in the early 8th century. In 944 he sacked Dublin, now ruled by Blácaire mac Gofrith
. When Amlaíb Cuaran returned to Ireland the next year, he became ruler of Dublin and acted as an ally of Congalach in the struggle against Ruaidrí ua Canannáin
, a rival Uí Néill claimant for High Kingship from Cenél Conaill
. This alliance did not last long after Ruaidrís death in 950 however, and Congalach was killed in 956 in a battle against an alliance of Dublin and Leinster. He was succeeded by Domnall ua Néill
, and in the following decades alliances shifted constantly between the different branches of Uí Néill, Leinster and Dublin.
In 980 Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill
succeeded Domnall, and the same year he defeated the forces of Dublin at the battle of Tara. Following this victory Máel Sechnaill forced Dublin into submission, and his half-brother, Amlaíbs son Glúniairn
became ruler in Dublin.
In Munster, the influence of the Dal gCais
had grown under Cennétig mac Lorcáin
, and his son Mathgamain
was the first non-Eóganachta
ruler to be named by the annals as king of Cashel (i.e. king of Munster) in historical times. He was killed in 976, and succeeded by his brother Brian
, later famously known as Brian Boru.
Brian quickly established himself as the most powerful ruler in Munster, defeating the Norse Limerick in 977 and the Eóganachta the following year. Having gained control over Munster, he tried to extend his authority by raiding Osraige in 982 and 983, and also, according to the annals of Innisfallen, entering an alliance with the Norse Waterford
, with the intention of attacking Dublin. There was such an attack, but Brian does not seem to have been involved - instead it was Domnall Claen of Leinster who was allied with Ivar of Waterford
, and they were defeated by Glúniairn and Máel Sechnaill.
Máel Sechnaill obviously perceived Brian as a threat, and as early as 982 raided Munster and the territory of the Dal gCais. The next two decades saw more or less constant warfare between them, mostly with Leinster as their battleground. Even if Brian never defeated Máel Sechnaill in battle, Brians and Munsters influence was growing on the expense of Máel Sechnaill and the Southern Uí Néill. In 997 Máel Sechnaill was forced to acknowledge Brians authority over the south of Ireland, and they formally divided Ireland according to the traditional scheme of Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga
. For the years to follow, the two of them acted as allies in accordance with this agreement. In 999 Brian successfully quelled a revolt against him by the men of Leinster and Dublin at the battle of Glen Mama, and only restored Sigtrygg Silkbeard
as ruler of Dublin after he had formally submitted to Brian by handing over hostages.
In 1000, Brian turned against Máel Sechnaill, and by 1002 he had forced Máel Sechnaill to submit to him, and now claimed kingship over the whole of Ireland. In the following decade, there was several campaigns in the north to force the Ulaid and the Northern Uí Néill into submission as well. Even if faced with multiple rebellions, both in the north and in Leinster, by 1011 had received submission from every major regional king in Ireland, and thus earned the recognition by historians as the first real king of Ireland. During his visit to Armagh in 1005, he had his secretary add a note to the Book of Kells
where he is proclaimed as Imperator Scottorum (emperor of the Irish). According to Bart Jaski, "This can be regarded as a claim that he ruled both the Irish and the Norse in Ireland, and may even imply suzerainty over the Gaels of Scotland". In his obituary in the Annals of Ulster he is styled as "over-king of the Irish of Ireland, and of the foreigners and of the Britons, the Augustus of the whole of north-west Europe".
In 1012, Flaithbertach Ua Néill
, revolted against Brian, and the following year Máel Mórda
of Leinster and Sigtrygg of Dublin too. The latter led to the famous battle of Clontarf
, where Brian was killed, even if his army was victorious over Máel Mórda, Sigtrygg and their allies. Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Earl of Orkney
as well as forces from Man
participated on the Dublin/ Leinster side, and this may, in conjunction with the propagandistic account of the battle given in the Cogad, have created the still popular myth that what took place at Clontarf Good Friday
1014 was a decisive battle where the Irish defeated Viking invaders and was liberated from oppression. Donnchadh Ó Corráin
was one of the first to publicly debunk this national myth, in his groundbreaking Ireland before the Normans from 1972
Following Brian's death, Máel Sechnaill resumed as High King, supported by Flaithbertach ua Néill.AU 1015.2: "Flaithbertach ua Néill went into Mide to assist Mael Sechnaill." This seem to contradict Byrne (p.864): "..since 970 the Northern and Southern Uí Néill were... ...irreconcilable foes..." In Munster, internal strife almost immediately began between Brians sons Donnchad
and Tadc
, and Dúngal Ua Donnchada of Eóganachta also claimed the kingship of the province. Though Donnchad eventually was victorious, the descendants of Brian would not be able to make a real claim for kingship over Ireland again until Toirdelbach Ua Briain. In Leinster, the defeat at Clontarf and death of Máel Mórda seriously weakened the Uí Dúnlainge
, and opened the way for a new Uí Cheinnselaig
dominance in the region. Despite the defeat at Clontarf, Sigtrygg remained ruler of Dublin until 1036.
Flann Mainistrech
had written Ríg Themra tóebaige iar tain, a regnal poem on the Christian (Uí Néill) kings of Tara some time between 1014 and 1022. When he wrote in 1056 he evidently did not know any high-king of Ireland, and instead lists a number of kings of the day: Conchobar, Áed, Garbith, Diarmait, Donnchad and two Nialls. According to Byrne, these are Conchobar Ua Maíl Schechnaill of Mide, Áed Ua Conchobair
of Connacht, Garbíth Ua Cathassaig of Brega, Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó
of Leinster, Donnchad Mac Briain of Munster, Niall mac Máel Sechnaill of Ailech and Niall mac Eochada
of Ulaid.
The term rí Érenn co fressarba ("High kings with opposition") was used from the 12th century. According to Byrne, "it could be argued that the 'high kings with opposition' met with opposition precisely because they tried to become kings of Ireland in a real sense. They were not less successful than their predecessors, but only seemed so in the light of the teaching of the schools". Following a similar line of reasoning, Byrne suggests that the focus from historians on the decline of the Uí Néill in the 11th century, may be a "tribute to the success of their own propaganda". After Brian, the previous Uí Néill monopoly of high kingship as described in poems and chronicles, was anyway broken for good. The Cenél nEógain suffered from internal faction, and this allowed the Ulaid, under Niall mac Eochada to expand their influence. Niall and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó became allies, and effectively controlled the whole east coast of Ireland. This alliance helped to make it possible for Diarmait to take direct control of Dublin in 1052. Unlike Máel Sechnaill in 980 or Brian in 999, he wasn't content just looting the city and expelling the Hiberno-Norse ruler (Echmarcach mac Ragnaill
); in an unprecedented move he assumed the kingship 'of the foreigners' (ríge Gall) himself.
Before the 11th century the church in Ireland was monastic, with bishops residing at monasteries and without a permanent diocesan
structure. The circumstances surrounding the foundation of the diocese of Dublin early in the century are obscure, but at some point during the reign of Sithric Silkbeard Dúnán
became Bishop of Dublin, thus establishing the first proper diocese in Ireland. His successor Gilla Pátraic
was consecrated by Lanfranc
, Archbishop of Canterbury
, and on that occasion Lanfranc sent letters to Toirdelbach Ua Briain and Gofraid urging reforms, in particular regarding the consecration of bishops and the abolition of simony
. There is no evidence of Canterbury claiming primacy over the church in Ireland prior to this, and neither Lanfranc nor Anselm
ever made direct primatial claims for Canterbury in relation to the Irish church.
Toirdelbach appears to have responded favourably to this, and convened a synod in Dublin in 1080 - the outcome of this synod is not known. Toirdelbach may have seen cooperation with Canterbury as a way to reduce the influence from Armagh, traditionally dominated by Cenél nEógain, within the church in Ireland. Gilla Pátraic's successors Donngus Ua hAingliu
and Samuel Ua hÁingliu were also consecrated in Canterbury, and so was the first bishop of Waterford, Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire in 1096. The written request for Máel Ísus consecration, as preserved in Eadmer
s Historia Novorum is subscribed by bishops from Munster, Mide, Dublin and Leinster. Gilla Espaic, the first bishop of Limerick, was however not consecrated in Canterbury, but probably by Cellach of Armagh.Gilla received a letter from Anselm congratulating him on his elevation to the see of Limerick, and there was no suggestion that Anselm felt Canterbury had been slighted or ought to have been involved. Flanagan, p. 915.
The first of the four main synods main associated with the church reforms of the 12th century took place in Cashel in 1101, at the instigation of Muirchertach Ua Briain. How many who actually attended this synod is not known, but some of its decrees have been preserved. There is a decree on simony, on prohibition for laymen to become airchinnig (heads of ecclesiastical establishments) and finally a decree that defines what relationships are considered to be incestuous. None of these decrees are radical, but they are generally interpreted to be in line with the Gregorian reform
.
The second synod was the Synod of Rathbreasail
. This synod, presided by Gilla Espaic as papal legate
and attended by fifty bishops, three hundred priests and over three thousand laymen, marked the transition of the Irish church from a monastic to a diocesan and parish-based church. It established two provinces, with archbishoprics at Armagh and Cashel, and prominence given to Armagh, making Cellach the primate of the church in Ireland. Each province consisted of twelve territorial dioceses. The see of Dublin was not included, as this was under primacy from Canterbury,The see of Waterford however, where the incumbent bishop Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire also had been consecrated in, and taken vows of obedience to, Canterbury, was moved to Lismore, and Máel Ísu chosen as the first archbishop of Cashel. but a place was left open for it, in the sense that only eleven dioceses were declared under Cashel.
Gilla, Cellach and Cellach's successor Máel Máedóc Ua Morgair, better known as St. Malachy, drove the reform process onwards. Malachy, in close cooperation with Donnchad Ua Cerbaill, king of Fernmag/Airgialla, established the first Irish Cistercian house at Mellifont in 1142, and also facilitated the first Augustinian community of the Arrouaisian observance. Malachy used these as agencies of monastic reform within the Irish church. Malachy resigned as archbishop of Armagh in 1136, but was appointed native papal legate to Ireland by Innocent II
in 1139.
No formal attempts on getting papal approval for the structure chosen at Rathbreasail are known before Malachy sought pallia
for the two incumbent archbishops at Cashel and Armagh during his trip to the continent in 1139/40. This first bid was unsuccessful, but Malachy was told to reapply after he had gained the agreement of all Ireland. Before undertaking his second trip to the continent in 1148, Malachy convened a synod at St Patrick's Island
. The main challenge must have been to reach an accommodation with Dublin, and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, presently the most powerful king in Ireland, was eager to increase Connacht influence on the church. The solution reached was to extend the number of metropolitan sees from two to four, with Tuam
and Dublin included alongside Cashel and Armagh. Malachy died on his way to meet the pope, but the message was transmitted by other means and papal approval was granted. Pope Eugene III
appointed cardinal John Paparo
as papal legate, and sent him to Ireland with pallia for the four archbishops.
Cardinal Paparos first attempt to reach Ireland was stalled when king Stephen
refused him safe conduct through England unless he pledged himself do nothing in Ireland that would injure England’s interests there. This was not acceptable for Paparo, who returned to Rome. It seems likely that this was an attempt by Stephen to prevent Paparo from bringing papal confirmation for an arrangement in Ireland that would finally extinguish Canterbury’s claims in Ireland. In 1151 he returned and this time reached Ireland, his journey being facilitated by David I of Scotland
. The Synod of Kells-Mellifont
was convened in 1152, with Paparo presiding as papal legate. The decrees from the synod are longer extant, but some information is preserved through the Annals of the Four Masters
and Geoffrey Keating
s Foras Feasa ar Éirinn. The main result of the synod was the official papal sanctioning of the episcopal structure as created in 1111 and refined in 1148.
was a two-stage process, which began on 1 May 1169 a force of individual Norman
knights landed near Bannow
, County Wexford
. This was at the request of Dermot MacMurrough
(Diarmait Mac Murchada), the ousted King of Leinster
who sought their help in regaining his kingdom.
Then on 18 October 1171, Henry II
landed a much bigger force in Waterford to at least ensure his continuing control over the Norman force. In the process he took Dublin and had accepted the fealty of the Irish kings and bishops by 1172, so creating the "Lordship of Ireland
", which formed part of his Angevin Empire
.
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
from the first Viking
Viking
The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, explored and settled in wide areas of Europe, Asia and the North Atlantic islands from the late 8th to the mid-11th century.These Norsemen used their famed longships to...
raids to the Norman invasion
Norman Invasion of Ireland
The Norman invasion of Ireland was a two-stage process, which began on 1 May 1169 when a force of loosely associated Norman knights landed near Bannow, County Wexford...
. The first two centuries of this period are characterised by Viking raids and the subsequent Norse
Norsemen
Norsemen is used to refer to the group of people as a whole who spoke what is now called the Old Norse language belonging to the North Germanic branch of Indo-European languages, especially Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese, Swedish and Danish in their earlier forms.The meaning of Norseman was "people...
settlements along the coast. Viking ports were established at Dublin, Wexford
Wexford
Wexford is the county town of County Wexford, Ireland. It is situated near the southeastern corner of Ireland, close to Rosslare Europort. The town is connected to Dublin via the M11/N11 National Primary Route, and the national rail network...
, Waterford
Waterford
Waterford is a city in the South-East Region of Ireland. It is the oldest city in the country and fifth largest by population. Waterford City Council is the local government authority for the city and its immediate hinterland...
, Cork
Cork (city)
Cork is the second largest city in the Republic of Ireland and the island of Ireland's third most populous city. It is the principal city and administrative centre of County Cork and the largest city in the province of Munster. Cork has a population of 119,418, while the addition of the suburban...
and Limerick
Limerick
Limerick is the third largest city in the Republic of Ireland, and the principal city of County Limerick and Ireland's Mid-West Region. It is the fifth most populous city in all of Ireland. When taking the extra-municipal suburbs into account, Limerick is the third largest conurbation in the...
, which became the first large towns in Ireland.
Ireland consisted of many semi-independent túatha, and during the whole period attempts were made by various factions to gain political control over the whole of the island. For the first two centuries of our period this was mainly a rivalry between High Kings of Ireland from the northern and southern branch of the Uí Néill
Uí Néill
The Uí Néill are Irish and Scottish dynasties who claim descent from Niall Noigiallach , an historical King of Tara who died about 405....
. The one who came closest to being de facto king over the whole of Ireland however was Brian Boru
Brian Boru
Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, , , was an Irish king who ended the domination of the High Kingship of Ireland by the Uí Néill. Building on the achievements of his father, Cennétig mac Lorcain, and especially his elder brother, Mathgamain, Brian first made himself King of Munster, then subjugated...
, the first high king in historical times not belonging to Uí Néill.
Following Brian's death at the battle of Clontarf
Battle of Clontarf
The Battle of Clontarf took place on 23 April 1014 between the forces of Brian Boru and the forces led by the King of Leinster, Máel Mórda mac Murchada: composed mainly of his own men, Viking mercenaries from Dublin and the Orkney Islands led by his cousin Sigtrygg, as well as the one rebellious...
in 1014, the political situation became more complex with rivalry for highkingship from several clanns and dynasties. Brian's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling over territory led indirectly to invasion of the Normans
Normans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
under Richard de Clare
Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke , Lord of Leinster, Justiciar of Ireland . Like his father, he was also commonly known as Strongbow...
in 1169.
Historiography
Textual criticism
Textual criticism is a branch of literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts...
of these. Only recently have other sources of historical knowledge received more attention, in particular archaeology
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
. Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford
Wexford
Wexford is the county town of County Wexford, Ireland. It is situated near the southeastern corner of Ireland, close to Rosslare Europort. The town is connected to Dublin via the M11/N11 National Primary Route, and the national rail network...
, Waterford
Waterford
Waterford is a city in the South-East Region of Ireland. It is the oldest city in the country and fifth largest by population. Waterford City Council is the local government authority for the city and its immediate hinterland...
and Limerick
Limerick
Limerick is the third largest city in the Republic of Ireland, and the principal city of County Limerick and Ireland's Mid-West Region. It is the fifth most populous city in all of Ireland. When taking the extra-municipal suburbs into account, Limerick is the third largest conurbation in the...
, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established in this period.
The first part of the period from 800 to 1014 is well-studied; the "Viking age" has attracted the interest of historians for quite some time. The period between 1014 and 1169 has received less attention. In the words of Sean Duffy, this period
has – historiographically speaking – fallen between two stools. Historians of early medieval Ireland, seeking to conclude their narratives on a high note, have traditionally done so after recounting the death of the famous high-king Brian Bórama (Boru) at the battle of Clontarf in 1014. On the other hand, historians of later medieval Ireland generally choose to begin proceedings with the English invasion of the 1160s. Eleventh- and early twelfth-century Ireland has, therefore, often assumed the character of a snappy epilogue or a lengthy prologue.See also McNeill, "Archaeology", "The 150 years before 1200 have been lost, between the assumptions that life was a continuation of the fifth through eighth-century world and that the incursion of English lords marked a fundamental change throughout Ireland."
In trying to interpret the history of early Ireland, one of the most frequently asked questions addressed by historians is how early it is possible to speak of an Irish nation, a natio encompassing the whole island of Ireland. Early poet-historians like Flann Mainistrech
Flann Mainistrech
Flann Mainistrech was an Irish poet and historian.Flann was the son Echthigern mac Óengusso, who had been lector at the monastery of Monasterboice , in Irish Mainistir Buite, whence Flann's byname, meaning "of Monasterboice"...
constructed a history of a monarchy of all Ireland going back to St Patrick and beyond. Only a hundred years after Flann, Gerald of Wales described the Irish society in his Topographia Hibernica
Topographia Hibernica
Topographia Hibernica , also known as Topographia Hiberniae, is an account of the landscape and people of Ireland written by Gerald of Wales around 1188, soon after the Norman invasion of Ireland...
as utterly primitive and savage. At the beginning of modern scholarly interpretation of Irish history, Eoin MacNeill
Eoin MacNeill
Eoin MacNeill was an Irish scholar, nationalist, revolutionary and politician. MacNeill is regarded as the father of the modern study of early Irish medieval history. He was a co-founder of the Gaelic League, to preserve Irish language and culture, going on to establish the Irish Volunteers...
s and G.H. Orpen came to opposite conclusions analysing the same period. Orpen saw an anarchic country still in ‘a tribal state’; he could see no natio, no wider community in Ireland than the tribe. MacNeill stressed the reality of the high-kingship of Ireland and the existence of many of those institutions of government which Orpen found wanting, and claimed that Irish law had a national character.
Nature of the written sources
Extant Irish annals
Irish annals
A number of Irish annals were compiled up to and shortly after the end of Gaelic Ireland in the 17th century.Annals were originally a means by which monks determined the yearly chronology of feast days...
are ultimately derived from the now-lost Chronicle of Ireland
Chronicle of Ireland
The Chronicle of Ireland is the modern name for a hypothesized collection of ecclesiastical annals recording events in Ireland from 432 to 911 AD....
which was probably being compiled in the midlands of Ireland by around 800. All include material derived from other sources, or added at a later date. The Annals of Ulster
Annals of Ulster
The Annals of Ulster are annals of medieval Ireland. The entries span the years between AD 431 to AD 1540. The entries up to AD 1489 were compiled in the late 15th century by the scribe Ruaidhrí Ó Luinín, under his patron Cathal Óg Mac Maghnusa on the island of Belle Isle on Lough Erne in the...
and the Annals of Innisfallen cover most of this period, but has a gap between 1132 and 1155. The Annals of Clonmacnoise
Annals of Clonmacnoise
The Annals of Clonmacnoise are an early 17th-century Early Modern English translation of a lost Irish chronicle, which covered events in Ireland from pre-history to A.D. 1408...
survive only in an eccentric 17th century English translation, and the Annals of Tigernach
Annals of Tigernach
The Annals of Tigernach is a chronicle probably originating in Clonmacnoise, Ireland. The language is a mixture of Latin and Old and Middle Irish....
for this period are lost with Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh
Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh
Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh, also known as Dubhaltach Óg mac Giolla Íosa Mór mac Dubhaltach Mór Mac Fhirbhisigh, Duald Mac Firbis, Dudly Ferbisie, and Dualdus Firbissius was an Irish scribe, translator, historian and genealogist...
's abbreviated copy known as the Chronicon Scotorum
Chronicon Scotorum
Chronicon Scotorum is a medieval Irish chronicle.According to Nollaig Ó Muraíle, it is "a collection of annals belonging to the 'Clonmacnoise group', covering the period from prehistoric times to 1150 but with some gaps, closely related to the 'Annals of Tigernach'...
supplying only part of the missing material. The Annals of the Four Masters
Annals of the Four Masters
The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland or the Annals of the Four Masters are a chronicle of medieval Irish history...
are late, and include some material of doubtful origin. While the annals provide a considerable amount of information, they are generally terse, and most focus their attention on the doings of the Uí Néill
Uí Néill
The Uí Néill are Irish and Scottish dynasties who claim descent from Niall Noigiallach , an historical King of Tara who died about 405....
and of churchmen.
In addition to the annals, a large number of genealogies survive along with geographical and legal texts, poetry, sagas and hagiography.
In the 12th century, propaganda text like Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil
Caithréim Chellacháin Chaisil
Caithréim Chellacháin ChaisilDonnchadh Ó Corráin writes that this title "was first given it by Eugene O'Curry in his transcript of the text. It has no title in the earliest copy, that in the Book of Lismore...
and Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib were composed. Even though the historical accuracy of these accounts is dubious, especially the Cogad has had a great impact on the interpretation of Irish medieval history until recently.
Political landscape c. 800
At the end of the 8th century, Ireland was homogeneously GaelicGaels
The Gaels or Goidels are speakers of one of the Goidelic Celtic languages: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. Goidelic speech originated in Ireland and subsequently spread to western and northern Scotland and the Isle of Man....
, in terms of society, culture and language. People lived in rural communities, and the only larger settlements was monastic towns of varying sizes. The monasteries played an important part in society not just with regards to religious and cultural life but also economy and politics. Christianization
Christianization
The historical phenomenon of Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at once...
had begun in the 5th century, and by the early 9th century the island was almost wholly Christian. However, the Martyrology of Tallaght
Martyrology of Tallaght
The Martyrology of Tallaght, which is closely related to the Félire Oengusso or Martyrology of Óengus the Culdee, is an eighth- or ninth-century martyrology, a list of saints and their feast days assembled by Máel Ruain and/or Óengus the Culdee at Tallaght Monastery, near Dublin...
(written sometime in the 8th century or 9th century) hints that paganism had not yet been fully uprooted.
Eoin MacNeill
Eoin MacNeill was an Irish scholar, nationalist, revolutionary and politician. MacNeill is regarded as the father of the modern study of early Irish medieval history. He was a co-founder of the Gaelic League, to preserve Irish language and culture, going on to establish the Irish Volunteers...
identified the "oldest certain fact in the political history of Ireland" as the existence in late prehistory of a pentarchy, probably consisting of the cóiceda or "fifths" of the Ulaid
Ulaid
The Ulaid or Ulaidh were a people of early Ireland who gave their name to the modern province of Ulster...
(Ulster), the Connachta
Connachta
The Connachta are a group of medieval Irish dynasties who claimed descent from the legendary High King Conn Cétchathach...
(Connacht), the Laigin
Laigin
The Laigin, modern spelling Laighin , were a population group of early Ireland who gave their name to the province of Leinster...
(Leinster), Mumu (Munster
Munster
Munster is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the south of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for administrative and judicial purposes...
) and Mide
Kingdom of Mide
Mide , spelt Midhe in modern Irish and anglicised as Meath, was a medieval kingdom in Ireland for over 1,000 years. Its name means "middle", denoting the fact that lay in the middle of Ireland....
(Meath), although some accounts discount Mide and split Mumu in two. This is not an accurate description of the political landscape c. 800,Ó Cróinín also points out the irony of "at no time in the historical period did the political division represented by the word cóiced... ...have a tangible existence" but when discussing the political subdivisions of Ireland at this time it is still useful to refer to this system; if Laigin and Mide are combined as Leinster, it roughly corresponds with the modern four provinces of Ireland
Provinces of Ireland
Ireland has historically been divided into four provinces: Leinster, Ulster, Munster and Connacht. The Irish word for this territorial division, cúige, literally meaning "fifth part", indicates that there were once five; the fifth province, Meath, was incorporated into Leinster, with parts going to...
.
The Uí Néill
Uí Néill
The Uí Néill are Irish and Scottish dynasties who claim descent from Niall Noigiallach , an historical King of Tara who died about 405....
, divided in two main branches known as "Northern Uí Néill" and "Southern Uí Néill" was the leading dynasty in Ireland.They may not have been as dominant in earlier history as medieval sources tend to claim, according to Ó Corráin, "The Vikings & Ireland" they :"paraded illustrious ancestors and their claim to precedence was expressed in an elaborate mythography that passed for history." The Northern Uí Néill controlled the north-western part of Ireland, and was divided into two leading branches, the Cenél Conaill
Cenél Conaill
The Cenél Conaill is the name of the "kindred" or descendants of Conall Gulban, son of Niall Noígiallach defined by oral and recorded history. They were also known in Scotland as the Kindred of Saint Columba....
in the west and Cenél nEógain
Cenél nEógain
Cenél nEóġain is the name of the "kindred" or descendants of Eógan mac Néill , son of Niall Noígiallach who founded the kingdom of Tír Eoghain in the 5th century...
, also known as the kingdom of Ailech
Ailech
Ailech was a medieval kingdom in Ireland, roughly centred on modern-day County Tyrone and the Inishowen peninsula in Ulster....
. Cenél nEógain had become the more powerful of the two in 789, and had expanded east and southwards, gaining control over the important monastic centre Armagh
Armagh
Armagh is a large settlement in Northern Ireland, and the county town of County Armagh. It is a site of historical importance for both Celtic paganism and Christianity and is the seat, for both the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Ireland, of the Archbishop of Armagh...
and the large sub-kingdom of Airgíalla
Airgíalla
Airgíalla or Airgialla was the name of an Irish federation and Irish kingdom which first formed around the 7th century...
. The traditional kingdom of Ulaid, dominated by Dál Fiatach
Dál Fiatach
The Dál Fiatach were a group of related dynasties located in eastern Ulster in the Early Christian and Early Medieval periods of the history of Ireland.-Description:...
and Dál nAraidi
Dál nAraidi
Dál nAraidi was a kingdom of the Cruthin in the north-east of Ireland in the first millennium. The lands of the Dál nAraidi appear to correspond with the Robogdii of Ptolemy's Geographia, a region shared with Dál Riata...
, was now more or less confined to the area east of the river Bann
River Bann
The River Bann is the longest river in Northern Ireland, the total length being 80 miles . The river winds its way from the south east corner of Northern Ireland to the north west coast, pausing in the middle to widen into the enormous Lough Neagh...
.
The central region of Mide had been dominated by what became known as the "southern Uí Néill" since the 7th century. Until the 8th century, the Síl nÁedo Sláine
Síl nÁedo Sláine
Síl nÁedo Sláine is the name of the descendants of Áed Sláine , son of Diarmait mac Cerbaill. Part of the Southern Uí Néill—they were the kings of Brega—they claimed descent from Niall Noígiallach and his son Conall Cremthainne....
(also known as the kingdom of Brega) was pre-eminent, from 728 the western dynasty of Clann Cholmáin
Clann Cholmáin
Clann Cholmáin is the name of the dynasty descended from Colmán Mór , son of Diarmait mac Cerbaill. Part of the Southern Uí Néill — they were the kings of Mide — they traced their descent to Niall Noígiallach and his son Conall Cremthainne.Related dynasties descended through Conall...
was dominant.
In Laigin, Uí Dúnlainge
Uí Dúnlainge
The Uí Dúnlainge, from the Old Irish "grandsons of Dúnlaing", were an Irish dynasty of Leinster kings who traced their descent from Dúnlaing mac Énda Niada. He was said to be a cousin of Énnae Cennsalach, eponymous ancestor of the rival Uí Chennselaig....
was the dominant dynasty c. 800. They were closely associated with the large monastery of Kildare
Kildare
-External links:*******...
. Their main rival for dominance in Leinster, the Uí Cheinnselaig
Uí Cheinnselaig
The Uí Ceinnselaig , from the Old Irish "grandsons of Cennsalach", are an Irish dynasty of Leinster who trace their descent from Énnae Cennsalach, a supposed contemporary of Niall of the Nine Hostages...
had not been able to claim the title king of Leinster since 728. The Uí Cheinnselaig now controlled a territory in the south-eastern part of Leinster, and had close links to the monastery of Ferns
Ferns, County Wexford
Ferns is a small historic town in north County Wexford, Ireland with a population of about 900. It is 16 km from Enniscorthy, where the Gorey to Enniscorthy N11 road joins the R745 regional road...
.
The kingdom of Osraige
Kingdom of Osraige
The Kingdom of Osraighe , anglicized as Ossory, was an ancient kingdom of Ireland. It formed the easternmost part of the kingdom and province of Munster until the middle of the 9th century, after which it attached itself to Leinster...
, occupying roughly the same area as the present County Kilkenny
County Kilkenny
County Kilkenny is a county in Ireland. It is part of the South-East Region and is also located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the city of Kilkenny. The territory of the county was the core part of the ancient Irish Kingdom of Osraige which in turn was the core of the Diocese of...
, was considered part of Munster. Munster was dominated by the Eóganachta
Eóganachta
The Eóganachta or Eoghanachta were an Irish dynasty centred around Cashel which dominated southern Ireland from the 6/7th to the 10th centuries, and following that, in a restricted form, the Kingdom of Desmond, and its offshoot Carbery, well into the 16th century...
, centred around Cashel
Cashel, County Tipperary
Cashel is a town in South Tipperary in Ireland. Its population was 2936 at the 2006 census. The town gives its name to the ecclesiastical province of Cashel. Additionally, the cathedra of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cashel and Emly was originally in the town prior to the English Reformation....
and with Emly
Emly
Emly or Emlybeg is a village in South Tipperary, Ireland. It is a civil parish in the historical barony of Clanwilliam. It is also an Ecclesiastical parish in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cashel and Emly....
as ecclesiastical centre. The Dál gCais
Dál gCais
The Dál gCais were a dynastic group of related septs located in north Munster who rose to political prominence in the 10th century AD in Ireland. They claimed descent from Cormac Cas, or Cas mac Conall Echlúath, hence the term "Dál", meaning "portion" or "share" of Cas...
(not yet known under this name) had defeated the Corcu Modruad in 744 and taken control over the area in present County Clare
County Clare
-History:There was a Neolithic civilisation in the Clare area — the name of the peoples is unknown, but the Prehistoric peoples left evidence behind in the form of ancient dolmen; single-chamber megalithic tombs, usually consisting of three or more upright stones...
from which they would later rise to dominance, but were not yet a significant power in Munster. Eóganachta rivalled the Uí Néill in power and influence, and claimed suzerainty over the southern part of Ireland. This claim was in part anchored within the legendary ancient division of the island in Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga
Leath Cuinn
Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga refers to a legendary ancient division of Ireland.-Geographical extant:Leath Cuinn was the island north of the Esker Riada...
, "Conn
Conn of the Hundred Battles
Conn Cétchathach , son of Fedlimid Rechtmar, was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland, and the ancestor of the Connachta, and, through his descendant Niall Noígiallach, the Uí Néill dynasties, which dominated Ireland in the early middle ages, and...
s half" (north) and "Mug
Mug Nuadat
In Irish mythological history Mug Nuadat was a legendary, supposed King of Munster in the 2nd century AD. He was, according to later medieval tradition, a rival of the High King, Conn of the Hundred Battles and for a time after the year 123 was the de facto ruler of the southern half of Ireland...
s half" (south).
During the 7th century the Uí Briúin
Uí Briúin
The Uí Briúin were an Irish kin-group. Their eponymous apical ancestor was Brion, son of Eochaid Mugmedon and Mongfind, and an elder half brother of Niall of the Nine Hostages. They formed part of the Connachta, along with the Uí Fiachrach and Uí Ailello, putative descendants of Eochaid Mugmedon's...
had emerged in Connacht, and since the first half of the 8th century been the dominant dynasty. Uí Briúin also influenced the kingdom of Breifne
Kingdom of Breifne
The Kingdom of Breifne or Bréifne was the traditional territory for an early Irish tribal group known as the Uí Briúin Bréifne...
on the southern borders of the Northern Uí Néill.
Early Viking raids
The first recorded VikingViking
The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, explored and settled in wide areas of Europe, Asia and the North Atlantic islands from the late 8th to the mid-11th century.These Norsemen used their famed longships to...
raid in Irish history occurred in 795 when Vikings, possibly from Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
looted the island of Lambay
Lambay Island
Lambay lies off the coast of Fingal / north County Dublin, Ireland in the Irish Sea. It is located north of Ireland's Eye at and is the easternmost point of the Republic of Ireland...
.Ó Corráin, The Vikings & Ireland, p. 9. The annals name the site of this attack as Rechru, a name that could mean either modern Lambay Island or Rathlin
Rathlin Island
Rathlin Island is an island off the coast of County Antrim, and is the northernmost point of Northern Ireland. Rathlin is the only inhabited offshore island in Northern Ireland, with a rising population of now just over 100 people, and is the most northerly inhabited island off the Irish coast...
. This was followed by a raid on the coast of Brega
Kings of Brega
-Overview:Brega took its name from Mag Breg, the plain of Brega, in modern County Meath, County Louth and County Dublin, Ireland. They formed part of the Uí Néill kindred, belonging to the Síl nÁedo Sláine branch of the southern Uí Néill. The kingdom of Brega included the Hill of Tara, the site...
in 798, and raids on the coast of Connacht
Connacht
Connacht , formerly anglicised as Connaught, is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the west of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for...
in 807. These early Viking raids were generally small in scale and quick.
These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture starting the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of the early raiders came from the fjords of western Norway. They are believed to have sailed first to Shetland, then south to Orkney. The Vikings would have then sailed down the Atlantic coast of Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, and then over to Ireland. During these early raids the Vikings also travelled to the west coast of Ireland to the Skellig Islands
Skellig Islands
The Skellig Islands , once known as the Skellocks, are two small, steep, and rocky islands lying about 13 km west of Bolus Head on the Iveragh Peninsula in County Kerry, Ireland...
located off the coast of County Kerry
County Kerry
Kerry means the "people of Ciar" which was the name of the pre-Gaelic tribe who lived in part of the present county. The legendary founder of the tribe was Ciar, son of Fergus mac Róich. In Old Irish "Ciar" meant black or dark brown, and the word continues in use in modern Irish as an adjective...
. The early raids on Ireland seem to have been aristocratic free enterprise, and named leaders appear in the Irish annals: Saxolb (Soxulfr) in 837, Turges
Turgesius
Turgesius was a Viking chief active in Ireland who is said to have conquered Dublin. It is not at all clear whether the names in the Irish annals represent the Old Norse Thurgestr or Thorgísl...
(Þurgestr) in 845, Agonn (Hákon) in 847.
Áed Oirdnide
Áed Oirdnide of the Cenél nEógain branch of the Northern Uí Néill became King of Tara in 797, after the death of his successor, father-in-law and political rival Donnchad Midi. This followed the classic Uí Néill political arrangement, where over-kingship alternated regularly between Cenél nEógain and Clann Cholmáin of the Southern Uí Néill. During his reign he campaigned in Mide, Leinster and Ulaid to assert his authority, though unlike Donnchad he did not campaign in Munster.Thomas Charles-Edwards
Thomas Charles-Edwards
Thomas Mowbray Charles-Edwards FRHistS FLSW FBA is an academic at Oxford University. He holds the post of Jesus Professor of Celtic and is a Professorial Fellow at Jesus College....
credits Áed for "the absence of any major Viking attacks on Ireland during his reign after 798". The annals gives no reference, however, to Áed at any time being involved with warfare against Viking raiders.
Áed was connected to the monastic community at Armagh, and a supporter of the familia of Patrick. His rivals for supremacy within Uí Néill, the Clann Cholmáin and the Cenél Conaill, had on the other hand supported the familia of Columba
Columba
Saint Columba —also known as Colum Cille , Colm Cille , Calum Cille and Kolban or Kolbjørn —was a Gaelic Irish missionary monk who propagated Christianity among the Picts during the Early Medieval Period...
. During Áeds reign the Columban familia, following several Viking raids against Iona
Iona
Iona is a small island in the Inner Hebrides off the western coast of Scotland. It was a centre of Irish monasticism for four centuries and is today renowned for its tranquility and natural beauty. It is a popular tourist destination and a place for retreats...
, established a new monastery at Kells
Abbey of Kells
The Abbey of Kells is a former monastery located in Kells, County Meath, Ireland, 40 miles north of Dublin. It was founded in the early ninth century, and the Book of Kells was kept there during the later medieval and early modern periods before finally leaving the Abbey in the 1650s...
, a royal site in the possession of Armagh. Byrne states that "...the foundation [of Kells] marked the resolution of any remaining rivalry between the Columban and Patrician churches...". That the community of Columba in 817 tried to have Áed excommunicated may show that not all rivalry was resolved after all.
Rivalry between north and south
Fedelmid mac Crimthainn from the Eóganacht ChaisilEóganacht Chaisil
Eóganacht Chaisil were a branch of the Eóganachta, the ruling dynasty of Munster during the 5th-10th centuries. They took their name from Cashel which was the capital of the early Christian kingdom of Munster...
acceded to the kingship of Munster
Kings of Munster
The name Munster is derived from the Gaelic God, Muman. The province of Munster was once divided into six regions: Tuadh Mhuman , Des Mhuman , Aur/Ur Mumhan , Iar mumhan or Iarmuman , Ernaibh Muman , and Deisi Muman...
in 820, beginning a 130-year domination by this branch of Eóganachta. Combining military campaigns with manipulation of ecclesiastical affairs, he embarked a policy of aggressive expansion to counter the growth in power of the Uí Néill. Conchobar mac Donnchada
Conchobar mac Donnchada
Conchobar mac Donnchada was High-King of Ireland with opposition between 819 and 833. Conchobar was the son of Donnchad Midi, high-king of Ireland ; his mother was Fuirseach, a noblewoman of the Dál nAraidi. Conchobar married Land, daughter of the former High-King Áed Oirdnide...
succeeded Áed Oirdnide as Uí Néill over-king in 819, and soon found himself challenged by Feidlimid, both by Feidlimid launching raids into Mide and Connacht and by him interfering (as would be the Uí Néill view) in the affairs of Armagh. Conchobar and Feidlimid met at Birr
Birr
Birr is a town in County Offaly, Ireland. Once called Parsonstown, after the Parsons family who were local landowners and hereditary Earls of Rosse. It is also a parish in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe....
in 827 to discuss peace terms, and the very fact that "the king of Munster could force the high-king to a peace conference is indicative of Feidlimid's growing power".
Conchobar was succeeded by Niall Caille in 833. With Niall, we for the first time see a reference in the annals of a Uí Néill leading an army against the Vikings, he defeated Viking raiders in Derry
Derry
Derry or Londonderry is the second-biggest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-biggest city on the island of Ireland. The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Irish name Doire or Doire Cholmcille meaning "oak-wood of Colmcille"...
the same year. He sought to further expand Uí Néill influence in the south, in 835 he led an army to Leinster and installed Bran mac Fáeláin
Bran mac Fáeláin
Bran mac Fáeláin was a King of Leinster of the Uí Dúnchada sept of the Uí Dúnlainge branch of the Laigin. This sept had their royal seat at Líamhain . He was the nephew of Fínsnechta Cethardec mac Cellaig and grandson of Cellach mac Dúnchada , previous kings. His father Fáelán had been abbot of...
as king of Leinster, and also invaded Mide. This brought him in conflict with Feidlimid however, and in 838 a conference (rígdál mór - "great royal meeting") between Niall and Feidlimid was held.Hudson, Niall Caille. According to Hudson, "Any agreement made there has not survived, although the report of the meeting from a Munster chronicle with a bias towards the southern prince claims that Niall submitted to Feidlimid, while a contemporary northern chronicle has no report of the proceedings." This meeting did not result in any lasting peace though, in 840 Feidlimid led an army into Mide and encamped at Tara and thereby challenged the Uí Néill also in the north. In 841 however, Feidlimid was routed in battle by Niall in Leinster. His successors in the south would not be able to challenge the north again to this extent until some 150 years later.
Intensified raiding and the first Viking settlements in Ireland
The Viking raids on Ireland resumed in 821, and intensified during the following decades. The Vikings were beginning to establish fortified encampments, longports, along the Irish coast and overwintering in Ireland instead of retreating to ScandinaviaScandinavia
Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
or British
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
bases. The first known longports were at Linn Dúachaill (Annagassan
Annagassan
Annagassan is a village in the townland of Ballynagassan, County Louth, Ireland. It sits where the River Glyde enters the Irish Sea.It was first mentioned as Linn Duachaill in AD 841 when the establishment of a Viking longphort was recorded...
) and Duiblinn (on the River Liffey
River Liffey
The Liffey is a river in Ireland, which flows through the centre of Dublin. Its major tributaries include the River Dodder, the River Poddle and the River Camac. The river supplies much of Dublin's water, and a range of recreational opportunities.-Name:The river was previously named An Ruirthech,...
, at or near present Dublin).The first report of Vikings spending the winter in Ireland is from Lough Neagh
Lough Neagh
Lough Neagh, sometimes Loch Neagh, is a large freshwater lake in Northern Ireland. Its name comes .-Geography:With an area of , it is the largest lake in the British Isles and ranks among the forty largest lakes of Europe. Located twenty miles to the west of Belfast, it is approximately twenty...
840-41, the first overwintered in Dublin 841-42. They were also moving further inland to attack, often using rivers such as the Shannon, and then retreating to their coastal bases. The raidingparties also increased in size, becoming regular armies - in 837 the annals report a fleet of sixty longship
Longship
Longships were sea vessels made and used by the Vikings from the Nordic countries for trade, commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age. The longship’s design evolved over many years, beginning in the Stone Age with the invention of the umiak and continuing up to the 9th century with...
s on the Liffey, carrying 1.500 men.
One of the first named Viking leaders was Thorgest (in Latin Turgesius). The Annals of the Four Masters
Annals of the Four Masters
The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland or the Annals of the Four Masters are a chronicle of medieval Irish history...
connect him with attacks on Connacht
Connacht
Connacht , formerly anglicised as Connaught, is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the west of Ireland. In Ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for...
, Mide and the church at Clonmacnoise
Clonmacnoise
The monastery of Clonmacnoise is situated in County Offaly, Ireland on the River Shannon south of Athlone....
in 844. He was captured and drowned in Lough Owel
Lough Owel
Lough Owel is a lough in the Midlands of Ireland, situated north of Mullingar, the county town of Westmeath. It is a deep lake, well known amongst anglers, and holds a few char along with brown trout. Water from Lough Owel feeds the Royal Canal, a canal crossing Ireland from Dublin to the River...
by Máel Sechnaill mac Maíl Ruanaid
Máel Sechnaill mac Maíl Ruanaid
Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid was High King of Ireland. The Annals of Ulster use the Old Irish title rí hÉrenn uile, that is "king of all Ireland", when reporting his death, distinguishing Máel Sechnaill from the usual Kings of Tara who are only called High Kings of Ireland in late sources such...
, King of Mide
Kings of Mide
In medieval Ireland, the Kings of Mide were of the Clann Cholmáin, a branch of the Uí Néill. Several were High Kings of Ireland. After the collapse of the kingdom in the 12th century its dynasty, the Ua Mael Sechlainn or Ó Melaghlins, were forced west and settled on the east bank of the Shannon...
.
In 848 a Norse army was defeated at Sciath Nechtain by Ólchobar mac Cináeda
Ólchobar mac Cináeda
Ólchobar mac Cináeda was King of Munster from 847 until his death. He may be the "king of the Irish" who sent an embassy to Frankish Emperor Charles the Bald announcing a series of victories over Vikings in Ireland in 848.-Origins:...
of Munster and Lorcán mac Cellaig
Lorcán mac Cellaig
Lorcán mac Cellaig was a King of Leinster of the Uí Muiredaig sept of the Uí Dúnlainge branch of the Laigin. This sept had their royal seat at Maistiu in the south of modern County Kildare. He was the son of Cellach mac Brain , a previous king.The succession of kings in Leinster is difficult to...
of Leinster. For the first the leader of the Vikings is described as royalty from Lochlann
Lochlann
Lochlann is a geographical region in Classical Gaelic literature and in the history of Early Medieval Ireland. In the modern Gaelic and Welsh languages it signifies Scandinavia, and more specifically Norway...
. Máel Sechnaill, now High king, defeated another army at Forrach the same year. These victories form the background of an embassy sent to the Frankish emperor Charles the Bald
Charles the Bald
Charles the Bald , Holy Roman Emperor and King of West Francia , was the youngest son of the Emperor Louis the Pious by his second wife Judith.-Struggle against his brothers:He was born on 13 June 823 in Frankfurt, when his elder...
, reported in the Annales Bertiniani
Annales Bertiniani
Annales Bertiniani, or The Annals of St. Bertin, are late Carolingian, Frankish annals that were found in the monastery of St. Bertin, after which they are named. Their account is taken to cover the period 830-82, thus continuing the Royal Frankish Annals , from which, however, it has circulated...
.
In 853 Olaf
Olaf the White
Olaf the White was a viking sea-king who lived in the latter half of the 9th century.Olaf was born around 840, possibly in Ireland. His father was the Hiberno-Norse warlord Ingjald Helgasson...
, identified as a "son of the king of Lochlann", came to Ireland. Lochlann has been understood as (a district of) present Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
, it is now considered more plausible that it refers to a Scandinavian colony in the Western Isles
Hebrides
The Hebrides comprise a widespread and diverse archipelago off the west coast of Scotland. There are two main groups: the Inner and Outer Hebrides. These islands have a long history of occupation dating back to the Mesolithic and the culture of the residents has been affected by the successive...
of Scotland.For a longer discussion on the location on Lochlann, see Ó Corráin, "The Vikings in Scotland and Ireland in the Ninth Century" Olaf assumed leadership of the Vikings in Ireland, probably in some way shared with his kinsman Ivar
Ivar the Boneless
Ivar Ragnarsson nicknamed the Boneless , was a Viking leader and by reputation also a berserker. By the late 11th century he was known as a son of the powerful Ragnar Lodbrok, ruler of an area probably comprising parts of modern-day Denmark and Sweden.-Invader:In the autumn of AD 865, with his...
, first mentioned in the Irish Annals in 857. Olaf and Ivar remained active in Ireland and around the Irish Sea
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel, and to the Atlantic Ocean in the north by the North Channel. Anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man...
for the next two decades. The descendants of Ivar, the Uí Ímair
Uí Ímair
The Uí Ímair , or Dynasty of Ivar, were an enormous royal and imperial Norse dynasty who ruled Northern England, the Irish Sea region and Kingdom of Dublin, and the western coast of Scotland, including the Hebrides, from the mid 9th century, losing control of the first in the mid 10th, but the rest...
, would be an important political factor for the next two centuries.
Shifting alliances and struggle for power
A significant new trait from the middle of the 9th century was that the Norse now also entered alliances with various Irish rulers. Cerball mac DúnlaingeCerball mac Dúnlainge
Cerball mac Dúnlainge was king of Osraige in south-east Ireland. The kingdom of Osraige occupied roughly the area of modern County Kilkenny and lay between the larger provincial kingdoms of Munster and Leinster....
had become king of Osraige in 842
842
Year 842 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* February 14 – Charles the Bald and Louis the German sign a treaty....
. Cerball had successfully defeated Viking raiders in 846 and 847, but from 858
858
Year 858 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Louis the German invades West Francia, hoping to secure Aquitaine from his brother Charles the Bald, but fails....
he is allied with Olaf and Ivar against Máel Sechnaill, campaigning in Leinster and Munster, and in 859
859
Year 859 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* January 15 – Battle of Saint-Quentin, Aisne: Humfrid defeats Louis the German....
also raiding Máel Sechnaills heartlands in Mide, though Cerball had to submit to Máel Sechnaill later the same year. These alliances were by no means permanent. In 860
860
Year 860 was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Ethelbert succeeds as king of Wessex.* The later Harald I of Norway becomes king.- Art :...
Cerball was allied with Máel Sechnaill in a campaign against Áed Findliath of the Northern Uí Néill, while Olaf and Ivar has allied themselves with Áed. In 870
870
Year 870 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Prague Castle is founded....
, however, Cerball and Áed appeared as allies in Leinster.
Máel Sechnaill had more success as high-king than his predecessors Niall Caille and Conchobar Donnchada in dealing with the south, and forced Munster into submission in 858 and as noted above Osraige in 859. He also asserted control over Ulaid, Leinster and Connacht, and was in his obituary in the Annals of Ulster described as ri h-Erenn uile, king of all Ireland. The last years of his reign he had however experienced serious opposition from his Uí Néill kinsmen of Ailech and Brega, allied with the Norse of Dublin. Byrne
Francis John Byrne
Francis John Byrne is an Irish historian.Born in Shanghai where his father, a Dundalk man, captained a ship on the Yellow River, Byrne was evacuated with his mother to Australia on the outbreak of World War II...
notes: "Máel Sechnaill's unprecedented success in achieving the high-kingship of all Ireland was marred by the chronic complaint of Irish politics: having united the Ulaid, Munster, Osraige, Connacht and Leinster, he was attacked at the end of his reign by a combination of Uí Néill kings."
Áed Findliath was king of Ailech and the leading king within the Northern Uí Néill. After the death of Máel Sechnaill he is counted in the regal lists as high king, following the established scheme where this alternated between Cenél nEógain in the north and Clann Cholmáin of Mide. His kingship was disputed though, and he did not come close to being an actual king over Ireland. He could count some successes against the Norse however, most notably burning all the Norse longports in the north in 866. Áed seem to have used the opportunity while Olaf was involved in warfare in Pictland, presumably bringing a large contingent of the Norse forces in Ireland with him. The Vikings never managed to establish permanent settlements in the north. Ó Corráin
Donnchadh Ó Corráin
Donnchadh Ó Corráin is an Irish historian and Professor Emeritus of Medieval History at University College Cork. He is an early Irish and mediaeval historian and has published on the Viking Wars, Ireland in the pre-Hiberno-Norman period and the origin of Irish language names.-Works:Ó Corráin's...
observes: "Ironically, [Áed Findliath's] success may have held back the economic development of the north and ultimately prevented the growth of port towns like those on the east and south coasts, on which the Leinster and Munster kings subsequently depended for much of their wealth."
The last report of Olaf is when he and Ivar returns to Dublin in 871
871
Year 871 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Nine battles are fought between the Danes and Wessex...
from Alba
Alba
Alba is the Scottish Gaelic name for Scotland. It is cognate to Alba in Irish and Nalbin in Manx, the two other Goidelic Insular Celtic languages, as well as similar words in the Brythonic Insular Celtic languages of Cornish and Welsh also meaning Scotland.- Etymology :The term first appears in...
. Ivar died in 873
873
Year 873 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* The Vikings raid Dorestad.* Al-Andalus: Second uprising of Toledo due to ethnic tensions in two years.- Asia :...
. In his obituary, the Annals of Ulster call Ivar "king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain". With their disappearance, there were frequent changes of leadership among the Norse in Ireland and a great deal of internecine conflict is reported for the following decades.
In 902
902
Year 902 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* August 1 – Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, is captured by the Aghlabid army....
Máel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecáin
Cerball mac Muirecáin
Cerball mac Muirecáin was king of Leinster. He was the son of Muirecán mac Diarmata and a member of the Uí Fáeláin, the descendants of Fáelán mac Murchado , of one of three septs of the Uí Dúnlainge of modern County Kildare in Ireland....
of Leinster joined forces against Dublin, and "The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]".AU 902.2 Note that the untranslated text http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A.html reads: "Indarba n-gennti a h-Ere, .í. longport Atha Cliath o Mael Findia m. Flandacain co feraibh Bregh & o Cerball m. Muiricain co Laignibh...", that is "longport", not "fortress".
Second Viking age (914–980)
After having been forced to leave Dublin in 902, the descendants of Ivar, now described in the annals as Uí ÍmairUí Ímair
The Uí Ímair , or Dynasty of Ivar, were an enormous royal and imperial Norse dynasty who ruled Northern England, the Irish Sea region and Kingdom of Dublin, and the western coast of Scotland, including the Hebrides, from the mid 9th century, losing control of the first in the mid 10th, but the rest...
grandsons or great grandsons of Ivar, no other patronym was given for these, which makes it difficult trace their lineage. Modern scholarly literature also refer to later descendants as "of the Uí Ímair". However, "a collective term for all the descendants of Ívarr is lacking in the medieval Irish chronicles"Downham, "Viking Kings...", p. 6. remained active around the Irish sea
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel, and to the Atlantic Ocean in the north by the North Channel. Anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man...
, there are reports of their activities in Pictland, Strathclyde
Strathclyde
right|thumb|the former Strathclyde regionStrathclyde was one of nine former local government regions of Scotland created by the Local Government Act 1973 and abolished in 1996 by the Local Government etc Act 1994...
, Northumbria
Northumbria
Northumbria was a medieval kingdom of the Angles, in what is now Northern England and South-East Scotland, becoming subsequently an earldom in a united Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England. The name reflects the approximate southern limit to the kingdom's territory, the Humber Estuary.Northumbria was...
and Man
Man
The term man is used for an adult human male . However, man is sometimes used to refer to humanity as a whole...
. In 914 a new Viking fleet appeared in Waterford Harbour
Waterford Harbour
Waterford Harbour is a natural harbour at the mouth of the Three Sisters; the River Nore, the River Suir and the River Barrow in Ireland. It is navigable for shipping to both Waterford and New Ross. The Port of Waterford is capable of accommodating vessels up to 32,000 tons dwt...
, and soon the Uí Ímair followed, again taking control over Viking activities in Ireland. Ragnall
Ragnall ua Ímair
Ragnall was a Norse overlord or emperor of northern Britain, including Northumbria, the entire Irish Sea region including the Isle of Man, south to Waterford and briefly much of the Irish province of Munster, and then returning to Britain, briefly York as distinct from Northumbria at this time...
arrived with a fleet in Waterford, while Sitric landed at Cenn Fuait (possibly near Leixlip
Leixlip
-Politics:Since 1988 Leixlip has had a nine member Town Council , headed by a Cathaoirleach , which has control over many local matters, although it is limited in that it is not also a planning authority...
) in Leinster. Niall Glúndub
Niall Glúndub
Niall Glúndub mac Áedo was a 10th century Irish king of the Cenél nEógain and High King of Ireland. While many Irish kin groups were members of the Uí Néill, tracing their descent from Niall of the Nine Hostages , the O'Neill dynasty took their name from Niall Glúndub rather than the earlier Niall...
had followed Flann Sinna as Uí Néill over-king in 916, and he marched into Munster against Ragnall, but no decisive engagement followed. The men of Leinster under Augaire mac Ailella
Augaire mac Ailella
Augaire mac Ailella was the king of Leinster, Ireland king who is said to have led the Irish forces at the Battle of Confey circa 915-917 AD. The Irish were defeated by Vikings under King Sigtrygg Caech from Dublin...
attacked Sithric but were heavily defeated in the Battle of Confey
Battle of Confey
The Battle of Confey was a battle fought in Ireland between Norse invaders and the King of Leinster Augaire mac Ailella. The battle was fought in 917 AD and led to the recapture of Dublin by the Norse dynasty that had been expelled from the city fifteen years earlier by Augaire's predecessor...
. This victory allowed Sithric to re-establish Norse control over Dublin. Ragnall left Ireland again in 918, and became king of York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
.The identity between the Ragnall of Waterford and Ragnall (Rögnvald) of York has been questioned, see Downham, Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland, p. 94.
With Sithric in Dublin and Ragnall in York, an axis Dublin-York had been established which would have influence on both England and Ireland for the next half a century.
Waterford
Waterford is a city in the South-East Region of Ireland. It is the oldest city in the country and fifth largest by population. Waterford City Council is the local government authority for the city and its immediate hinterland...
, Cork
Cork (city)
Cork is the second largest city in the Republic of Ireland and the island of Ireland's third most populous city. It is the principal city and administrative centre of County Cork and the largest city in the province of Munster. Cork has a population of 119,418, while the addition of the suburban...
, Dublin, Wexford
Wexford
Wexford is the county town of County Wexford, Ireland. It is situated near the southeastern corner of Ireland, close to Rosslare Europort. The town is connected to Dublin via the M11/N11 National Primary Route, and the national rail network...
and Limerick
Limerick
Limerick is the third largest city in the Republic of Ireland, and the principal city of County Limerick and Ireland's Mid-West Region. It is the fifth most populous city in all of Ireland. When taking the extra-municipal suburbs into account, Limerick is the third largest conurbation in the...
were established.The archaeology of the early viking age in Ireland "The second and more intensive period of settlement was characterised by the establishment of a series of towns. Waterford (914), Cork (c.915), Dublin (917), Wexford (c.921) and Limerick (922)." Significant excavations in Dublin and Waterford in the 20th century has unearthed much of the Viking heritage of those cities.
The Vikings founded many other coastal towns, and after several generations of coexistence and intermarriage a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (often called Norse-Gaels
Norse-Gaels
The Norse–Gaels were a people who dominated much of the Irish Sea region, including the Isle of Man, and western Scotland for a part of the Middle Ages; they were of Gaelic and Scandinavian origin and as a whole exhibited a great deal of Gaelic and Norse cultural syncretism...
or Hiberno-Norse). This Norse influence is reflected in the Norse-derived names of many contemporary Irish kings (e.g. Magnus, Lochlann or Sitric), and DNA evidence in some residents of these coastal cities to this day. A genetics paper in 2006 by Dr Brian McEvoy found that most men with Irish-Viking surnames carried typically Irish genes. This suggests that Viking settlements may have had a Scandinavian elite but with most of the inhabitants being indigenous Irish.
Niall Glúndub marched on Dublin in September 919, but his forces were met by Sihtric at Islandbridge and suffered a decisive defeat, with Niall and numerous other Irish leaders among the casualties. Dublin was secured for the Norse, and in 920 Sitric left for York and following Ragnalls death succeeded him as ruler there in 921. Their kinsman Gofraid
Gofraid ua Ímair
Gofraid was a Norse-Gael king of Dublin and, for a short time, king of Northumbria...
assumed control of Dublin. Gofraid was active as a Viking raider and slaver, but there were signs during his reign that the Norse were not just mere Vikings any more. During a raid at Armagh in 921 Gofraid "...spared the prayerhouses... ...and the sick from destruction", considerations never taken by the raiders of the previous century. Another was the intense campaigns led by Dublin in eastern Ulster from 921 to 927, where the purpose seem to have been conquest in order to create a Scandinavian kingdom like the one on the eastern side of the Irish sea.
Dublins ambitions in Ulster was halted by a series of defeats inflicted upon the them by Muirchertach mac Néill
Muirchertach mac Néill
Muirchertach mac Néill , called Muirchertach of the Leather Cloaks , King of Ailech.-Family ramifications:Muirchertach belonged to the Cenél nEógain sept of the northern Uí Néill...
, the son of Niall Glúndub. According to Benjamin Hudson, "Muirchertach was one of the most successful generals of his day and was described as the ‘Hector of the Irish’". In the annals, it is Donnchad Donn
Donnchad Donn
Donnchadh Donn mac Flainn was High King of Ireland. He belonged to Clann Cholmáin, a branch of the southern Uí Néill.-Origins:...
from Clann Cholmáin who is titled "high king" after Niall however, and Muirchertach did not succeed his father as king of Ailech either until 938. Apart from his victories over the Norse, Muirchertach successfully lead campaigns forcing other provincial kingdoms into submission, most notably taking the king of Munster Cellachán Caisil
Cellachán Caisil
Cellachán mac Buadacháin , called Cellachán Caisil, was King of Munster.The son of Buadachán mac Lachtnai, he belonged to the Cashel branch of the Eóganachta kindred, the Eóganacht Chaisil. The last of his cognatic ancestors to have held the kingship of Munster was Colgú mac Faílbe Flaind Cellachán...
captive in 941. The same year he led a fleet to the Hebrides, collecting tribute there.Hudson, "Muirchertach mac Néill (d. 943)", Hudson also notes that "As a descendant of the kings of Dál Riata, being the great-grandson of the Scottish king Cináed mac Alpin, he may have considered that he had hereditary interests in the region."
When Sihtric died in 927 Gofraid left for York, trying to assume kingship there. He was driven out by Athelstan
Athelstan of England
Athelstan , called the Glorious, was the King of England from 924 or 925 to 939. He was the son of King Edward the Elder, grandson of Alfred the Great and nephew of Æthelflæd of Mercia...
, and returned to Dublin half a year later. The Vikings of Limerick, had taken Dublin in his absence. Gofraid retook the city, but the struggle between Limerick continued well after Gofraids death in 934. He was succeeded by his son, Amlaíb, who inflicted a decisive defeat on Limerick in 937. The same year Amlaíb went to Northumbria and allied himself with Constantine II of Scotland
Constantine II of Scotland
Constantine, son of Áed was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name Alba. The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine's lifetime, was in northern Great Britain...
and Owen I of Strathclyde. This coalition was defeated by Athelstan at Brunanburh
Battle of Brunanburh
The Battle of Brunanburh was an English victory in 937 by the army of Æthelstan, King of England, and his brother Edmund over the combined armies of Olaf III Guthfrithson, the Norse-Gael King of Dublin, Constantine II, King of Scots, and Owen I, King of Strathclyde...
, but after Athelstans death in 939 Amlaíb was made king of York. He was joined by a kinsman with the same name, Amlaíb son of Sihtric, known as Amlaíb Cuarán.
Congalach mac Máel Mithig, known as Cnogba, succeeded Donnchad Donn as Uí Néill overking in 944 (Muirchertag, who otherwise might have been the obvious successor had been killed in 943). Congalach was king of Brega and a member of Síl nÁedo Sláine
Síl nÁedo Sláine
Síl nÁedo Sláine is the name of the descendants of Áed Sláine , son of Diarmait mac Cerbaill. Part of the Southern Uí Néill—they were the kings of Brega—they claimed descent from Niall Noígiallach and his son Conall Cremthainne....
, and the first of this dynasty called "High King" since Cináed mac Írgalaig
Cináed mac Írgalaig
Cináed mac Írgalaig or Cináed Cáech, "the one-eyed", was an Irish King of Brega who was High King of Ireland.-Background:Cináed was the son of Írgalach mac Conaing , a previous King of Brega...
in the early 8th century. In 944 he sacked Dublin, now ruled by Blácaire mac Gofrith
Blácaire mac Gofrith
Blácaire mac Gofrith , in Old Norse Blákári Guðrøðsson, was King of Dublin. Son of Gofraid ua Ímair, he was a great-grandson of Ímar, ancestor of the Uí Ímair kindred which dominated the Scandinavianised and Norse-Gael regions of Britain and Ireland in the tenth century.According to the Annals of...
. When Amlaíb Cuaran returned to Ireland the next year, he became ruler of Dublin and acted as an ally of Congalach in the struggle against Ruaidrí ua Canannáin
Ruaidrí ua Canannáin
Ruaidrí ua Canannáin was king of the Cenél Conaill, and according to some sources, High King of Ireland.The Cenél Conaill, a branch of the northern Uí Néill had been excluded from the alternating succession to the High Kingship which had been largely dominated by the northern Cenél nEógain kings...
, a rival Uí Néill claimant for High Kingship from Cenél Conaill
Cenél Conaill
The Cenél Conaill is the name of the "kindred" or descendants of Conall Gulban, son of Niall Noígiallach defined by oral and recorded history. They were also known in Scotland as the Kindred of Saint Columba....
. This alliance did not last long after Ruaidrís death in 950 however, and Congalach was killed in 956 in a battle against an alliance of Dublin and Leinster. He was succeeded by Domnall ua Néill
Domnall ua Néill
Domhnall ua Néill was High King of Ireland from 956 to 980.Domnall was the son of Muirchertach mac Néill, and grandson of Niall Glúndub, a member of the Cenél nEógain northern Uí Néill. He became co-King of Ailech with his brother Flaithbertach on the death of his father in 943...
, and in the following decades alliances shifted constantly between the different branches of Uí Néill, Leinster and Dublin.
In 980 Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill
Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill
Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill , also called Máel Sechnaill Mór, Máel Sechnaill II, anglicized Malachy II, was King of Mide and High King of Ireland...
succeeded Domnall, and the same year he defeated the forces of Dublin at the battle of Tara. Following this victory Máel Sechnaill forced Dublin into submission, and his half-brother, Amlaíbs son Glúniairn
Glúniairn
Glúniairn , in Old Norse Járnkné, was a Norse-Gael king of Dublin of the Uí Ímair kindred which ruled over much of the Scandinavianised and Norse-Gael parts of Great Britain and Ireland in the tenth century....
became ruler in Dublin.
Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill and Brian Boru (980–1022)
Dál gCais
The Dál gCais were a dynastic group of related septs located in north Munster who rose to political prominence in the 10th century AD in Ireland. They claimed descent from Cormac Cas, or Cas mac Conall Echlúath, hence the term "Dál", meaning "portion" or "share" of Cas...
had grown under Cennétig mac Lorcáin
Cennétig mac Lorcáin
Cennétig mac Lorcáin was an Irish king. He was the father of Brian Boru.-Reign:Cennétig was king of the Dál gCais, one of the tribes of the Déisi, subject peoples in Munster. Their name was new, first recorded in the 930s, and they had previously been an undistinguished part of the northern Déisi...
, and his son Mathgamain
Mathgamain mac Cennétig
Mathgamain mac Cennétig was King of Munster from around 970 to his death in 976. He is the elder brother of Brian Bóruma and the ancestor of the McMahon family of County Clare in Western Ireland ....
was the first non-Eóganachta
Eóganachta
The Eóganachta or Eoghanachta were an Irish dynasty centred around Cashel which dominated southern Ireland from the 6/7th to the 10th centuries, and following that, in a restricted form, the Kingdom of Desmond, and its offshoot Carbery, well into the 16th century...
ruler to be named by the annals as king of Cashel (i.e. king of Munster) in historical times. He was killed in 976, and succeeded by his brother Brian
Brian Boru
Brian Bóruma mac Cennétig, , , was an Irish king who ended the domination of the High Kingship of Ireland by the Uí Néill. Building on the achievements of his father, Cennétig mac Lorcain, and especially his elder brother, Mathgamain, Brian first made himself King of Munster, then subjugated...
, later famously known as Brian Boru.
Brian quickly established himself as the most powerful ruler in Munster, defeating the Norse Limerick in 977 and the Eóganachta the following year. Having gained control over Munster, he tried to extend his authority by raiding Osraige in 982 and 983, and also, according to the annals of Innisfallen, entering an alliance with the Norse Waterford
Waterford
Waterford is a city in the South-East Region of Ireland. It is the oldest city in the country and fifth largest by population. Waterford City Council is the local government authority for the city and its immediate hinterland...
, with the intention of attacking Dublin. There was such an attack, but Brian does not seem to have been involved - instead it was Domnall Claen of Leinster who was allied with Ivar of Waterford
Ivar of Waterford
Ivar of Waterford was the Norse king of Waterford from at least 969 until his death in the year 1000, and also reigned as King of Dublin, possibly from 989 to 993, and certainly again for less than a year between 994 and 995, returning after his expulsion from the city in 993 by Sigtrygg...
, and they were defeated by Glúniairn and Máel Sechnaill.
Máel Sechnaill obviously perceived Brian as a threat, and as early as 982 raided Munster and the territory of the Dal gCais. The next two decades saw more or less constant warfare between them, mostly with Leinster as their battleground. Even if Brian never defeated Máel Sechnaill in battle, Brians and Munsters influence was growing on the expense of Máel Sechnaill and the Southern Uí Néill. In 997 Máel Sechnaill was forced to acknowledge Brians authority over the south of Ireland, and they formally divided Ireland according to the traditional scheme of Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga
Leath Cuinn
Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga refers to a legendary ancient division of Ireland.-Geographical extant:Leath Cuinn was the island north of the Esker Riada...
. For the years to follow, the two of them acted as allies in accordance with this agreement. In 999 Brian successfully quelled a revolt against him by the men of Leinster and Dublin at the battle of Glen Mama, and only restored Sigtrygg Silkbeard
Sigtrygg Silkbeard
Sigtrygg II Silkbeard Olafsson was a Hiberno-Norse King of Dublin of the Uí Ímair dynasty...
as ruler of Dublin after he had formally submitted to Brian by handing over hostages.
In 1000, Brian turned against Máel Sechnaill, and by 1002 he had forced Máel Sechnaill to submit to him, and now claimed kingship over the whole of Ireland. In the following decade, there was several campaigns in the north to force the Ulaid and the Northern Uí Néill into submission as well. Even if faced with multiple rebellions, both in the north and in Leinster, by 1011 had received submission from every major regional king in Ireland, and thus earned the recognition by historians as the first real king of Ireland. During his visit to Armagh in 1005, he had his secretary add a note to the Book of Kells
Book of Kells
The Book of Kells is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin, containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables. It was created by Celtic monks ca. 800 or slightly earlier...
where he is proclaimed as Imperator Scottorum (emperor of the Irish). According to Bart Jaski, "This can be regarded as a claim that he ruled both the Irish and the Norse in Ireland, and may even imply suzerainty over the Gaels of Scotland". In his obituary in the Annals of Ulster he is styled as "over-king of the Irish of Ireland, and of the foreigners and of the Britons, the Augustus of the whole of north-west Europe".
In 1012, Flaithbertach Ua Néill
Flaithbertach Ua Néill
Flaithbertach Ua Néill was king of Ailech, a kingdom of north-west Ireland. He abdicated in 1030 and undertook a pilgrimage to Rome, for which reason he was known as Flaithbertach an Trostáin...
, revolted against Brian, and the following year Máel Mórda
Máel Mórda mac Murchada
Máel Mórda mac Murchada was King of Leinster.Son of Murchad mac Finn and brother of Gormflaith, he belonged to the Uí Fáeláin sept of the Uí Dúnlainge, whose lands lay around Naas on the middle reaches of the River Liffey, in modern County Kildare.Máel Mórda is best known as the enemy of Brian...
of Leinster and Sigtrygg of Dublin too. The latter led to the famous battle of Clontarf
Battle of Clontarf
The Battle of Clontarf took place on 23 April 1014 between the forces of Brian Boru and the forces led by the King of Leinster, Máel Mórda mac Murchada: composed mainly of his own men, Viking mercenaries from Dublin and the Orkney Islands led by his cousin Sigtrygg, as well as the one rebellious...
, where Brian was killed, even if his army was victorious over Máel Mórda, Sigtrygg and their allies. Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Earl of Orkney
Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Earl of Orkney
Sigurd Hlodvisson , popularly known as Sigurd the Stout, was Earl of Orkney. The main source for his life is the Orkneyinga Saga, written some two centuries after his death....
as well as forces from Man
Man
The term man is used for an adult human male . However, man is sometimes used to refer to humanity as a whole...
participated on the Dublin/ Leinster side, and this may, in conjunction with the propagandistic account of the battle given in the Cogad, have created the still popular myth that what took place at Clontarf Good Friday
Good Friday
Good Friday , is a religious holiday observed primarily by Christians commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. The holiday is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, and may coincide with the Jewish observance of...
1014 was a decisive battle where the Irish defeated Viking invaders and was liberated from oppression. Donnchadh Ó Corráin
Donnchadh Ó Corráin
Donnchadh Ó Corráin is an Irish historian and Professor Emeritus of Medieval History at University College Cork. He is an early Irish and mediaeval historian and has published on the Viking Wars, Ireland in the pre-Hiberno-Norman period and the origin of Irish language names.-Works:Ó Corráin's...
was one of the first to publicly debunk this national myth, in his groundbreaking Ireland before the Normans from 1972
Following Brian's death, Máel Sechnaill resumed as High King, supported by Flaithbertach ua Néill.AU 1015.2: "Flaithbertach ua Néill went into Mide to assist Mael Sechnaill." This seem to contradict Byrne (p.864): "..since 970 the Northern and Southern Uí Néill were... ...irreconcilable foes..." In Munster, internal strife almost immediately began between Brians sons Donnchad
Donnchad mac Briain
Donnchadh mac Briain , formerly anglicised as Donough O'Brian, son of Brian Bóruma and Gormflaith ingen Murchada, was King of Munster.-Background:...
and Tadc
Tadc mac Briain
Tadc or Tadg mac Briain was the son of Brian Boru and Echrad, daughter of Carlus mac Ailella of Uí Áeda Odba. Tadc had one son, Toirdelbach Ua Briain , with his wife Mór, daughter of Gilla Brigte Ua Maíl Muaid of Cenél Fiachach....
, and Dúngal Ua Donnchada of Eóganachta also claimed the kingship of the province. Though Donnchad eventually was victorious, the descendants of Brian would not be able to make a real claim for kingship over Ireland again until Toirdelbach Ua Briain. In Leinster, the defeat at Clontarf and death of Máel Mórda seriously weakened the Uí Dúnlainge
Uí Dúnlainge
The Uí Dúnlainge, from the Old Irish "grandsons of Dúnlaing", were an Irish dynasty of Leinster kings who traced their descent from Dúnlaing mac Énda Niada. He was said to be a cousin of Énnae Cennsalach, eponymous ancestor of the rival Uí Chennselaig....
, and opened the way for a new Uí Cheinnselaig
Uí Cheinnselaig
The Uí Ceinnselaig , from the Old Irish "grandsons of Cennsalach", are an Irish dynasty of Leinster who trace their descent from Énnae Cennsalach, a supposed contemporary of Niall of the Nine Hostages...
dominance in the region. Despite the defeat at Clontarf, Sigtrygg remained ruler of Dublin until 1036.
High Kings with Opposition (1022 onwards)
Donnchad mac Brian styled himself as 'King of Ireland' after the death of Máel Sechnaill, but was not recognised as such. A glossing of Baile In Scáil lists Flaitbertach Ua Néill as high king, but he proved unable even to control the north of Ireland. Neither was anyone else able to make a recognised claim for kingship over all of Ireland, according to Byrne, "what distinguished the great interregnum of 1022–72 from other periods in Irish history is is at is was recognised as such by contemporary observers"Flann Mainistrech
Flann Mainistrech
Flann Mainistrech was an Irish poet and historian.Flann was the son Echthigern mac Óengusso, who had been lector at the monastery of Monasterboice , in Irish Mainistir Buite, whence Flann's byname, meaning "of Monasterboice"...
had written Ríg Themra tóebaige iar tain, a regnal poem on the Christian (Uí Néill) kings of Tara some time between 1014 and 1022. When he wrote in 1056 he evidently did not know any high-king of Ireland, and instead lists a number of kings of the day: Conchobar, Áed, Garbith, Diarmait, Donnchad and two Nialls. According to Byrne, these are Conchobar Ua Maíl Schechnaill of Mide, Áed Ua Conchobair
Áed in Gai Bernaig
Áed Ua Conchobair or Áed in Gai Bernaig, King of Connacht, reigned 1046–1067.King Art of Connaught was slain by the Cinel-Conaill in 1046, "the second year after his having plundered Cluain-mic-Nois."...
of Connacht, Garbíth Ua Cathassaig of Brega, Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó
Diarmait mac Mail na mBo
Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó was King of Leinster, and also High King of Ireland .He was one of the most important and significant Kings in Ireland in the pre-Norman era...
of Leinster, Donnchad Mac Briain of Munster, Niall mac Máel Sechnaill of Ailech and Niall mac Eochada
Niall mac Eochada
Niall mac Eochada , was king of Ulaid from 1016.His father, Eochada mac Ardgair, died in 1004. His early military ventures were against members of his own sept, Dál Fiatach. He defeated a cousin in 1012 at the ‘battle of the Summits’ and in 1020 defeated and blinded Flaithbertach Ua EochadaIn 1022...
of Ulaid.
The term rí Érenn co fressarba ("High kings with opposition") was used from the 12th century. According to Byrne, "it could be argued that the 'high kings with opposition' met with opposition precisely because they tried to become kings of Ireland in a real sense. They were not less successful than their predecessors, but only seemed so in the light of the teaching of the schools". Following a similar line of reasoning, Byrne suggests that the focus from historians on the decline of the Uí Néill in the 11th century, may be a "tribute to the success of their own propaganda". After Brian, the previous Uí Néill monopoly of high kingship as described in poems and chronicles, was anyway broken for good. The Cenél nEógain suffered from internal faction, and this allowed the Ulaid, under Niall mac Eochada to expand their influence. Niall and Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó became allies, and effectively controlled the whole east coast of Ireland. This alliance helped to make it possible for Diarmait to take direct control of Dublin in 1052. Unlike Máel Sechnaill in 980 or Brian in 999, he wasn't content just looting the city and expelling the Hiberno-Norse ruler (Echmarcach mac Ragnaill
Echmarcach mac Ragnaill
Echmarcach mac Ragnaill was the Gall-Gaidhel King of the Isles, Dublin , and much of Galloway. According to Seán Duffy he was either a grandson or great-grandson of Ivar of Waterford, but an alternative exists. Benjamin Hudson has contended Echmarcach was a grandson of Gofraid mac Arailt...
); in an unprecedented move he assumed the kingship 'of the foreigners' (ríge Gall) himself.
Reform of the Irish Church
There were major reforms in the Irish church during the 12th century. These reforms have been generally been interpreted as a reaction to previous secularisation, but could also be seen as a continuous development. The reforms had consequences for, and were influenced by, relations within the church as well as secular politics.Before the 11th century the church in Ireland was monastic, with bishops residing at monasteries and without a permanent diocesan
Diocese
A diocese is the district or see under the supervision of a bishop. It is divided into parishes.An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese. An archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or had importance due to size or historical significance...
structure. The circumstances surrounding the foundation of the diocese of Dublin early in the century are obscure, but at some point during the reign of Sithric Silkbeard Dúnán
Donat, Bishop of Dublin
Dúnán was the first bishop of Dublin, appointed under Dublin's Hiberno-Norse kings. He is known also as Donatus or Donat. The diocese was put on a regular basis, in 1028, at the request of Sigtrygg Silkbeard...
became Bishop of Dublin, thus establishing the first proper diocese in Ireland. His successor Gilla Pátraic
Gilla Pátraic
Gilla Patráic , also known as Patricius, was the second Bishop of Dublin. Gilla Patráic was elevated to the see of Dublin following bishop Dúnáns death in 1074, He was consecrated by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury...
was consecrated by Lanfranc
Lanfranc
Lanfranc was Archbishop of Canterbury, and a Lombard by birth.-Early life:Lanfranc was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia, where later tradition held that his father, Hanbald, held a rank broadly equivalent to magistrate...
, Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
, and on that occasion Lanfranc sent letters to Toirdelbach Ua Briain and Gofraid urging reforms, in particular regarding the consecration of bishops and the abolition of simony
Simony
Simony is the act of paying for sacraments and consequently for holy offices or for positions in the hierarchy of a church, named after Simon Magus , who appears in the Acts of the Apostles 8:9-24...
. There is no evidence of Canterbury claiming primacy over the church in Ireland prior to this, and neither Lanfranc nor Anselm
Anselm of Canterbury
Anselm of Canterbury , also called of Aosta for his birthplace, and of Bec for his home monastery, was a Benedictine monk, a philosopher, and a prelate of the church who held the office of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109...
ever made direct primatial claims for Canterbury in relation to the Irish church.
Toirdelbach appears to have responded favourably to this, and convened a synod in Dublin in 1080 - the outcome of this synod is not known. Toirdelbach may have seen cooperation with Canterbury as a way to reduce the influence from Armagh, traditionally dominated by Cenél nEógain, within the church in Ireland. Gilla Pátraic's successors Donngus Ua hAingliu
Donngus Ua hAingliu
Donngus Ua hAingliu , also known as Donatus and Donat O'Haingly, was the third Bishop of Dublin. Donngus was elevated to the see of Dublin following bishop Gilla Pátraics death in 1084...
and Samuel Ua hÁingliu were also consecrated in Canterbury, and so was the first bishop of Waterford, Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire in 1096. The written request for Máel Ísus consecration, as preserved in Eadmer
Eadmer
Eadmer, or Edmer , was an English historian, theologian, and ecclesiastic. He is known for being a contemporary biographer of his contemporary archbishop and companion, Saint Anselm, in his Vita Anselmi, and for his Historia novorum in Anglia, which presents the public face of Anselm...
s Historia Novorum is subscribed by bishops from Munster, Mide, Dublin and Leinster. Gilla Espaic, the first bishop of Limerick, was however not consecrated in Canterbury, but probably by Cellach of Armagh.Gilla received a letter from Anselm congratulating him on his elevation to the see of Limerick, and there was no suggestion that Anselm felt Canterbury had been slighted or ought to have been involved. Flanagan, p. 915.
The first of the four main synods main associated with the church reforms of the 12th century took place in Cashel in 1101, at the instigation of Muirchertach Ua Briain. How many who actually attended this synod is not known, but some of its decrees have been preserved. There is a decree on simony, on prohibition for laymen to become airchinnig (heads of ecclesiastical establishments) and finally a decree that defines what relationships are considered to be incestuous. None of these decrees are radical, but they are generally interpreted to be in line with the Gregorian reform
Gregorian Reform
The Gregorian Reforms were a series of reforms initiated by Pope Gregory VII and the circle he formed in the papal curia, circa 1050–80, which dealt with the moral integrity and independence of the clergy...
.
The second synod was the Synod of Rathbreasail
Synod of Rathbreasail
The Synod of Ráth Breasail took place in Ireland in 1111. It marked the transition of the Irish church from a monastic to a diocesan and parish-based church...
. This synod, presided by Gilla Espaic as papal legate
Papal legate
A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....
and attended by fifty bishops, three hundred priests and over three thousand laymen, marked the transition of the Irish church from a monastic to a diocesan and parish-based church. It established two provinces, with archbishoprics at Armagh and Cashel, and prominence given to Armagh, making Cellach the primate of the church in Ireland. Each province consisted of twelve territorial dioceses. The see of Dublin was not included, as this was under primacy from Canterbury,The see of Waterford however, where the incumbent bishop Máel Ísu Ua hAinmire also had been consecrated in, and taken vows of obedience to, Canterbury, was moved to Lismore, and Máel Ísu chosen as the first archbishop of Cashel. but a place was left open for it, in the sense that only eleven dioceses were declared under Cashel.
Gilla, Cellach and Cellach's successor Máel Máedóc Ua Morgair, better known as St. Malachy, drove the reform process onwards. Malachy, in close cooperation with Donnchad Ua Cerbaill, king of Fernmag/Airgialla, established the first Irish Cistercian house at Mellifont in 1142, and also facilitated the first Augustinian community of the Arrouaisian observance. Malachy used these as agencies of monastic reform within the Irish church. Malachy resigned as archbishop of Armagh in 1136, but was appointed native papal legate to Ireland by Innocent II
Pope Innocent II
Pope Innocent II , born Gregorio Papareschi, was pope from 1130 to 1143, and was probably one of the clergy in personal attendance on the antipope Clement III .-Early years:...
in 1139.
No formal attempts on getting papal approval for the structure chosen at Rathbreasail are known before Malachy sought pallia
Pallium
The pallium is an ecclesiastical vestment in the Roman Catholic Church, originally peculiar to the Pope, but for many centuries bestowed by him on metropolitans and primates as a symbol of the jurisdiction delegated to them by the Holy See. In that context it has always remained unambiguously...
for the two incumbent archbishops at Cashel and Armagh during his trip to the continent in 1139/40. This first bid was unsuccessful, but Malachy was told to reapply after he had gained the agreement of all Ireland. Before undertaking his second trip to the continent in 1148, Malachy convened a synod at St Patrick's Island
St Patrick's Island
St Patrick's Island is the most distant of three low-lying uninhabited islets off the headland of Skerries, County Dublin in Ireland. It is an island of low cliffs and lies about 1.5 km from the mainland, with vegetation consisting of grasses, brambles and other species such as hogweed. It is the...
. The main challenge must have been to reach an accommodation with Dublin, and Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair, presently the most powerful king in Ireland, was eager to increase Connacht influence on the church. The solution reached was to extend the number of metropolitan sees from two to four, with Tuam
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tuam
The Metropolitan Archdiocese of Tuam is a Roman Catholic archdiocese in western Ireland. According to tradition, the "Diocese of Tuam" was established in the sixth century by St. Jarlath...
and Dublin included alongside Cashel and Armagh. Malachy died on his way to meet the pope, but the message was transmitted by other means and papal approval was granted. Pope Eugene III
Pope Eugene III
Pope Blessed Eugene III , born Bernardo da Pisa, was Pope from 1145 to 1153. He was the first Cistercian to become Pope.-Early life:...
appointed cardinal John Paparo
Giovanni Paparoni
Giovanni Paparoni was an Italian Cardinal and prominent papal legate in dealings with Ireland and Scotland.He was created Cardinal by Pope Celestine II in 1143. He presided at the Synod of Kells in 1152, which decided the system of four archbishops for Ireland...
as papal legate, and sent him to Ireland with pallia for the four archbishops.
Cardinal Paparos first attempt to reach Ireland was stalled when king Stephen
Stephen of England
Stephen , often referred to as Stephen of Blois , was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne by right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda...
refused him safe conduct through England unless he pledged himself do nothing in Ireland that would injure England’s interests there. This was not acceptable for Paparo, who returned to Rome. It seems likely that this was an attempt by Stephen to prevent Paparo from bringing papal confirmation for an arrangement in Ireland that would finally extinguish Canterbury’s claims in Ireland. In 1151 he returned and this time reached Ireland, his journey being facilitated by David I of Scotland
David I of Scotland
David I or Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim was a 12th-century ruler who was Prince of the Cumbrians and later King of the Scots...
. The Synod of Kells-Mellifont
Synod of Kells-Mellifont
The Synod of Kells took place in AD 1152, under the presidency of Cardinal Paparoni, and continued the process begun at the Synod of Rathbreasail of reforming the Irish church...
was convened in 1152, with Paparo presiding as papal legate. The decrees from the synod are longer extant, but some information is preserved through the Annals of the Four Masters
Annals of the Four Masters
The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland or the Annals of the Four Masters are a chronicle of medieval Irish history...
and Geoffrey Keating
Geoffrey Keating
Seathrún Céitinn, known in English as Geoffrey Keating, was a 17th century Irish Roman Catholic priest, poet and historian. He was born in County Tipperary c. 1569, and died c. 1644...
s Foras Feasa ar Éirinn. The main result of the synod was the official papal sanctioning of the episcopal structure as created in 1111 and refined in 1148.
Norman invasion
The Norman invasion of IrelandNorman Invasion of Ireland
The Norman invasion of Ireland was a two-stage process, which began on 1 May 1169 when a force of loosely associated Norman knights landed near Bannow, County Wexford...
was a two-stage process, which began on 1 May 1169 a force of individual Norman
Normans
The Normans were the people who gave their name to Normandy, a region in northern France. They were descended from Norse Viking conquerors of the territory and the native population of Frankish and Gallo-Roman stock...
knights landed near Bannow
Bannow
Bannow is an area situated in the south of County Wexford, in Ireland. An early Norman town was founded at Bannow. This town has since disappeared for unknown reasons, although the ruins of an early Norman church can still be seen there today . The Norman church is located near the former Island...
, County Wexford
County Wexford
County Wexford is a county in Ireland. It is part of the South-East Region and is also located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the town of Wexford. In pre-Norman times it was part of the Kingdom of Uí Cheinnselaig, whose capital was at Ferns. Wexford County Council is the local...
. This was at the request of Dermot MacMurrough
Dermot MacMurrough
Diarmait Mac Murchada , anglicized as Dermot MacMurrough or Dermod MacMurrough , was a King of Leinster in Ireland. In 1167, he was deprived of his kingdom by the High King of Ireland - Turlough Mór O'Connor...
(Diarmait Mac Murchada), the ousted King of Leinster
Kings of Leinster
The following is a provisional list of the kings of Leinster who ruled the Irish kingdom of Leinster up to 1632 with the death of Domhnall Spainnach MacMurrough-Kavanagh, the last legitimately inaugurated head of the MacMurrough Kavanagh royal line...
who sought their help in regaining his kingdom.
Then on 18 October 1171, Henry II
Henry II of England
Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
landed a much bigger force in Waterford to at least ensure his continuing control over the Norman force. In the process he took Dublin and had accepted the fealty of the Irish kings and bishops by 1172, so creating the "Lordship of Ireland
Lordship of Ireland
The Lordship of Ireland refers to that part of Ireland that was under the rule of the king of England, styled Lord of Ireland, between 1177 and 1541. It was created in the wake of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169–71 and was succeeded by the Kingdom of Ireland...
", which formed part of his Angevin Empire
Angevin Empire
The term Angevin Empire is a modern term describing the collection of states once ruled by the Angevin Plantagenet dynasty.The Plantagenets ruled over an area stretching from the Pyrenees to Ireland during the 12th and early 13th centuries, located north of Moorish Iberia. This "empire" extended...
.
See also
- History of IrelandHistory of IrelandThe first known settlement in Ireland began around 8000 BC, when hunter-gatherers arrived from continental Europe, probably via a land bridge. Few archaeological traces remain of this group, but their descendants and later Neolithic arrivals, particularly from the Iberian Peninsula, were...
- Scandinavian ScotlandScandinavian ScotlandScandinavian Scotland refers to the period from the 8th to the 15th centuries during which Vikings and Norse settlers and their descendents colonised parts of what is now modern Scotland...
- Early Scandinavian DublinEarly Scandinavian DublinThe First Viking Age lasted from 795, when Viking raids on Irish settlements began, until 902, when the ruling Norse dynasty was expelled from Dublin. This period of Irish history is characterised by a series of conflicts involving the native Irish and two Viking factions that the Irish called...
- Great IrelandGreat IrelandGreat Ireland , also known as White Men's Land , and in Latin similarly as Hibernia Major and Albania, was a land said by various Norsemen to be located near Vinland...
- PaparPaparThe Papar were, according to early Icelandic historical sources, a group of Irish or Scottish monks resident in parts of Iceland at the time of the arrival of the Norsemen...