Biodynamic agriculture
Encyclopedia
Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming
that emphasizes the holistic
development and interrelationships of the soil, plants and animals as a self-sustaining system. Biodynamic farming has much in common with other organic approaches, such as emphasizing the use of manure
s and compost
s and excluding of the use of artificial chemicals on soil and plants. There are independent certification agencies for biodynamic products; most of these agencies are members of the international biodynamics standards group Demeter International
. Biodynamics originated out of the work of Rudolf Steiner
, the founder of anthroposophy
.
Biodynamics was one of the first modern ecological farming systems and is considered to be one of the most sustainable. As of 2011 biodynamic techniques were used on 142,482 hectares in 47 countries; Germany accounts for 45.1% of the global total. Biodynamic methods of cultivating wine grapes have been taken up broadly, including by notable vineyards. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include the use of fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays, integration of farm animals and plant production, an emphasis on local production and distribution systems using local breeds and varieties, and the use of an astronomical sowing and planting calendar.
Biodynamic agriculture has been characterized as pseudoscience
. A 2009/2011 review found that biodynamically cultivated fields:
at Schloss Koberwitz
in Silesia
, Germany
, (now Kobierzyce
in Poland
east of Wrocław). The course was held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. At the course of eight lectures there were 111 attendees coming from six countries. An agricultural research group was subsequently formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil
, plants and animal
s.
Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide. Demeter International
is the primary certification agency for farms and gardens using the methods.
s, green manure
s and crop rotation
s are used extensively and the farms foster bio-diversity.
Biodynamic farms often have a cultural component and encourage local community. Some biodynamic farms use the Community Supported Agriculture model, which has connections with social threefolding
.
BD farming practices have been found to be more resilient to environmental challenges, to foster diverse biosphere, and to be more energy efficient, factors of increasing importance in the face of climate change, energy scarcity and population growth.
. A long term trial (DOK experiment) evaluating the biodynamic farming system in comparison with organic and conventional farming systems, found that preparations have influence on soil structure and micro-organisms enhancing soil fertility and increasing biodiversity. Regarding compost development beyond accelerating the initial phase of composting, some positive effects have been noted:
Both 500 and 501 are used on fields by stirring about one teaspoon of the contents of a horn in 40–60 liters of water for an hour, creating vortexes in alternate directions.
One to three grams (a teaspoon) of each preparation is added to a dung heap by digging 50 cm deep holes with a distance of 2 meters from each other, except for the 507 preparation, which is stirred into 5 liters of water and sprayed over the entire compost surface. All preparations are thus used in homeopathic
quantities. Each compost preparation is designed to guide a particular decomposition process in the composting mass.
One study found that the oak bark preparation improved disease resistance in zucchini.
association of biodynamic farmers for the purpose of maintaining production standards used both in farming and processing foodstuffs.(This is not a trademark held privately in New Zealand) The trademark is intended to protect both the consumer and the producers of biodynamic produce. Demeter International
is an organization of member countries; each country has its own Demeter organization which is required to meet international production standards (but can also exceed them). The original Demeter organization was founded in 1928; the U.S. Demeter Association was formed in the 1980s and certified its first farm in 1982. In France
, Biodivin certifies biodynamic wine
. In Egypt
, SEKEM
has created the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), an association that provides training for farmers to become certified.
Individual studies have found:
by scholars. In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, a researcher with the University of Kiel
, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained using standard organic farming
principles. He wrote that the biodynamic preparations more resemble alchemy
or magic
akin to geomancy
.
In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
, concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture and that many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions (for example, it is hard to prove that one has harnessed "cosmic forces" in the foods). Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing. Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at Washington State University
, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.
In Michael Shermer
's two-volume work, The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience
, biodynamic agriculture is described as relying on astrological conditions, cosmic influences and magical rituals.
Organic farming
Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pests on a farm...
that emphasizes the holistic
Holism
Holism is the idea that all the properties of a given system cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone...
development and interrelationships of the soil, plants and animals as a self-sustaining system. Biodynamic farming has much in common with other organic approaches, such as emphasizing the use of manure
Manure
Manure is organic matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil...
s and compost
Compost
Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. At its most essential, the process of composting requires simply piling up waste outdoors and waiting for the materials to break down from anywhere...
s and excluding of the use of artificial chemicals on soil and plants. There are independent certification agencies for biodynamic products; most of these agencies are members of the international biodynamics standards group Demeter International
Demeter International
Demeter International is the largest certification organization for biodynamic agriculture, and is one of three predominant organic certifiers. Its name is a reference to Demeter, the Greek goddess of grain and fertility. Demeter Biodynamic Certification is used in over 50 countries to verify that...
. Biodynamics originated out of the work of Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Steiner
Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner was an Austrian philosopher, social reformer, architect, and esotericist. He gained initial recognition as a literary critic and cultural philosopher...
, the founder of anthroposophy
Anthroposophy
Anthroposophy, a philosophy founded by Rudolf Steiner, postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible spiritual world accessible to direct experience through inner development...
.
Biodynamics was one of the first modern ecological farming systems and is considered to be one of the most sustainable. As of 2011 biodynamic techniques were used on 142,482 hectares in 47 countries; Germany accounts for 45.1% of the global total. Biodynamic methods of cultivating wine grapes have been taken up broadly, including by notable vineyards. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include the use of fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays, integration of farm animals and plant production, an emphasis on local production and distribution systems using local breeds and varieties, and the use of an astronomical sowing and planting calendar.
Biodynamic agriculture has been characterized as pseudoscience
Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience is a claim, belief, or practice which is presented as scientific, but which does not adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific status...
. A 2009/2011 review found that biodynamically cultivated fields:
- achieve lower absolute yields but better efficiency of production (relative to energy input)
- impact the environment positively, including increased biodiversity
- had greater earthworm populations and biomass than conventional farms; both factors were similar to the result in organically cultivated fields.
- maintained or slightly improved the organic carbon levels, while both organic and conventional farming techniques resulted in a loss of organic carbon.
- had higher microbial biomass carbon and dehydrogenase activity than those of either organically or conventionally farmed fields.
History
The development of biodynamic agriculture began in 1924 with a series of eight lectures on agriculture given by philosopher Rudolf SteinerRudolf Steiner
Rudolf Joseph Lorenz Steiner was an Austrian philosopher, social reformer, architect, and esotericist. He gained initial recognition as a literary critic and cultural philosopher...
at Schloss Koberwitz
Kobierzyce
Kobierzyce is a village in Wrocław County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It is the seat of the administrative district called Gmina Kobierzyce. Prior to 1945 it belonged to Germany. It lies approximately south-west of the capital of Lower Silesian Voievodship...
in Silesia
Lower Silesia
Lower Silesia ; is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia; Upper Silesia is to the southeast.Throughout its history Lower Silesia has been under the control of the medieval Kingdom of Poland, the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1526...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, (now Kobierzyce
Kobierzyce
Kobierzyce is a village in Wrocław County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It is the seat of the administrative district called Gmina Kobierzyce. Prior to 1945 it belonged to Germany. It lies approximately south-west of the capital of Lower Silesian Voievodship...
in Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
east of Wrocław). The course was held in response to a request by farmers who noticed degraded soil conditions and a deterioration in the health and quality of crops and livestock resulting from the use of chemical fertilizers. At the course of eight lectures there were 111 attendees coming from six countries. An agricultural research group was subsequently formed to test the effects of biodynamic methods on the life and health of soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
, plants and animal
Animal
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and...
s.
Today biodynamics is practiced in more than 50 countries worldwide. Demeter International
Demeter International
Demeter International is the largest certification organization for biodynamic agriculture, and is one of three predominant organic certifiers. Its name is a reference to Demeter, the Greek goddess of grain and fertility. Demeter Biodynamic Certification is used in over 50 countries to verify that...
is the primary certification agency for farms and gardens using the methods.
Geographic developments
- Steiner's Agriculture Course was published in November 1924; an English translation appeared in 1928.
- In AustraliaAustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
the first biodynamic preparations were made by Ernesto Genoni in MelbourneMelbourneMelbourne is the capital and most populous city in the state of Victoria, and the second most populous city in Australia. The Melbourne City Centre is the hub of the greater metropolitan area and the Census statistical division—of which "Melbourne" is the common name. As of June 2009, the greater...
in 1927 and by Bob Williams in SydneySydneySydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
in 1939. Since the 1950s research work has continued at the Biodynamic Research Institute (BDRI) in Powelltown, near MelbourneMelbourneMelbourne is the capital and most populous city in the state of Victoria, and the second most populous city in Australia. The Melbourne City Centre is the hub of the greater metropolitan area and the Census statistical division—of which "Melbourne" is the common name. As of June 2009, the greater...
Australia under the direction of Alex Podolinsky. In 1989 Biodynamic Agriculture Australia was established, as a not for profit association. - In 1938 Ehrenfried PfeifferEhrenfried PfeifferEhrenfried Pfeiffer was a German scientist, soil scientist, anthroposophist and disciple of Rudolf Steiner.-Life:...
’s Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening was published in English, German, Dutch, French, and Italian. - In the United StatesUnited StatesThe United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the Biodynamic Farming & Gardening Association was founded in 1938 as a New YorkNew YorkNew York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
state corporation. - In the UK in 1939, Britain's first biodynamic agriculture conference, the BetteshangerBetteshangerBetteshanger is a village near Deal in East Kent, England. It gave its name to the largest of the four chief collieries of the Kent coalfield.-Before the coal mine:...
Summer School and Conference on Biodynamic Agriculture, was held at Lord NorthbourneNorthbourneNorthbourne is a village near Deal in Kent, England. It has a public house, The Hare and Hounds, a primary school and is the home of the current Baron Northbourne. It should not be confused with an area in Bournemouth of the same name....
's farm in KentKentKent is a county in southeast England, and is one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of...
; Ehrenfried PfeifferEhrenfried PfeifferEhrenfried Pfeiffer was a German scientist, soil scientist, anthroposophist and disciple of Rudolf Steiner.-Life:...
was the lead presenter. - In FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
the International Federation of Organic Agriculture MovementsInternational Federation of Organic Agriculture MovementsThe International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements is the worldwide umbrella organization for the organic agriculture movement, uniting more than 750 member organizations in 108 countries...
(IFOAM) was formed in 1972 with five founding members, one of which was the Swedish Biodynamic Association. - The University of KasselKasselKassel is a town located on the Fulda River in northern Hesse, Germany. It is the administrative seat of the Kassel Regierungsbezirk and the Kreis of the same name and has approximately 195,000 inhabitants.- History :...
had a Department of Biodynamic Agriculture from 2006 to March 2011. - GermanyGermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, ItalyItalyItaly , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and IndiaIndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
are reported to be the leading countries in biodynamic agriculture based on biodynamic hectares.
Biodynamic method of farming
Biodynamic agriculturalists conceive of the farm as an organically self-contained entity with its own individuality, within which organisms are interdependent. "Emphasis is placed on the integration of crops and livestock, recycling of nutrients, maintenance of soil, and the health and well being of crops and animals; the farmer too is part of the whole." Cover cropCover crop
Cover crops are crops planted primarily to manage soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in agroecosystems , ecological systems managed and largely shaped by humans across a range of intensities to produce food, feed, or fiber.Cover crops are of...
s, green manure
Green manure
In agriculture, a green manure is a type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Typically, a green manure crop is grown for a specific period of time , and then plowed under and incorporated into the soil while green or shortly after flowering...
s and crop rotation
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.Crop rotation confers various benefits to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals...
s are used extensively and the farms foster bio-diversity.
Biodynamic farms often have a cultural component and encourage local community. Some biodynamic farms use the Community Supported Agriculture model, which has connections with social threefolding
Social Threefolding
Social threefolding is a sociological theory that suggests increasing the independence of society's three primary realms in such a way that those three realms can mutually correct each other in an ongoing process. The movement aims for equality of rights in political life, freedom in cultural...
.
BD farming practices have been found to be more resilient to environmental challenges, to foster diverse biosphere, and to be more energy efficient, factors of increasing importance in the face of climate change, energy scarcity and population growth.
Biodynamic preparations
Steiner prescribed nine different preparations to aid fertilization which are the cornerstone of biodynamic agriculture, and described how these were to be prepared. Steiner believed that these preparations transferred supernatural terrestrial and cosmic "forces" into the soil. The prepared substances are numbered 500 through 508, where the first two are used for preparing fields whereas the latter seven are used for making compostCompost
Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. At its most essential, the process of composting requires simply piling up waste outdoors and waiting for the materials to break down from anywhere...
. A long term trial (DOK experiment) evaluating the biodynamic farming system in comparison with organic and conventional farming systems, found that preparations have influence on soil structure and micro-organisms enhancing soil fertility and increasing biodiversity. Regarding compost development beyond accelerating the initial phase of composting, some positive effects have been noted:
- The field sprays contain substances that stimulate plant growth include cytokinins.
- Some improvement in nutrient content of compost.
Field preparations
Field preparations, for stimulating humus formation:- 500: (horn-manure) a humus mixture prepared by filling the horn of a cow with cow manureManureManure is organic matter used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Manures contribute to the fertility of the soil by adding organic matter and nutrients, such as nitrogen, that are trapped by bacteria in the soil...
and burying it in the ground (40–60 cm below the surface) in the autumn. It is left to decompose during the winter and recovered for use the following spring. - 501: Crushed powdered quartzQuartzQuartz is the second-most-abundant mineral in the Earth's continental crust, after feldspar. It is made up of a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tetrahedra, giving an overall formula SiO2. There are many different varieties of quartz,...
prepared by stuffing it into a horn of a cow and buried into the ground in spring and taken out in autumn. It can be mixed with 500 but usually prepared on its own (mixture of 1 tablespoon of quartz powder to 250 liters of water) The mixture is sprayed under very low pressure over the crop during the wet season, in an attempt to prevent fungal diseases. It should be sprayed on an overcast day or early in the morning to prevent burning of the leaves.
Both 500 and 501 are used on fields by stirring about one teaspoon of the contents of a horn in 40–60 liters of water for an hour, creating vortexes in alternate directions.
Compost preparations
Compost preparations, used for preparing compost, employ herbs which are frequently used in medicinal remedies:- 502: YarrowYarrowAchillea millefolium or yarrow is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, native to the Northern Hemisphere. In New Mexico and southern Colorado, it is called plumajillo, or "little feather", for the shape of the leaves. In antiquity, yarrow was known as herbal militaris, for its use in...
blossoms (Achillea millefolium) are stuffed into urinary bladderUrinary bladderThe urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys before disposal by urination. A hollow muscular, and distensible organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor...
s from Red DeerRed DeerThe red deer is one of the largest deer species. Depending on taxonomy, the red deer inhabits most of Europe, the Caucasus Mountains region, Asia Minor, parts of western Asia, and central Asia. It also inhabits the Atlas Mountains region between Morocco and Tunisia in northwestern Africa, being...
(Cervus elaphus), placed in the sun during summer, buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring. - 503: ChamomileChamomileChamomile or camomile is a common name for several daisy-like plants of the family Asteraceae. These plants are best known for their ability to be made into an infusion which is commonly used to help with sleep and is often served with either honey or lemon. Because chamomile can cause uterine...
blossoms (Matricaria recutita) are stuffed into small intestineSmall intestineThe small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract following the stomach and followed by the large intestine, and is where much of the digestion and absorption of food takes place. In invertebrates such as worms, the terms "gastrointestinal tract" and "large intestine" are often used to...
s from cattleCattleCattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
buried in humus-rich earth in the autumn and retrieved in the spring. - 504: Stinging nettleStinging nettleStinging nettle or common nettle, Urtica dioica, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant, native to Europe, Asia, northern Africa, and North America, and is the best-known member of the nettle genus Urtica...
(Urtica dioica) plants in full bloom are stuffed together underground surrounded on all sides by peatPeatPeat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter or histosol. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and peat swamp forests. Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world...
for a year. - 505: OakOakAn oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
barkBarkBark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner...
(Quercus robur) is chopped in small pieces, placed inside the skull of a domesticated animal, surrounded by peat and buried in earth in a place where lots of rain water runs past. - 506: Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum officinale) is stuffed into the peritoneumPeritoneumThe peritoneum is the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity or the coelom — it covers most of the intra-abdominal organs — in amniotes and some invertebrates...
of cattle and buried in earth during winter and retrieved in the spring. - 507: ValerianValerian (plant)Valerian is a hardy perennial flowering plant, with heads of sweetly scented pink or white flowers which bloom in the summer months. Valerian flower extracts were used as a perfume in the sixteenth century....
flowers (Valeriana officinalis) are extracted into water. - 508: HorsetailHorsetailEquisetum is the only living genus in the Equisetaceae, a family of vascular plants that reproduce by spores rather than seeds.Equisetum is a "living fossil", as it is the only living genus of the entire class Equisetopsida, which for over one hundred million years was much more diverse and...
(Equisetum)
One to three grams (a teaspoon) of each preparation is added to a dung heap by digging 50 cm deep holes with a distance of 2 meters from each other, except for the 507 preparation, which is stirred into 5 liters of water and sprayed over the entire compost surface. All preparations are thus used in homeopathic
Homeopathy
Homeopathy is a form of alternative medicine in which practitioners claim to treat patients using highly diluted preparations that are believed to cause healthy people to exhibit symptoms that are similar to those exhibited by the patient...
quantities. Each compost preparation is designed to guide a particular decomposition process in the composting mass.
One study found that the oak bark preparation improved disease resistance in zucchini.
Astronomical planting calendar
The approach considers that there are astronomical influences on soil and plant development, specifying, for example, what phase of the moon is most appropriate for planting, cultivating or harvesting various kinds of crops. This aspect of biodynamics has been termed "astrological" in nature.Seed production
Biodynamic agriculture has focused on open pollination of seeds (permitting farmers to grow their own seed) and the development of locally adapted varieties. The seed stock is not controlled by large, multinational seed companies.Trademark protection of term biodynamic
The term Biodynamic is a trademark held by the DemeterDemeter International
Demeter International is the largest certification organization for biodynamic agriculture, and is one of three predominant organic certifiers. Its name is a reference to Demeter, the Greek goddess of grain and fertility. Demeter Biodynamic Certification is used in over 50 countries to verify that...
association of biodynamic farmers for the purpose of maintaining production standards used both in farming and processing foodstuffs.(This is not a trademark held privately in New Zealand) The trademark is intended to protect both the consumer and the producers of biodynamic produce. Demeter International
Demeter International
Demeter International is the largest certification organization for biodynamic agriculture, and is one of three predominant organic certifiers. Its name is a reference to Demeter, the Greek goddess of grain and fertility. Demeter Biodynamic Certification is used in over 50 countries to verify that...
is an organization of member countries; each country has its own Demeter organization which is required to meet international production standards (but can also exceed them). The original Demeter organization was founded in 1928; the U.S. Demeter Association was formed in the 1980s and certified its first farm in 1982. In France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Biodivin certifies biodynamic wine
Biodynamic wine
Biodynamic wines are wines made using the principles of biodynamic agriculture. Biodynamic refers to both the agricultural methods and the handling and processing of the fruit post-harvest.-Biodynamic viticulture:...
. In Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, SEKEM
SEKEM
The organization SEKEM was founded in 1977 by the Egyptian pharmacologist and social entrepreneur Dr...
has created the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA), an association that provides training for farmers to become certified.
Studies of efficacy
Studies have compared biodynamic farming methods to both other organic methods and to conventional methods. Most studies have found that biodynamic farms have soil quality significantly better than conventionally farmed soils but comparable to the soil quality achieved by other organic methods; the decisive factor is likely to be the use of compost.Individual studies have found:
- A long-term study conducted at a commercial vineyard in California compared vineyard blocks treated with biodynamic preparations alongside those tended with general organic farming methods, to examine effects upon soil and crop quality. "No differences were found in soil quality" during the first six years of the study, and analyses of other indicators including the yield per vine, clusters per vine, cluster and berry weight also showed there were no differences. The study did find a statistically significant (p-valueP-valueIn statistical significance testing, the p-value is the probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as extreme as the one that was actually observed, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. One often "rejects the null hypothesis" when the p-value is less than the significance level α ,...
< 0.05) difference in the yield-to-pruning weight ratio, indicating an "ideal vine balance for producing high-quality wine grapes" for the biodynamically treated crop, but noted the control vines had been "slightly overcropped". In one particular year of the study the biodynamically treated wine grapes had significantly higher BrixBrixDegrees Brix is the sugar content of an aqueous solution.One degree Brix is 1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of solution and represents the strength of the solution as percentage by weight . If the solution contains dissolved solids other than pure sucrose, then the °Bx is only approximate the...
and notably higher total phenolsPhenolsIn organic chemistry, phenols, sometimes called phenolics, are a class of chemical compounds consisting of a hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic hydrocarbon group...
and anthocyanins. In conclusion, the study found that biodynamic preparations "may affect" the vine canopy and chemistry, but showed no effects on the soil and tissue nutrient parameters measured in the study.
- Decomposition was significantly faster in plots which received farmyard manure (FYM) treated with biodynamic preparations than in plots which received no FYM, FYM without preparations or FYM with an alternative preparation. "The application of completely prepared FYM led to significantly higher biomass and abundance of endogeic or anecic earthworms than in plots where non-prepared FYM was applied."
- A 21-year study by Mäder et al for the FiBL Institute in Switzerland compared the agronomic and ecological performance of biodynamic, organic and two conventional systems. The study found that nutrient input in the biodynamic and organic systems was 34 to 51% lower than in the conventional systems but crop yield was only 20% lower on average, indicating more efficient production. The total energy (for fuel, production of mineral fertilizer and pesticides, etc.) to produce a dry-matter unit of crop was 20 to 56% lower for the biodynamic and organic systems, and pesticide input was reduced by 97% (by 100% for the biodynamic system). In regard to soil aggregate stability, soil pH, humus formation, soil calcium, microbial biomass, and faunal biomass (earthworms and arthropods), the biodynamic system was superior even to the organic system, which in turn had superior results over the conventional systems. With the significant increase in microbial diversity in the biodynamic and organic systems, there was a significant associated decrease in metabolic quotient, indicating a greater ability to use organic material for plant growth.
- The methodology of this study was criticized for failing to separate mystical elements in biodynamics from standard organic techniques and for comparing biodynamic farming with both organic and conventional, rather than solely with organic, methods. Supplemental materials, found online but not in the published paper, described significant differences between the biodynamic and the organic methodology; for instance, unspecified chemicals were added to the organic farm's compost, possibly leading to its slightly poorer performance.
- The study poorly represented conventional integrated farm management (IFM) yields as some 40% lower than what Anthony Trewavas sees routinely. Trewavas paraphrased Holger Kirchmann's conclusions in saying that Steiner's farming method "with its belief in cosmic forces has no place in any scientific discussion and is considered occult in character."
- Biodynamic preparations increase the soil organic matter content.
- A further study investigated whether biodynamic preparations had any effect on the yield and growth of lentilLentilThe lentil is an edible pulse. It is a bushy annual plant of the legume family, grown for its lens-shaped seeds...
and wheatWheatWheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
crops, weed populations and soil fertility in the short term. The study found that general, soils and crops treated with biodynamic preparations showed few differences from those not treated". Plots tended with biodynamically treated compost produced results for yield, crop quality and soil fertility that were the same to those tended with non-biodynamic composts and NPK fertilizers. Some alteration was observed in the nitrogenNitrogenNitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
ous chemistry of the soil and grain where biodynamic field sprays were applied, however the study did not ascribe or discern any biological significance to the difference. Among the variables considered by the study, some measured outcomes correlated with biodynamic field spray usage, including a higher per-unit biomass yield ratio for lentils and a lowering of carbonCarbonCarbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds...
and crude proteinProteinProteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
contents in wheat grains. The study's conclusion remarked that "any additional short-term benefits from biodynamic preparations remain questionable."
- Minor effects for the field sprays on the carbon content and soil microbial fatty acid profile, but no effects for the compost preparations
- A 1993 study compared soil quality and financial performance of Biodynamic and conventional farms in New Zealand. The study reported that, "The Biodynamic farms proved in most enterprises to have soils of higher biological and physical quality: significantly greater in organic matter, content and microbial activity, more earthworms, better soil structure, lower bulk density, easier penetrability, and thicker topsoil." The biodynamic farms were just as financially viable on a per hectare basis. The study compared biodynamic farms with adjacent conventional farms, but didn't attempt to compare farms of similar size, or with similar crops.
Criticism
Biodynamic agriculture has been criticized as pseudosciencePseudoscience
Pseudoscience is a claim, belief, or practice which is presented as scientific, but which does not adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific status...
by scholars. In a 2002 newspaper editorial, Peter Treue, a researcher with the University of Kiel
University of Kiel
The University of Kiel is a university in the city of Kiel, Germany. It was founded in 1665 as the Academia Holsatorum Chiloniensis by Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and has approximately 23,000 students today...
, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience and argued that similar or equal results can be obtained using standard organic farming
Organic farming
Organic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pests on a farm...
principles. He wrote that the biodynamic preparations more resemble alchemy
Alchemy
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners’ claims to profound powers were known from antiquity. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied; these include the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone possessing powers including the capability of turning base...
or magic
Magic (paranormal)
Magic is the claimed art of manipulating aspects of reality either by supernatural means or through knowledge of occult laws unknown to science. It is in contrast to science, in that science does not accept anything not subject to either direct or indirect observation, and subject to logical...
akin to geomancy
Geomancy
Geomancy is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand...
.
In a 1994 analysis, Holger Kirchmann, a soil researcher with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences or Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet is a university in Sweden. Although its head office is located in Ultuna, Uppsala, the university has several campuses in different parts of Sweden, the other main facilities being Alnarp in Lomma Municipality, Skara,...
, concluded that Steiner's instructions were occult and dogmatic, and cannot contribute to the development of alternative or sustainable agriculture and that many of Steiner's statements are not provable because scientifically clear hypotheses cannot be made from his descriptions (for example, it is hard to prove that one has harnessed "cosmic forces" in the foods). Kirchmann asserted that when methods of biodynamic agriculture were tested scientifically, the results were unconvincing. Further, in a 2004 overview of biodynamic agriculture, Linda Chalker-Scott, a researcher at Washington State University
Washington State University
Washington State University is a public research university based in Pullman, Washington, in the Palouse region of the Pacific Northwest. Founded in 1890, WSU is the state's original and largest land-grant university...
, characterized biodynamics as pseudoscience, writing that Steiner did not use scientific methods to formulate his theory of biodynamics, and that the later addition of valid organic farming techniques has "muddled the discussion" of Steiner's original idea. Based on the scant scientific testing of biodynamics, Chalker-Scott concluded "no evidence exists" that homeopathic preparations improve the soil.
In Michael Shermer
Michael Shermer
Michael Brant Shermer is an American science writer, historian of science, founder of The Skeptics Society, and Editor in Chief of its magazine Skeptic, which is largely devoted to investigating pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. The Skeptics Society currently has over 55,000 members...
's two-volume work, The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience
The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience
The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience is a collection of articles that discuss the Skeptics Society's scientific findings of investigations into popular pseudoscientific and supernatural claims...
, biodynamic agriculture is described as relying on astrological conditions, cosmic influences and magical rituals.
See also
- AgroecologyAgroecologyAgroecology is the application of ecological principles to the production of food, fuel, fiber, and pharmaceuticals. The term encompasses a broad range of approaches, and is considered "a science, a movement, [and] a practice."...
- Alan ChadwickAlan ChadwickAlan Chadwick , English master gardener, was a leading innovator of organic farming techniques and influential educator in the field of biodynamic/French intensive gardening. He was a student of Rudolf Steiner, and is often cited as inspirational to the development of the "California Cuisine"...
- Biodynamic wineBiodynamic wineBiodynamic wines are wines made using the principles of biodynamic agriculture. Biodynamic refers to both the agricultural methods and the handling and processing of the fruit post-harvest.-Biodynamic viticulture:...
- Ehrenfried PfeifferEhrenfried PfeifferEhrenfried Pfeiffer was a German scientist, soil scientist, anthroposophist and disciple of Rudolf Steiner.-Life:...
- Homeodynamic agricultureHomeodynamic agricultureHomeodynamic agriculture is a farming methodology, currently used by over 400 farms, mostly in Italy and Greece, with a few more around the world...
- List of Biodynamic Farms
- PermaculturePermaculturePermaculture is an approach to designing human settlements and agricultural systems that is modeled on the relationships found in nature. It is based on the ecology of how things interrelate rather than on the strictly biological concerns that form the foundation of modern agriculture...
- Sustainable agricultureSustainable agricultureSustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment...
- The Real Dirt on Farmer JohnThe Real Dirt on Farmer JohnThe Real Dirt on Farmer John is a 2005 documentary film directed by Taggart Siegel about the life of Midwestern farmer John Peterson, operator of Angelic Organics.-Awards:The Real Dirt on Farmer John has won awards at over 30 film festivals...
- documentary on a conventional farm which converted to biodynamic and community-supported agricultureCommunity-supported agricultureCommunity-supported agriculture, a form of an alternative food network, is a socio-economic model of agriculture and food distribution. A CSA consists of a community of individuals who pledge support to a farming operation where the growers and consumers share the risks and benefits of food...
. - VerifloraVerifloraVeriflora is a certification process for sustainably grown flowers and plants. It is currently implemented by over 30 farms worldwide, yielding an estimated 521 million stems...
- Wild farmingWild farmingThe agricultural technique known as "Wild Farming" is a growing alternative to "factory farming". Wild farming consists of planting crops that are highly associated and supportive to the natural ecosystem. This includes intercropping with native plants, following the contours and geography of the...
External links
- "The methods behind biodynamic bounty", Telegraph, July 11, 2008
- Biodynamics Section at the Rudolf Steiner Archive, An Online Library