Xiang Yu
Encyclopedia
Xiang Yu was a prominent military leader and political figure during the late Qin Dynasty
. His given name
was Ji (籍) while his style name
was Yu (羽).
Xiang Yu was a native of Xiaxiang (下相; present-day Suqian
, Jiangsu
). He was granted the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公) by King Huai II of Chu
in 208 BC. The following year, Xiang Yu led the Chu
rebel forces to victory at the Battle of Julu
against the Qin armies led by Zhang Han. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, Xiang Yu proclaimed himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and ruled a vast area of land covering parts of present-day Shanxi
, Henan
, Hubei
, Hunan
and Jiangsu
, with Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou
) as his capital. He engaged Liu Bang, founder of the Han Dynasty
, in a long struggle for power, known as the Chu–Han contention, that concluded with his eventual defeat and suicide at the bank of the Wu River.
. His ancestors were granted the land of Xiang (項) by the king of Chu and had since adopted "Xiang" as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state
and his family had served the Chu rulers as military commanders for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather, Xiang Yan, was a well known general who led the Chu army in resisting the Qin
invaders led by Wang Jian
, and was killed in action when Qin conquered Chu in 223 BC.
Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC in the late Warring States Period
when the Qin state started annexing the other six major states. His father was Xiang Chao (項超), the oldest son of Xiang Yan. Xiang Yu was raised by his uncle, Xiang Liang
, as his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state finally unified China and established the Qin Dynasty.
Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one of his eyes just like the ancient Chinese rulers Shun and Duke Wen of Jin
before him. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi
(approximately 1.85 metres, about 6' 1") and possessed unusual physical strength as he could lift a ding
(an ancient Chinese vessel
resembling a giant cauldron on tripods).
was not very satisfied with him. Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat 10,000 enemies." Hence, his uncle tried to educate him in military strategy instead, but Xiang Yu stopped learning after he had grasped the main ideas. Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, and gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.
When Xiang Yu became older, his uncle killed someone and they fled to Wu (present-day southern Jiangsu
) to evade the authorities. At that time, Qin Shi Huang
was on an inspection tour in that area and Xiang Yu watched the emperor's procession pass by with his uncle. Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him.", in reference to the Qin emperor. Xiang Liang was shocked and immediately covered his nephew's mouth with his hand. Since then, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.
(Qin Shi Huang
's son and successor), peasant rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin Dynasty
, plunging China into a state of anarchy. Yin Tong
, Grand Administrator of Kuaiji (present-day Shaoxing
, Zhejiang
), wanted to start a rebellion as well, so he invited Xiang Liang to meet him and discuss their plans. However, the Xiangs lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him instead, with Xiang Yu personally striking down dozens of Yin's men. Xiang Liang initiated the rebellion himself and rallied about 8,000 men to support him. Xiang Liang proclaimed himself Grand Administrator of Kuaiji while appointing Xiang Yu as General. Xiang Liang's rebel force grew in size until it was between 60,000 to 70,000. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin
as King Huai II of Chu
to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin Dynasty and restore the former Chu state. Xiang Yu distinguished himself as a competent military leader and mighty warrior on the battlefield while participating in the battles against Qin forces.
Later that year, Xiang Liang was killed in the Battle of Dingtao against the Qin army led by Zhang Han and the military power of Chu fell into the hands of the king and some other generals. In the winter of 208 BC, another rebel force claiming to restore the Zhao state
, led by Zhao Xie, was besieged in Handan
by Zhang Han, and Zhao Xie requested for reinforcements from Chu. King Huai II granted Xiang Yu the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公), and placed him second-in-command to Song Yi to lead an army to reinforce Zhao Xie. At the same time, the king placed Liu Bang in command of another army to attack Guanzhong
, the heartland of Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to enter Guanzhong first will be conferred the title of "King of Guanzhong".
, some distance away from Julu (in present-day Xingtai
, Hebei
), where Zhao Xie's forces had retreated to. Song Yi ordered the troops to lay camp there for 46 days and he refused to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to proceed further. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting and killed him for alleged treason. The other subordinate generals were afraid of Xiang Yu and let him become the acting commander. Xiang Yu sent a messenger to inform King Huai II and the king approved Xiang's command.
In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army advanced towards Julu and he sent Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead the 20,000 strong vanguard army to cross the river and attack the Qin forces led by Zhang Han, while he followed behind with the remaining majority of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations, in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days or die trapped before the walls of the city with no supplies or hope of escape. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Chu forces scored a great victory after nine engagements, defeating the 300,000 strong Qin army. After the battle, other rebel forces, including those not from Chu, came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration for his martial valor. When Xiang Yu received them at the gate, the rebel generals were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not even dare to look up at him.
Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin
to Xianyang
to request for reinforcements and supplies from Qin Er Shi. Zhao Gao
deceived the emperor and the emperor dismissed Zhang Han's request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin on his return journey later, but Sima managed to escape and return to Zhang Han. In dire straits, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops eventually surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu perceived the surrendered Qin troops as disloyal and a liability, and had them executed by burying them alive at Xin'an
. Zhang Han, along with Sima Xin and Dong Yi
, were spared from death. Xiang Yu appointed Zhang Han as "King of Yong", while Sima Xin and Dong Yi were respectively conferred the titles of "King of Sai" and "King of Di".
, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion on Guanzhong
, the heartland of the Qin Dynasty
. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin ruler Ziying
surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang
(Qin's capital), bringing an end to the Qin Dynasty. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass
, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong was already under Liu's control. Liu Bang's general Cao Wushang sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu Bang would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II
's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At that time, he had about 400,000 troops under his command while Liu Bang only had a quarter of that number.
As strongly encouraged by his advisor Fan Zeng
, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a Feast at Hong Gate
and intended to kill Liu during the banquet. However, Xiang Yu listened to his uncle Xiang Bo
(a friend of Liu Bang's strategist Zhang Liang) instead and spared Liu's life. Liu Bang escaped later under the pretext of going to the latrine.
Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang in 206 BC. He ordered the execution of Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.
Despite advice from his subjects to remain in Guanzhong and continue with his conquests, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his homeland in Chu. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamorous outfits. Who would notice that?" One of his followers said, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing." Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.
, Xiang Yu offered King Huai II
the more honourable title of "Emperor Yi of Chu" and announced his decision to divide the former Qin Empire. Xiang Yu declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (西楚霸王) and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang
and Chu
territories, with his capital at Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou
). In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, to be granted to his subordinates and some leaders of the former rebel forces. He moved some of the rulers of other states to more remote areas and granted the land of Guanzhong
to the three surrendered Qin generals, ignoring Emperor Yi's earlier promise to appoint Liu Bang as king of that region. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Hanzhong
area instead and given the title of "King of Han" (漢王).
Xiang Yu appointed several generals from the rebel coalition as regional kings, even though these generals were subordinates of other lords, who should rightfully be the kings in place of their followers. Xiang Yu also left out some other important rebel leaders who did not support him earlier, but did contribute to the overthrow of Qin. In winter, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi to the remote area of Chen County (present-day Chenzhou
, Hunan
), effectively sending the puppet emperor into exile. At the same time, he issued a secret order to the regional kings in that area and had the emperor assassinated during his journey (205 BCE). The emperor's death was later used by Liu Bang as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.
Shortly after the death of Emperor Yi, Xiang Yu had Han Cheng
(King of Han
) put to death and seized Han's lands for himself. Several months later, Tian Rong (chancellor of Qi
) took control over the Three Qis (Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei) from their respective kings and reinstated Tian Fu as the King of Qi, but he took over the throne himself afterwards. Similarly, Chen Yu, a former vice chancellor of Zhao
, led an uprising against the King of Changshan, Zhang Er, and seized Zhang's domain and reinstalled Zhao Xie as the King of Zhao.
. At that time, Xiang Yu was at war with Qi
and did not focus on resisting the Han forces. The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another five kingdoms and attacked Western Chu with a 560,000 strong army, capturing Xiang Yu's capital of Pengcheng. Upon hearing that, Xiang Yu led 30,000 men to attack Liu Bang and defeated the latter at the Battle of Pengcheng
, with the Han army suffering heavy casualties.
Liu Bang managed to escape after his defeat with Xiang Yu's troops on pursuit. Han troops retreated to Xingyang
and defended the city firmly, preventing Chu forces from advancing west any further, but only managed to hold on until 204 BC. Liu Bang's general Ji Xin disguised himself as his lord and surrendered to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learnt that he had been fooled, he was furious and had Ji Xin burnt to death. After the fall of Xingyang, Chu and Han forces were divided on two fronts along present-day Henan
. However, Xiang Yu's forces were not faring well on the battlefront north of the Yellow River
, as the Han army led by Han Xin
defeated his troops in every single battle. At the same time, Liu Bang's ally Peng Yue
led his men to harass Xiang Yu's rear.
By 203 BC, the tide has turned in favour of Han. Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father after a year-long siege and he threatened to boil Liu's father alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu Bang remarked that he and Xiang Yu were oath brothers, so if Xiang killed Liu's father, he would be guilty of patricide. Xiang Yu requested for an armistice, known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, and returned the hostages he captured back to Liu Bang as part of their agreement. The treaty divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively.
Shortly after, as Xiang Yu was retreating eastwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and led his forces to attack Western Chu. Liu Bang sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting for their assistance in forming a three-pronged attack on Xiang Yu, but Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilize their troops and Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. Liu Bang retreated and reinforced his defenses, while sending emissaries to Han Xin and Peng Yue, promising to grant them fiefs and titles of regional kings if they would join him in attacking Western Chu.
. Liu Bang ordered his troops to sing folk songs from the Chu
region, to create a false impression that Xiang Yu's native land had been conquered by Han forces. The morale of the Chu army plummeted and many of Xiang Yu's troops deserted in despair. Xiang Yu sank into a state of depression and he sang the Song of Gaixia. His concubine Consort Yu
committed suicide. The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite cavalry on a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement, with 5,000 enemy troops hot on pursuit.
After crossing the Huai River
, Xiang Yu was only left with a few hundred soldiers. They were lost in Yinling and Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp. When Xiang Yu reached Dongcheng, only 28 men were left, with the Han troops still following him. Xiang Yu made a speech to his men, saying that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure. After that, he led a charge out of the encirclement, killing one Han general in the battle. Xiang Yu then split his men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up as well to attack the three groups. Xiang Yu took the Han troops by surprise again and slew another enemy commander, inflicting about 100 casualties on the enemy, while he only lost two men.
Xiang Yu retreated to Wu River (near present-day He County
, Chaohu City, Anhui
) and the ferryman at the ford prepared a boat for him to cross the river, strongly encouraging him to do so because Xiang Yu still had the support of the people from his homeland in the south. Xiang Yu said that he was too ashamed to return home and face his people because none of the first 8,000 men from Jiangdong who followed him on his conquests managed to survive. He refused to cross and ordered his remaining men to dismount, asking the ferryman to take his warhorse Zhui (騅) back home.
As he refused, his remaining men decided to stay, but Xiang Yu ordered them to go back on the boat.
Before Xiang Yu died, he saw an old friend Lü Matong among the Han soldiers. He then said, "I heard that the King of Han (Liu Bang) had placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of Marquis of Wanhu on my head. Take it then, on account of our friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by slitting his throat with his sword, and a brawl broke out among the Han soldiers at the scene due to the reward offered by Liu Bang, and Xiang Yu's body was said to be dismembered and mutilated in the fight. The reward was eventually claimed by Lü Matong and five others. After Xiang Yu's death, Western Chu surrendered and China was united under Liu Bang's rule, marking the start of the Han Dynasty
. Liu Bang held a grand state funeral for Xiang Yu in Yicheng (in present-day Shandong
), with the ceremony befitting Xiang's title of "Duke of Lu". Xiang Yu's relatives were spared from death, including Xiang Bo
, who saved Liu Bang's life at the Feast at Hong Gate
, and they were granted titles of marquises.
, author of Records of the Grand Historian
, described Xiang Yu as someone who boasts about his achievements and thinks highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others before him. Sima Qian felt that Xiang Yu had failed to see his own shortcomings and to make attempts to correct his mistakes, even until his death. Sima Qian thought that it was ridiculous when Xiang Yu claimed that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure.
Liu Bang's general Han Xin
, who was one of Xiang Yu's opponents on the battlefield, made a statement criticizing Xiang: "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. Neither was he able to make good use of capable generals nor was he able to support Emperor Yi of Chu, as he killed the emperor. Even though he had the name of a Conqueror, he had already lost the favour of the people."
The Tang Dynasty
poet Du Mu
mentioned Xiang Yu in one of his poems Ti Wujiang Ting (題烏江亭): "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong, who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can make a comeback?" However, the Song Dynasty
poet Wang Anshi
had a different opinion, as he stated: "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?" The Song Dynasty female poet Li Qingzhao
wrote: "A hero in life, a king of ghosts after death. Until now we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."
Mao Zedong
also mentioned Xiang Yu once, saying that "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Conqueror." In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: Not following Fan Zeng
's advice to kill Liu Bang at the Feast at Hong Gate
and letting Liu leave; Adhering firmly to the terms of the peace treaty (without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust); Building his capital at Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou
).
Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possesses great courage but lacks wisdom, and his character is aptly summarized using the Chinese idiom you yong wu mou , meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", "foolhardy". Xiang Yu's battle tactics were studied by later military leaders while his political blunders served as cautionary tales for later rulers. Another Chinese idiom, si mian chu ge , was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia
, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him" (有一范增而不能用), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on his advisor Fan Zeng
and failure to actually listen to Fan's advice.
Historian John Keay
cites Xiang Yu as the most accomplished general in Chinese history.
, especially in his final battle
. However, his ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and death at the early age of 30. He is also the subject of films, television, plays, Chinese opera
s, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his concubine Consort Yu
and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero
to his character.
Xiang Yu is also depicted as a ruthless leader, in sharp contrast to his rival, Liu Bang. He was a mass murderer, ordering the massacres of entire cities when they refused to surrender and put up strong resistance. The most notorious example of his cruelty was when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered Qin troops to be buried alive after the Battle of Julu
, and the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. Conversely, Liu Bang is portrayed as a shrewd and cunning ruler who can be brutal at times. However, Liu Bang did forbid his troops from looting the cities they captured and he spared the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu's story became an example for Confucianists
to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
, one of the Four Great Classical Novels
of Chinese literature
, Sun Ce
is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" (小霸王) and is often compared favorably to Xiang Yu by his contemporaries. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong
region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu
in the Three Kingdoms
era. In Water Margin
, another of the Four Great Classical Novels, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 outlaws, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for his resemblance to Xiang Yu in appearance.
The Meng Ch'iu, an eighth-century Chinese primer, contains the four-character rhyming couplet: "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the episode in the Battle of Xingyang when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his army, to distract Xiang Yu in order to buy time for Liu Bang to escape from the city of Xingyang
.
A famous Beijing opera
, Ba Wang Bie Ji , depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia
. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige
's award-winning motion picture Farewell My Concubine. "The Works of Xiang Yu" are a central theme in the Firefly
episode, War Stories, which deals with sadism and torture.
In the last episode of the 2001 Hong Kong television series A Step into the Past
, the son of Xiang Shaolong (or Hung Siu-lung, the time traveling protagonist) says he wants to change his name to "Yu" (literally means "feather") because he admires the flying birds. His father is shocked to realise that his son is actually the future Hegemon-King of Western Chu.
Xiang Yu is one of the 32 historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI by Koei. He is also featured as a non-playable character (NPC) in the action RPG Prince of Qin.
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
. His given name
Chinese given name
Chinese given names are generally made up of one or two characters, and are written after the family name, therefore "John-Paul Smith" as a Chinese name would be read "Smith John-Paul". Chinese names can consist of any character and contain almost any meaning...
was Ji (籍) while his style name
Chinese style name
A Chinese style name, sometimes also known as a courtesy name , is a given name to be used later in life. After 20 years of age, the zì is assigned in place of one's given name as a symbol of adulthood and respect...
was Yu (羽).
Xiang Yu was a native of Xiaxiang (下相; present-day Suqian
Suqian
Suqian is a prefecture-level city in northern Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China. It borders Xuzhou to the northwest, Lianyungang to the northeast, Huai'an to the south, and the province of Anhui to the west.-Administration:...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
). He was granted the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公) by King Huai II of Chu
Emperor Yi of Chu
Emperor Yi of Chu , also known as King Huai II of Chu , personal name Xiong Xin was the ruler of the Chu state during the late Qin Dynasty...
in 208 BC. The following year, Xiang Yu led the Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
rebel forces to victory at the Battle of Julu
Battle of Julu
The Battle of Julu was fought in Julu in 207 BC primarily between Qin forces led by Zhang Han, and Chu rebels led by Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu emerged victorious, defeating a large Qin army with a small number of soldiers...
against the Qin armies led by Zhang Han. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, Xiang Yu proclaimed himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and ruled a vast area of land covering parts of present-day Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
, Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
, Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
and Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
, with Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou
Xuzhou
Xuzhou , otherwise known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China...
) as his capital. He engaged Liu Bang, founder of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, in a long struggle for power, known as the Chu–Han contention, that concluded with his eventual defeat and suicide at the bank of the Wu River.
Birth and family background
There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the house of Mi (羋), the royal family of the Chu stateChu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
. His ancestors were granted the land of Xiang (項) by the king of Chu and had since adopted "Xiang" as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state
Lu (state)
The State of Lu, was a Zhou Dynasty ducal vassal state before and during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. Founded in the 10th century BC, its dukes used Ji as their family name. The first duke was Boqin |Qi]] and to the south by the powerful state of Chu...
and his family had served the Chu rulers as military commanders for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather, Xiang Yan, was a well known general who led the Chu army in resisting the Qin
Qin (state)
The State of Qin was a Chinese feudal state that existed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods of Chinese history...
invaders led by Wang Jian
Wang Jian (Qin)
Wang Jian , a military leader of Qin in the Warring States Period. He was born in Guanzhong county, city of Pinyang, Dongxiang village .-Major Achievement:...
, and was killed in action when Qin conquered Chu in 223 BC.
Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC in the late Warring States Period
Warring States Period
The Warring States Period , also known as the Era of Warring States, or the Warring Kingdoms period, covers the Iron Age period from about 475 BC to the reunification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC...
when the Qin state started annexing the other six major states. His father was Xiang Chao (項超), the oldest son of Xiang Yan. Xiang Yu was raised by his uncle, Xiang Liang
Xiang Liang
Xiang Liang was a military leader who led a rebellion against the Qin Dynasty.-Early life:Xiang was a native of Xiaxiang . Xiang was a descendant of a family who served the Chu state for generations...
, as his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state finally unified China and established the Qin Dynasty.
Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one of his eyes just like the ancient Chinese rulers Shun and Duke Wen of Jin
Duke Wen of Jin
Duke Jin Wen led the state of Jin in the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history from 636 BC to 628 BC. His ancestral name is Ji,clan name is Jin Duke Jin Wen (晋文公) (697 BC - 628 BC) led the state of Jin in the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history from 636 BC to 628 BC. His ancestral...
before him. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi
Chi (unit)
The chi is a traditional Chinese unit of length, approximately equal to one foot. Its length is derived from the length of human forearm and has first appeared during the Shang Dynasty approximately 3000 years ago. Since then it has spread to and adopted by other East Asian cultures, such as...
(approximately 1.85 metres, about 6' 1") and possessed unusual physical strength as he could lift a ding
Ding (vessel)
A ding is an ancient Chinese cauldron with legs, a lid and two handles opposite each other. They were made in two shapes with round vessels having three legs and rectangular ones four....
(an ancient Chinese vessel
Bowl (vessel)
A bowl is a common open-top container used in many cultures to serve food, and is also used for drinking and storing other items. They are typically small and shallow, although some, such as punch bowls and salad bowls, are larger and often intended to serve many people.Bowls have existed for...
resembling a giant cauldron on tripods).
Early days
In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang LiangXiang Liang
Xiang Liang was a military leader who led a rebellion against the Qin Dynasty.-Early life:Xiang was a native of Xiaxiang . Xiang was a descendant of a family who served the Chu state for generations...
was not very satisfied with him. Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat 10,000 enemies." Hence, his uncle tried to educate him in military strategy instead, but Xiang Yu stopped learning after he had grasped the main ideas. Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, and gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.
When Xiang Yu became older, his uncle killed someone and they fled to Wu (present-day southern Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
) to evade the authorities. At that time, Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
was on an inspection tour in that area and Xiang Yu watched the emperor's procession pass by with his uncle. Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him.", in reference to the Qin emperor. Xiang Liang was shocked and immediately covered his nephew's mouth with his hand. Since then, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.
Rebellion against the Qin Dynasty
In 209 BC, during the reign of Qin Er ShiQin Er Shi
Qin Er Shi , literally Second Emperor of Qin Dynasty, personal name Huhai, was emperor of the Qin Dynasty in China from 210 BC until 207 BC.-Name:...
(Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
's son and successor), peasant rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
, plunging China into a state of anarchy. Yin Tong
Yin Tong
Yin Tong was a politician and military personnel in the Republic of China. He was an important person during the Provisional Government of the Republic of China and Wang Jingwei regime. Adult Name was Tongsheng...
, Grand Administrator of Kuaiji (present-day Shaoxing
Shaoxing
Shaoxing is a prefecture-level city in northeastern Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. Located on the south bank of the Qiantang River estuary, it borders Ningbo to the east, Taizhou to the southeast, Jinhua to the southwest, and Hangzhou to the west. It was once known as "越"...
, Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
), wanted to start a rebellion as well, so he invited Xiang Liang to meet him and discuss their plans. However, the Xiangs lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him instead, with Xiang Yu personally striking down dozens of Yin's men. Xiang Liang initiated the rebellion himself and rallied about 8,000 men to support him. Xiang Liang proclaimed himself Grand Administrator of Kuaiji while appointing Xiang Yu as General. Xiang Liang's rebel force grew in size until it was between 60,000 to 70,000. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin
Emperor Yi of Chu
Emperor Yi of Chu , also known as King Huai II of Chu , personal name Xiong Xin was the ruler of the Chu state during the late Qin Dynasty...
as King Huai II of Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin Dynasty and restore the former Chu state. Xiang Yu distinguished himself as a competent military leader and mighty warrior on the battlefield while participating in the battles against Qin forces.
Later that year, Xiang Liang was killed in the Battle of Dingtao against the Qin army led by Zhang Han and the military power of Chu fell into the hands of the king and some other generals. In the winter of 208 BC, another rebel force claiming to restore the Zhao state
Zhao (state)
Zhao was a significant Chinese state during the Warring States Period, along with six others...
, led by Zhao Xie, was besieged in Handan
Handan
Handan is a prefecture-level city located in the southwestern part of Hebei Province of China.- History :Handan was the capital of the State of Zhao during the Warring States period , after the capital moved from Zhongmu. The city was conquered by the State of Qin after the virtual annexation of...
by Zhang Han, and Zhao Xie requested for reinforcements from Chu. King Huai II granted Xiang Yu the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公), and placed him second-in-command to Song Yi to lead an army to reinforce Zhao Xie. At the same time, the king placed Liu Bang in command of another army to attack Guanzhong
Guanzhong
Guanzhong , or Guanzhong Plain, is a historical region of China corresponding to the lower valley of the Wei River. It is called Guanzhong or 'within the passes' to distinguish it from 'Guandong' or 'east of the pass', that is, the North China Plain. The North China Plain is bordered on the west by...
, the heartland of Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to enter Guanzhong first will be conferred the title of "King of Guanzhong".
Battle of Julu
The Chu army led by Song Yi and Xiang Yu reached AnyangAnyang
Anyang is a prefecture-level city in Henan province, People's Republic of China. The northernmost city in Henan, Anyang borders Puyang to the east, Hebi and Xinxiang to the south, and the provinces of Shanxi and Hebei to its west and north respectively....
, some distance away from Julu (in present-day Xingtai
Xingtai
Xingtai is a city in southern Hebei province, North China. The prefecture-level city of Xingtai, with a total area of , administers 2 districts, 2 county-level cities and 15 counties. In 2004 it had an urban population of 561,400 and a total population of 6.73 million...
, Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
), where Zhao Xie's forces had retreated to. Song Yi ordered the troops to lay camp there for 46 days and he refused to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to proceed further. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting and killed him for alleged treason. The other subordinate generals were afraid of Xiang Yu and let him become the acting commander. Xiang Yu sent a messenger to inform King Huai II and the king approved Xiang's command.
In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army advanced towards Julu and he sent Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead the 20,000 strong vanguard army to cross the river and attack the Qin forces led by Zhang Han, while he followed behind with the remaining majority of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations, in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days or die trapped before the walls of the city with no supplies or hope of escape. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Chu forces scored a great victory after nine engagements, defeating the 300,000 strong Qin army. After the battle, other rebel forces, including those not from Chu, came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration for his martial valor. When Xiang Yu received them at the gate, the rebel generals were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not even dare to look up at him.
Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin
Sima Xin
Sima Xin was a military general of the Qin Dynasty. He surrendered to Xiang Yu after the Battle of Julu in 207 BC. In 206 BC, following the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, he was conferred the title of "King of Sai" by Xiang and given part of the lands in Guanzhong as his fief when the latter split...
to Xianyang
Xianyang
Xianyang is a former capital of China in Shaanxi province, on the Wei River, a few kilometers upstream from Xi'an. It has an area of...
to request for reinforcements and supplies from Qin Er Shi. Zhao Gao
Zhao Gao
Zhao Gao was the chief eunuch during the Qin Dynasty of China. He played an instrumental role in the downfall of the Qin Dynasty.- Early life :...
deceived the emperor and the emperor dismissed Zhang Han's request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin on his return journey later, but Sima managed to escape and return to Zhang Han. In dire straits, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops eventually surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu perceived the surrendered Qin troops as disloyal and a liability, and had them executed by burying them alive at Xin'an
Xin'an County
Xin'an County is a part of Luoyang City, Henan Province, People's Republic of China.-History:...
. Zhang Han, along with Sima Xin and Dong Yi
Dong Yi (Qin Dynasty)
Dong Yi was a military general of the Qin Dynasty. He surrendered to Xiang Yu after the Battle of Julu in 207 BC. In 206 BC, following the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, he was conferred the title of "King of Di" by Xiang and given part of the lands in Guanzhong as his fief when the latter split the...
, were spared from death. Xiang Yu appointed Zhang Han as "King of Yong", while Sima Xin and Dong Yi were respectively conferred the titles of "King of Sai" and "King of Di".
Feast at Hong Gate
After his victory in the Battle of JuluBattle of Julu
The Battle of Julu was fought in Julu in 207 BC primarily between Qin forces led by Zhang Han, and Chu rebels led by Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu emerged victorious, defeating a large Qin army with a small number of soldiers...
, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion on Guanzhong
Guanzhong
Guanzhong , or Guanzhong Plain, is a historical region of China corresponding to the lower valley of the Wei River. It is called Guanzhong or 'within the passes' to distinguish it from 'Guandong' or 'east of the pass', that is, the North China Plain. The North China Plain is bordered on the west by...
, the heartland of the Qin Dynasty
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin ruler Ziying
Ziying
Ziying was the last ruler of the Qin Dynasty of China, ruling as King of Qin from mid-October to the beginning of December 207 BC, and being known posthumously as Qin San Shi...
surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang
Xianyang
Xianyang is a former capital of China in Shaanxi province, on the Wei River, a few kilometers upstream from Xi'an. It has an area of...
(Qin's capital), bringing an end to the Qin Dynasty. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass
Hangu Pass
Hangu Pass was a strategic pass in ancient China just south of the great eastern bend of the Yellow River in today's Lingbao, Henan Province...
, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong was already under Liu's control. Liu Bang's general Cao Wushang sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu Bang would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II
Emperor Yi of Chu
Emperor Yi of Chu , also known as King Huai II of Chu , personal name Xiong Xin was the ruler of the Chu state during the late Qin Dynasty...
's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At that time, he had about 400,000 troops under his command while Liu Bang only had a quarter of that number.
As strongly encouraged by his advisor Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng was an advisor to Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han contention period of Chinese history.-Starting his career:Fan Zeng was a native of Juchao . He had a keen interest towards military strategy and politics...
, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a Feast at Hong Gate
Feast at Hong Gate
The Feast at Hong Gate was a historical event later often memorialized in Chinese history, novels, and drama, including in Beijing opera...
and intended to kill Liu during the banquet. However, Xiang Yu listened to his uncle Xiang Bo
Xiang Bo
Xiang Bo was a noble of Chu of the Seven Warring States, and an uncle of Xiang Yu. His given name was Chan while his style name was Bo ....
(a friend of Liu Bang's strategist Zhang Liang) instead and spared Liu's life. Liu Bang escaped later under the pretext of going to the latrine.
Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang in 206 BC. He ordered the execution of Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.
Despite advice from his subjects to remain in Guanzhong and continue with his conquests, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his homeland in Chu. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamorous outfits. Who would notice that?" One of his followers said, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing." Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.
Division of the empire
After the downfall of the Qin DynastyQin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
, Xiang Yu offered King Huai II
Emperor Yi of Chu
Emperor Yi of Chu , also known as King Huai II of Chu , personal name Xiong Xin was the ruler of the Chu state during the late Qin Dynasty...
the more honourable title of "Emperor Yi of Chu" and announced his decision to divide the former Qin Empire. Xiang Yu declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (西楚霸王) and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang
Liang (state)
The State of Liang was one of the states during the Spring and Autumn Period , bordering the State of Qin and was conquered by Duke Mu of Qin in 641 BCE. The rulers of the State of Liang has the surname Ying , similar to the neighboring State of Qin...
and Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
territories, with his capital at Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou
Xuzhou
Xuzhou , otherwise known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China...
). In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, to be granted to his subordinates and some leaders of the former rebel forces. He moved some of the rulers of other states to more remote areas and granted the land of Guanzhong
Guanzhong
Guanzhong , or Guanzhong Plain, is a historical region of China corresponding to the lower valley of the Wei River. It is called Guanzhong or 'within the passes' to distinguish it from 'Guandong' or 'east of the pass', that is, the North China Plain. The North China Plain is bordered on the west by...
to the three surrendered Qin generals, ignoring Emperor Yi's earlier promise to appoint Liu Bang as king of that region. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Hanzhong
Hanzhong
Hanzhong is a municipality in southwest Shaanxi Province, China, occupying a historically significant valley in the mountains between the Xi'an area, home to many Chinese capitals, and the fertile but isolated Sichuan Basin...
area instead and given the title of "King of Han" (漢王).
Xiang Yu appointed several generals from the rebel coalition as regional kings, even though these generals were subordinates of other lords, who should rightfully be the kings in place of their followers. Xiang Yu also left out some other important rebel leaders who did not support him earlier, but did contribute to the overthrow of Qin. In winter, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi to the remote area of Chen County (present-day Chenzhou
Chenzhou
Chenzhou is a city located in the southern area of Hunan province, People's Republic of China. Its administrative area covers , 9.2% of the provincial area, and its total population reached 4,559,600 as of 2001, 26% of them living in urban areas, 74% of them live in rural areas.-History:Chenzhou...
, Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
), effectively sending the puppet emperor into exile. At the same time, he issued a secret order to the regional kings in that area and had the emperor assassinated during his journey (205 BCE). The emperor's death was later used by Liu Bang as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.
Shortly after the death of Emperor Yi, Xiang Yu had Han Cheng
Han Cheng
Han Cheng , also known as Han Wang Cheng in some Chinese historical texts, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Hán of the Eighteen Kingdoms during the Chu–Han contention period of Chinese history.-Biography:...
(King of Han
Han (state)
Han was a kingdom during the Warring States Period in China, located in modern-day Shanxi and Henan. Not to be confused with South Korea which shares the same character....
) put to death and seized Han's lands for himself. Several months later, Tian Rong (chancellor of Qi
Qi (state)
Qi was a powerful state during the Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States in ancient China. Its capital was Linzi, now part of the modern day city of Zibo in Shandong Province....
) took control over the Three Qis (Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei) from their respective kings and reinstated Tian Fu as the King of Qi, but he took over the throne himself afterwards. Similarly, Chen Yu, a former vice chancellor of Zhao
Zhao (state)
Zhao was a significant Chinese state during the Warring States Period, along with six others...
, led an uprising against the King of Changshan, Zhang Er, and seized Zhang's domain and reinstalled Zhao Xie as the King of Zhao.
Chu–Han contention
In 206 BC, Liu Bang led his forces to attack GuanzhongGuanzhong
Guanzhong , or Guanzhong Plain, is a historical region of China corresponding to the lower valley of the Wei River. It is called Guanzhong or 'within the passes' to distinguish it from 'Guandong' or 'east of the pass', that is, the North China Plain. The North China Plain is bordered on the west by...
. At that time, Xiang Yu was at war with Qi
Qi (state)
Qi was a powerful state during the Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States in ancient China. Its capital was Linzi, now part of the modern day city of Zibo in Shandong Province....
and did not focus on resisting the Han forces. The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another five kingdoms and attacked Western Chu with a 560,000 strong army, capturing Xiang Yu's capital of Pengcheng. Upon hearing that, Xiang Yu led 30,000 men to attack Liu Bang and defeated the latter at the Battle of Pengcheng
Battle of Pengcheng
The Battle of Pengcheng was fought in Pengcheng in 205 BC between Chu forces led by Xiang Yu and Han forces led by Liu Bang. The Han forces were unprepared and suffered heavy losses...
, with the Han army suffering heavy casualties.
Liu Bang managed to escape after his defeat with Xiang Yu's troops on pursuit. Han troops retreated to Xingyang
Xingyang
Xingyang , is one of county-level cities of Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China. It is 15 kilometers in the west of Zhengzhou city and is the nearest city to Zhengzhou as well...
and defended the city firmly, preventing Chu forces from advancing west any further, but only managed to hold on until 204 BC. Liu Bang's general Ji Xin disguised himself as his lord and surrendered to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learnt that he had been fooled, he was furious and had Ji Xin burnt to death. After the fall of Xingyang, Chu and Han forces were divided on two fronts along present-day Henan
Henan
Henan , is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "豫" , named after Yuzhou , a Han Dynasty state that included parts of Henan...
. However, Xiang Yu's forces were not faring well on the battlefront north of the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
, as the Han army led by Han Xin
Hán Xìn
Han Xin was a military general who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han Dynasty...
defeated his troops in every single battle. At the same time, Liu Bang's ally Peng Yue
Peng Yue
Peng Yue , style name Zhong , was a prominent military leader and political figure in the late Qin Dynasty and early Han Dynasty. He was involved in the Chu–Han contention and served Liu Bang as an ally...
led his men to harass Xiang Yu's rear.
By 203 BC, the tide has turned in favour of Han. Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father after a year-long siege and he threatened to boil Liu's father alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu Bang remarked that he and Xiang Yu were oath brothers, so if Xiang killed Liu's father, he would be guilty of patricide. Xiang Yu requested for an armistice, known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, and returned the hostages he captured back to Liu Bang as part of their agreement. The treaty divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively.
Shortly after, as Xiang Yu was retreating eastwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and led his forces to attack Western Chu. Liu Bang sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting for their assistance in forming a three-pronged attack on Xiang Yu, but Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilize their troops and Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. Liu Bang retreated and reinforced his defenses, while sending emissaries to Han Xin and Peng Yue, promising to grant them fiefs and titles of regional kings if they would join him in attacking Western Chu.
Defeat and downfall
In 202 BC, Han armies led by Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Western Chu from three sides and trapped Xiang Yu's army, which was low on supplies, in the Battle of GaixiaBattle of Gaixia
The Battle of Gaixia was a Chinese battle in 202 BC, during the Chu-Han contention between rival rulers of China which followed the collapse of the Qin Dynasty...
. Liu Bang ordered his troops to sing folk songs from the Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
region, to create a false impression that Xiang Yu's native land had been conquered by Han forces. The morale of the Chu army plummeted and many of Xiang Yu's troops deserted in despair. Xiang Yu sank into a state of depression and he sang the Song of Gaixia. His concubine Consort Yu
Consort Yu
Consort Yu , personal name Yu Miaoyi, also known as "Yu the Beautiful" , was a concubine of Xiang Yu.-Biography:Consort Yu's birth date was unknown and there are two accounts of her origin...
committed suicide. The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite cavalry on a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement, with 5,000 enemy troops hot on pursuit.
After crossing the Huai River
Huai River
The Huai River is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers in China, and like them runs from west to east...
, Xiang Yu was only left with a few hundred soldiers. They were lost in Yinling and Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp. When Xiang Yu reached Dongcheng, only 28 men were left, with the Han troops still following him. Xiang Yu made a speech to his men, saying that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure. After that, he led a charge out of the encirclement, killing one Han general in the battle. Xiang Yu then split his men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up as well to attack the three groups. Xiang Yu took the Han troops by surprise again and slew another enemy commander, inflicting about 100 casualties on the enemy, while he only lost two men.
Death
He County
He County is a district of Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, under the jurisdiction of Ma'anshan City. It has a population of 650,000 and an area of...
, Chaohu City, Anhui
Anhui
Anhui is a province in the People's Republic of China. Located in eastern China across the basins of the Yangtze River and the Huai River, it borders Jiangsu to the east, Zhejiang to the southeast, Jiangxi to the south, Hubei to the southwest, Henan to the northwest, and Shandong for a tiny...
) and the ferryman at the ford prepared a boat for him to cross the river, strongly encouraging him to do so because Xiang Yu still had the support of the people from his homeland in the south. Xiang Yu said that he was too ashamed to return home and face his people because none of the first 8,000 men from Jiangdong who followed him on his conquests managed to survive. He refused to cross and ordered his remaining men to dismount, asking the ferryman to take his warhorse Zhui (騅) back home.
As he refused, his remaining men decided to stay, but Xiang Yu ordered them to go back on the boat.
Before Xiang Yu died, he saw an old friend Lü Matong among the Han soldiers. He then said, "I heard that the King of Han (Liu Bang) had placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of Marquis of Wanhu on my head. Take it then, on account of our friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by slitting his throat with his sword, and a brawl broke out among the Han soldiers at the scene due to the reward offered by Liu Bang, and Xiang Yu's body was said to be dismembered and mutilated in the fight. The reward was eventually claimed by Lü Matong and five others. After Xiang Yu's death, Western Chu surrendered and China was united under Liu Bang's rule, marking the start of the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
. Liu Bang held a grand state funeral for Xiang Yu in Yicheng (in present-day Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
), with the ceremony befitting Xiang's title of "Duke of Lu". Xiang Yu's relatives were spared from death, including Xiang Bo
Xiang Bo
Xiang Bo was a noble of Chu of the Seven Warring States, and an uncle of Xiang Yu. His given name was Chan while his style name was Bo ....
, who saved Liu Bang's life at the Feast at Hong Gate
Feast at Hong Gate
The Feast at Hong Gate was a historical event later often memorialized in Chinese history, novels, and drama, including in Beijing opera...
, and they were granted titles of marquises.
Evaluation
Historian Sima QianSima Qian
Sima Qian was a Prefect of the Grand Scribes of the Han Dynasty. He is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography for his highly praised work, Records of the Grand Historian , a "Jizhuanti"-style general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to...
, author of Records of the Grand Historian
Records of the Grand Historian
The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name Shiji , written from 109 BC to 91 BC, was the Magnum opus of Sima Qian, in which he recounted Chinese history from the time of the Yellow Emperor until his own time...
, described Xiang Yu as someone who boasts about his achievements and thinks highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others before him. Sima Qian felt that Xiang Yu had failed to see his own shortcomings and to make attempts to correct his mistakes, even until his death. Sima Qian thought that it was ridiculous when Xiang Yu claimed that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure.
Liu Bang's general Han Xin
Hán Xìn
Han Xin was a military general who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han Dynasty...
, who was one of Xiang Yu's opponents on the battlefield, made a statement criticizing Xiang: "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. Neither was he able to make good use of capable generals nor was he able to support Emperor Yi of Chu, as he killed the emperor. Even though he had the name of a Conqueror, he had already lost the favour of the people."
The Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
poet Du Mu
Du Mu
Du Mu was a leading Chinese poet of the late Tang Dynasty. His courtesy name was Muzhi , and sobriquet Fanchuan .He was born in Chang'an into an elite family whose fortunes were declining...
mentioned Xiang Yu in one of his poems Ti Wujiang Ting (題烏江亭): "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong, who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can make a comeback?" However, the Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
poet Wang Anshi
Wang Anshi
Wang Anshi was a Chinese economist, statesman, chancellor and poet of the Song Dynasty who attempted controversial, major socioeconomic reforms...
had a different opinion, as he stated: "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?" The Song Dynasty female poet Li Qingzhao
Li Qingzhao
Li Qingzhao was a Chinese writer and poet of the Song Dynasty, regarded by many as the premier female poet in the Chinese language.-Biography:She was born Li Qingzhao (Traditional Chinese: 李清照; Simplified Chinese: 李清照, pinyin: Lǐ Qīngzhào; Wade-Giles: Li Ch'ing-chao, pseudonym Yi'an Jushi (易安居士...
wrote: "A hero in life, a king of ghosts after death. Until now we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung , and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao , was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution...
also mentioned Xiang Yu once, saying that "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Conqueror." In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: Not following Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng was an advisor to Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han contention period of Chinese history.-Starting his career:Fan Zeng was a native of Juchao . He had a keen interest towards military strategy and politics...
's advice to kill Liu Bang at the Feast at Hong Gate
Feast at Hong Gate
The Feast at Hong Gate was a historical event later often memorialized in Chinese history, novels, and drama, including in Beijing opera...
and letting Liu leave; Adhering firmly to the terms of the peace treaty (without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust); Building his capital at Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou
Xuzhou
Xuzhou , otherwise known as Pengcheng in ancient times, is a major city in and the fourth largest prefecture-level city of Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China...
).
Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possesses great courage but lacks wisdom, and his character is aptly summarized using the Chinese idiom you yong wu mou , meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", "foolhardy". Xiang Yu's battle tactics were studied by later military leaders while his political blunders served as cautionary tales for later rulers. Another Chinese idiom, si mian chu ge , was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia
Battle of Gaixia
The Battle of Gaixia was a Chinese battle in 202 BC, during the Chu-Han contention between rival rulers of China which followed the collapse of the Qin Dynasty...
, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him" (有一范增而不能用), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on his advisor Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng was an advisor to Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han contention period of Chinese history.-Starting his career:Fan Zeng was a native of Juchao . He had a keen interest towards military strategy and politics...
and failure to actually listen to Fan's advice.
Historian John Keay
John Keay
John Keay is an English journalist and author specialising in writing popular histories about India and the Far East, often with a particular focus on their colonisation and exploration by Europeans.-Life and career:...
cites Xiang Yu as the most accomplished general in Chinese history.
Modern references
Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese folk tales and poetryChinese poetry
Chinese poetry is poetry written, spoken, or chanted in the Chinese language, which includes various versions of Chinese language, including Classical Chinese, Standard Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, Cantonese, Yue Chinese, as well as many other historical and vernacular varieties of the Chinese language...
, especially in his final battle
Battle of Gaixia
The Battle of Gaixia was a Chinese battle in 202 BC, during the Chu-Han contention between rival rulers of China which followed the collapse of the Qin Dynasty...
. However, his ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and death at the early age of 30. He is also the subject of films, television, plays, Chinese opera
Chinese opera
Chinese opera is a popular form of drama and musical theatre in China with roots going back as far as the third century CE...
s, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his concubine Consort Yu
Consort Yu
Consort Yu , personal name Yu Miaoyi, also known as "Yu the Beautiful" , was a concubine of Xiang Yu.-Biography:Consort Yu's birth date was unknown and there are two accounts of her origin...
and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero
Tragic hero
A tragic hero is the main character in a tragedy. Tragic heroes appear in the dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Seneca, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Webster, Marston, Corneille, Racine, Goethe, Schiller, Kleist, Strindberg, and many other writers.-Aristotle's tragic hero:Aristotle...
to his character.
Xiang Yu is also depicted as a ruthless leader, in sharp contrast to his rival, Liu Bang. He was a mass murderer, ordering the massacres of entire cities when they refused to surrender and put up strong resistance. The most notorious example of his cruelty was when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered Qin troops to be buried alive after the Battle of Julu
Battle of Julu
The Battle of Julu was fought in Julu in 207 BC primarily between Qin forces led by Zhang Han, and Chu rebels led by Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu emerged victorious, defeating a large Qin army with a small number of soldiers...
, and the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. Conversely, Liu Bang is portrayed as a shrewd and cunning ruler who can be brutal at times. However, Liu Bang did forbid his troops from looting the cities they captured and he spared the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu's story became an example for Confucianists
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong in the 14th century, is a Chinese historical novel based on the events in the turbulent years near the end of the Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history, starting in 169 and ending with the reunification of the land in...
, one of the Four Great Classical Novels
Four Great Classical Novels
The Four Great Classical Novels, or the Four Major Classical Novels of Chinese literature, are the four novels commonly regarded by scholars to be the greatest and most influential of pre-modern Chinese fiction. Dating from the Ming and Qing dynasties, they are well known to most Chinese readers...
of Chinese literature
Chinese literature
Chinese literature extends thousands of years, from the earliest recorded dynastic court archives to the mature fictional novels that arose during the Ming Dynasty to entertain the masses of literate Chinese...
, Sun Ce
Sun Ce
Sun Ce was a military general and warlord during the late Han Dynasty period of Chinese history. He was the oldest of the children of Sun Jian who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang when Sun Ce was only 16. Sun Ce then broke away from his father's overlord, Yuan Shu, and headed to...
is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" (小霸王) and is often compared favorably to Xiang Yu by his contemporaries. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong
Jiangnan
Jiangnan or Jiang Nan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of the Yangtze Delta...
region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu
Eastern Wu, also known as Sun Wu, was one the three states competing for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period after the fall of the Han Dynasty. It was based in the Jiangnan region of China...
in the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms
The Three Kingdoms period was a period in Chinese history, part of an era of disunity called the "Six Dynasties" following immediately the loss of de facto power of the Han Dynasty rulers. In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the...
era. In Water Margin
Water Margin
Water Margin , also known as Outlaws of the Marsh, All Men Are Brothers, Men of the Marshes, or The Marshes of Mount Liang, is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature.Attributed to Shi Nai'an and written in vernacular Chinese, the story, set in the Song Dynasty,...
, another of the Four Great Classical Novels, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 outlaws, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for his resemblance to Xiang Yu in appearance.
The Meng Ch'iu, an eighth-century Chinese primer, contains the four-character rhyming couplet: "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the episode in the Battle of Xingyang when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his army, to distract Xiang Yu in order to buy time for Liu Bang to escape from the city of Xingyang
Xingyang
Xingyang , is one of county-level cities of Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China. It is 15 kilometers in the west of Zhengzhou city and is the nearest city to Zhengzhou as well...
.
A famous Beijing opera
Beijing opera
Peking opera or Beijing opera is a form of traditional Chinese theatre which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in the late 18th century and became fully developed and recognized by the mid-19th century. The form was extremely popular in the Qing Dynasty court...
, Ba Wang Bie Ji , depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia
Battle of Gaixia
The Battle of Gaixia was a Chinese battle in 202 BC, during the Chu-Han contention between rival rulers of China which followed the collapse of the Qin Dynasty...
. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige
Chen Kaige
Chen Kaige is a Chinese film director and a leading figure of the fifth generation of Chinese cinema. His films are known for their visual flair and epic storytelling.-Early life:...
's award-winning motion picture Farewell My Concubine. "The Works of Xiang Yu" are a central theme in the Firefly
Firefly (TV series)
Firefly is an American space western television series created by writer and director Joss Whedon, under his Mutant Enemy Productions label. Whedon served as executive producer, along with Tim Minear....
episode, War Stories, which deals with sadism and torture.
In the last episode of the 2001 Hong Kong television series A Step into the Past
A Step Into The Past
A Step into the Past is a 2001 Hong Kong historical-science fiction television series produced by TVB and based on Huang Yi's novel of the same Chinese title. The series tells the story of a 21st century Hong Kong VIPPU officer who travels back in time to the Warring States Period of ancient China...
, the son of Xiang Shaolong (or Hung Siu-lung, the time traveling protagonist) says he wants to change his name to "Yu" (literally means "feather") because he admires the flying birds. His father is shocked to realise that his son is actually the future Hegemon-King of Western Chu.
Xiang Yu is one of the 32 historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI by Koei. He is also featured as a non-playable character (NPC) in the action RPG Prince of Qin.