Treaty of Vilnius (1561)
Encyclopedia
The Treaty of Vilnius or Vilna was concluded on 28 November 1561, during the Livonian War
, between the Livonian Confederation
and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
at Vilnius
(Vilna, Wilna, Wilno). With the treaty, the non-Danish and non-Swedish part of Livonia
, with the exception of the Free imperial city
of Riga
, subjected itself to Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania
, Sigismund II Augustus
with the Pacta subiectionis (Provisio ducalis). In turn, Sigismund granted protection from the Tsardom of Russia
and confirmed the Livonian estates' traditional privileges, laid out in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti.
The secularization of the Livonian Order
was the "final act" in Livonia's transition from the Middle Ages
to the Early Modern era. The territories were re-organized in the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
and the Duchy of Livonia
, the latter competing with the Kingdom of Livonia
during the war. After its reconquest, Sigismund's successor Stephen Báthory (Batory) ignored the privileges of 1561, granted a new constitution and initiated counter-reformation
. These measures were reversed after the Swedish conquest
. When after a further series of wars
Livonia capitulated to Russia in 1710
, the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti was confirmed by Peter the Great.
of the Livonian Order
bought his order out of the union with the Teutonic Knights
. Thus, the secularization of the Teutonic Order State, which led to the establishment of the Protestant Duchy of Prussia under the Polish
king in 1525, did not affect Livonia
, where the Recess of Wolmar (Valmiera) forbade any future secularization in 1546. The Protestant Reformation
had started in Riga
in 1517, and afterward it had spread to all of Livonia; religious freedom was declared in 1554.
As the Livonian Confederation
was in decline due to internal struggles, a faction of the order favored rapprochement with Poland-Lithuania
, while another faction violently opposed it. After a civil war starting in 1556, the pro-Polish faction gained the upper hand.
With the Treaty of Pozvol
, concluded in 1557, the Livonian Confederation
had turned to Poland-Lithuania for protection, triggering Ivan IV of Russia
's intervention in what was to become the Livonian War
. In 1558, Ivan IV had conquered the Dorpat
(Tartu) area, annihilating the Bishopric of Dorpat
. With the Treaty of Vilnius of 31 August 1559
, Gotthard von Kettler, Grand Master
of the Livonian Order
, had put the order's lands under protection of Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sigismund II Augustus
. The order ceded about one seventh of its territory, allowed Sigismund to garrison its most important castles, and agreed to share with him any conquests made from Ivan IV. The alliance was intended to neutralize the imminent threat of annexation of the order's lands by Russia
, yet despite earning military support from Polish-Lithuanian chancellor Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł, Kettler was defeated in Ergeme (Ermes, 1560)
and unable to prevent the occupation of most of Livonia by Russian forces. After the treaty, the disintegrating order agreed to secularization if necessary, and since Sigismund was reluctant to support it militarily, continued its search for a protector at the courts of Denmark-Norway and the Holy Roman Emperor
.
In 1560, Johann von Münchhausen sold his bishoprics of Ösel-Wiek
and Courland
to Magnus, brother of Danish king Frederick II
. In June 1561, part of Estonia
subordinated itself to Sweden
. Riga
had turned to the Holy Roman Empire
and became a Free imperial city
. Hard-pressed by Ivan IV of Russia
, the remnant of the Livonian Confederation
concluded a treaty with Poland-Lithuania on 28 November 1561, subordinating themselves to the Sigismund II Augustus
.
Also included was the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund II Augustus
guaranteed the Livonian estates several privileges, including religious freedom with respect to the Augsburg Confession
, the Indigenat
, and continuation of the traditional German jurisdiction and administration. The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the traditional Protestant order by religious or secular authorities, and ruled that cases of disagreements be judged only by Protestant scholars.
The Livonian regions south of the Daugava River (Düna, Dvina), comprising Courland
(Kurland) and Semigallia (Semgallen, Zemgale, Žiemgala), were established as the secular Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
with Gotthard von Kettler as its duke. Shaped after the Prussian model, Courland and Semigallia was thus made a hereditary fief of the Grand Duke of Lithuania
, later of the Polish Crown.
In contrast, Livonia north of the Daugava was subordinated directly to Sigismund II Augustus as Duchy of Livonia
, also referred to as Livonia transdunensis, with Kettler installed as Sigismund's "Royal administrator". These territories however excluded Riga
, then a Free imperial city
of the Holy Roman Empire
, part of Estonia
with Reval
(Tallinn), which was under Swedish
protection, and the westernmost part of Estonia with Øsel
(Ösel, Saaremaa), which was Danish.
, a stable political system was established on the basis of the 1561 treaty, and only in 1617 this was modified by the Formula regiminis and Statuta Curlandiæ, which granted the indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.
The situation north of the Daugava was quite different. On 25 December 1566, the Union of Grodno
established a real union
between the Duchy of Livonia
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
, Livonia's administrative division was re-organized with its castellans becoming members of the Lithuanian senate. The union however did not impact Livonian jurisdiction, which was to be carried out according to the traditional customs. When in 1569 the Union of Lublin
transformed the Polish-Lithuanian
personal union
into a real union
, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
, Livonia became a Polish-Lithuanian condominium. Ivan IV of Russia
subdued nearly all of Livonia transdunanesis between 1572 and 1577. Magnus, in addition to his Livonian possessions, bought the succession in the Bishopric of Reval
and established the Kingdom of Livonia
under Ivan IV's patronage. After the Polish-Swedish victory in the Battle of Wenden (1578), Russian forces were subsequently expelled from Livonia, and the Livonian War
ended with the treaties of Jam Zapolski and Narva-Plyussa
. Only then, Sigismund's successor Stephen Báthory (Batory) was able to re-assume control over the Duchy of Livonia
.
Báthory however regarded the re-conquered territories as his war booty, refused to confirm the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti, and in 1582 replaced it with the Constitutiones Livoniae, which tolerated Indigenat and Augsburg Confession, but revoked their status as elementary right and else did not contain any privileges. The traditional German administration and jurisdiction was gradually impaired by the establishment of voivodeships, the appointment of Royal officials, and the replacement of German
with Polish
as administrative language. Riga
was added to Polish-Lithuanian Livonia by the Treaty of Drohiczyn
of 14 January 1581, including a Corpus Privilegiorum Stephanorum similarly reducing its freedoms.
Under Stephen Báthory, the Duchy of Livonia was subjected to counter-reformation
led by bishop Otto von Schenking, who had converted to Catholicism
, and the Jesuits
of Riga and Dorpat
(Tartu). The respective Jesuit colleges and the Catholic bishopric with its see in Wenden
(Cēsis) were founded in 1566. Counter-reformation focussed on the Latvian
and Estonian
population, since they were not explicitly mentioned in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti - a disputed interpretation since the German Livonian estates traditionally spoke for all Livonians. Lutherans
were forbidden to preach in Estonian
, Latvian
and Russian language
, while at the same time Catholic documents were published in these languages. Stephen Batory participated in counter-reformation by granting revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants to the Catholic Church and by initiating a (largely unsuccessful) recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.
These measures however proved to have only limited impact on the Estonian and Latvian population, while alienating the German gentry to a degree that they supported the Swedish take-over of Livonia (without Latgalia, Courland and Semigallia
), formalized in the treaties of Altmark (1629) and Stuhmsdorf (1635). The Polish–Swedish wars
had begun in 1600, when Catholic Sigismund III Vasa
tried to incorporate Protestant Swedish Estonia
into the Polish-Lithuanian Duchy of Livonia
, whereupon the local nobles turned to the duke of Södermanland
and later Swedish king, Charles IX
for protection. Charles IX expelled the Polish forces from Estonia, and his campaigns in the Duchy of Livonia were concluded in 1621 by his successor Gustavus Adolphus
, who established the dominion
of Swedish Livonia
from the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia
.
Swedish rule ended the counter-reformation, and the privileges of the Livonian nobles resembled those outlined in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti. When in 1710 Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia
during the Great Northern War
, the capitulations explicitly referred to the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti, with the respective references being confirmed in the Treaty of Nystad
(1721).
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
, between the Livonian Confederation
Livonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
at Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
(Vilna, Wilna, Wilno). With the treaty, the non-Danish and non-Swedish part of Livonia
Livonia
Livonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
, with the exception of the Free imperial city
Free Imperial City
In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city was a city formally ruled by the emperor only — as opposed to the majority of cities in the Empire, which were governed by one of the many princes of the Empire, such as dukes or prince-bishops...
of Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
, subjected itself to Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
, Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
with the Pacta subiectionis (Provisio ducalis). In turn, Sigismund granted protection from the Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 till Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 a year...
and confirmed the Livonian estates' traditional privileges, laid out in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti.
The secularization of the Livonian Order
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights...
was the "final act" in Livonia's transition from the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
to the Early Modern era. The territories were re-organized in the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1569 as a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569...
and the Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
, the latter competing with the Kingdom of Livonia
Kingdom of Livonia
The Kingdom of Livonia was a nominal state in what is now the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia, declared as such by Ivan IV during the Livonian War but never properly established. On June 10, 1570 the Danish Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow where he was crowned King of Livonia...
during the war. After its reconquest, Sigismund's successor Stephen Báthory (Batory) ignored the privileges of 1561, granted a new constitution and initiated counter-reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
. These measures were reversed after the Swedish conquest
Swedish Livonia
- Swedish infantry and cavalry regiments:Infantry regiments:* Garnisonsregementet i Riga * Guvenörsregementet i Riga * Livländsk infanteribataljon I...
. When after a further series of wars
Northern Wars
Northern Wars is a term used for a series of wars fought in northern and northeastern Europe in the 16th and 17th century. An internationally agreed nomenclature for these wars has not yet been devised...
Livonia capitulated to Russia in 1710
Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia
With the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 the Swedish dominions Estonia and Livonia were integrated into the Russian Empire following their conquest during the Great Northern War...
, the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti was confirmed by Peter the Great.
Background
In 1513, the Grand MasterGrand Master (order)
Grand Master is the typical title of the supreme head of various orders of knighthood, including various military orders, religious orders and civil orders such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians and the Orange Order...
of the Livonian Order
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights...
bought his order out of the union with the Teutonic Knights
Teutonic Knights
The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem , commonly the Teutonic Order , is a German medieval military order, in modern times a purely religious Catholic order...
. Thus, the secularization of the Teutonic Order State, which led to the establishment of the Protestant Duchy of Prussia under the Polish
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
king in 1525, did not affect Livonia
Livonia
Livonia is a historic region along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. It was once the land of the Finnic Livonians inhabiting the principal ancient Livonian County Metsepole with its center at Turaida...
, where the Recess of Wolmar (Valmiera) forbade any future secularization in 1546. The Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
had started in Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
in 1517, and afterward it had spread to all of Livonia; religious freedom was declared in 1554.
Livonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
was in decline due to internal struggles, a faction of the order favored rapprochement with Poland-Lithuania
Polish-Lithuanian Union
The term Polish–Lithuanian Union sometimes called as United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that lasted for prolonged periods of time and led to the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian...
, while another faction violently opposed it. After a civil war starting in 1556, the pro-Polish faction gained the upper hand.
With the Treaty of Pozvol
Treaty of Pozvol
The Treaty or Peace of Pozvol, Pasvalys or Pozwol was a peace treaty and an alliance concluded on 5 and 14 September 1557 between the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian union, whereby the former put its territories under Polish-Lithuanian protection...
, concluded in 1557, the Livonian Confederation
Livonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
had turned to Poland-Lithuania for protection, triggering Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV Vasilyevich , known in English as Ivan the Terrible , was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres,...
's intervention in what was to become the Livonian War
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
. In 1558, Ivan IV had conquered the Dorpat
Tartu
Tartu is the second largest city of Estonia. In contrast to Estonia's political and financial capital Tallinn, Tartu is often considered the intellectual and cultural hub, especially since it is home to Estonia's oldest and most renowned university. Situated 186 km southeast of Tallinn, the...
(Tartu) area, annihilating the Bishopric of Dorpat
Bishopric of Dorpat
The Bishopric of Dorpat was a medieval principality and a catholic diocese which existed from 1224 to 1558, generally encompassing what are now Tartu, Põlva, Võru and Jõgeva counties in Estonia. The Bishopric was part of Livonian Confederation...
. With the Treaty of Vilnius of 31 August 1559
Treaty of Vilnius (1559)
The Treaty of Vilnius or Vilna was concluded on 31 August 1559, during the Livonian War, between the Livonian Order and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at Vilnius . Gotthard von Kettler put the lands of the order under protection of Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sigismund II Augustus...
, Gotthard von Kettler, Grand Master
Grand Master (order)
Grand Master is the typical title of the supreme head of various orders of knighthood, including various military orders, religious orders and civil orders such as the Ancient Order of Hibernians and the Orange Order...
of the Livonian Order
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights...
, had put the order's lands under protection of Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
. The order ceded about one seventh of its territory, allowed Sigismund to garrison its most important castles, and agreed to share with him any conquests made from Ivan IV. The alliance was intended to neutralize the imminent threat of annexation of the order's lands by Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, yet despite earning military support from Polish-Lithuanian chancellor Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł, Kettler was defeated in Ergeme (Ermes, 1560)
Battle of Ergeme
The Battle of Ērģeme was fought on 2 August 1560 in present-day Latvia as part of the Livonian War between the forces of Ivan IV of Russia and the Livonian Confederation. It was the last battle fought by the German knights in Livonia and an important Russian victory...
and unable to prevent the occupation of most of Livonia by Russian forces. After the treaty, the disintegrating order agreed to secularization if necessary, and since Sigismund was reluctant to support it militarily, continued its search for a protector at the courts of Denmark-Norway and the Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
.
In 1560, Johann von Münchhausen sold his bishoprics of Ösel-Wiek
Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek
The Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek was a semi-independent Roman Catholic prince-bishopric in what is now Saare, Hiiu and Lääne counties of Estonia.The bishopric was created as a state of Holy Roman Empire on 1 October 1228, by Henry, King of the Romans...
and Courland
Bishopric of Courland
The Bishopric of Courland was the second smallest ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade...
to Magnus, brother of Danish king Frederick II
Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.-King of Denmark:Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg. Frederick II stands as the typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. Unlike his father, he...
. In June 1561, part of Estonia
Swedish Estonia
The Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following its capitulation in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united...
subordinated itself to Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
. Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
had turned to the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
and became a Free imperial city
Free Imperial City
In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city was a city formally ruled by the emperor only — as opposed to the majority of cities in the Empire, which were governed by one of the many princes of the Empire, such as dukes or prince-bishops...
. Hard-pressed by Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV Vasilyevich , known in English as Ivan the Terrible , was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres,...
, the remnant of the Livonian Confederation
Livonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
concluded a treaty with Poland-Lithuania on 28 November 1561, subordinating themselves to the Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
.
Treaty
The treaty comprised the Pacta subiectionis by which the Livonian estates accepted Polish-Lithuanian superiority. This document is also known as Provisio ducalis.Also included was the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
guaranteed the Livonian estates several privileges, including religious freedom with respect to the Augsburg Confession
Augsburg Confession
The Augsburg Confession, also known as the "Augustana" from its Latin name, Confessio Augustana, is the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Lutheran reformation...
, the Indigenat
Indygenat
Indygenat in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a recognition of foreign status as a noble. A foreign noble, after indygenat, received all privileges of a Polish szlachcic. In Polish history, 413 foreign noble families were recognized...
, and continuation of the traditional German jurisdiction and administration. The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the traditional Protestant order by religious or secular authorities, and ruled that cases of disagreements be judged only by Protestant scholars.
The Livonian regions south of the Daugava River (Düna, Dvina), comprising Courland
Courland
Courland is one of the historical and cultural regions of Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland.- Geography and climate :...
(Kurland) and Semigallia (Semgallen, Zemgale, Žiemgala), were established as the secular Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1569 as a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569...
with Gotthard von Kettler as its duke. Shaped after the Prussian model, Courland and Semigallia was thus made a hereditary fief of the Grand Duke of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
, later of the Polish Crown.
In contrast, Livonia north of the Daugava was subordinated directly to Sigismund II Augustus as Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
, also referred to as Livonia transdunensis, with Kettler installed as Sigismund's "Royal administrator". These territories however excluded Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
, then a Free imperial city
Free Imperial City
In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city was a city formally ruled by the emperor only — as opposed to the majority of cities in the Empire, which were governed by one of the many princes of the Empire, such as dukes or prince-bishops...
of the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
, part of Estonia
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
with Reval
Tallinn
Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It occupies an area of with a population of 414,940. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the banks of the Gulf of Finland, south of Helsinki, east of Stockholm and west of Saint Petersburg. Tallinn's Old Town is in the list...
(Tallinn), which was under Swedish
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
protection, and the westernmost part of Estonia with Øsel
Saaremaa
Saaremaa is the largest island in Estonia, measuring 2,673 km². The main island of Saare County, it is located in the Baltic Sea, south of Hiiumaa island, and belongs to the West Estonian Archipelago...
(Ösel, Saaremaa), which was Danish.
Consequences
In the Duchy of Courland and SemigalliaDuchy of Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1569 as a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569...
, a stable political system was established on the basis of the 1561 treaty, and only in 1617 this was modified by the Formula regiminis and Statuta Curlandiæ, which granted the indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.
The situation north of the Daugava was quite different. On 25 December 1566, the Union of Grodno
Union of Grodno (1566)
The Union of Grodno established a real union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Duchy of Livonia on 25 December 1566, during the Livonian War. Livonia had submitted itself to Sigismund II Augustus by the Treaty of Vilnius . Livonia's administrative division was re-organized with its...
established a real union
Real union
Real union is a union of two or more states, which share some state institutions as in contrast to personal unions; however they are not as unified as states in a political union...
between the Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
, Livonia's administrative division was re-organized with its castellans becoming members of the Lithuanian senate. The union however did not impact Livonian jurisdiction, which was to be carried out according to the traditional customs. When in 1569 the Union of Lublin
Union of Lublin
The Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was...
transformed the Polish-Lithuanian
Polish-Lithuanian Union
The term Polish–Lithuanian Union sometimes called as United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that lasted for prolonged periods of time and led to the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian...
personal union
Personal union
A personal union is the combination by which two or more different states have the same monarch while their boundaries, their laws and their interests remain distinct. It should not be confused with a federation which is internationally considered a single state...
into a real union
Real union
Real union is a union of two or more states, which share some state institutions as in contrast to personal unions; however they are not as unified as states in a political union...
, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
, Livonia became a Polish-Lithuanian condominium. Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV Vasilyevich , known in English as Ivan the Terrible , was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres,...
subdued nearly all of Livonia transdunanesis between 1572 and 1577. Magnus, in addition to his Livonian possessions, bought the succession in the Bishopric of Reval
Bishopric of Reval
The Bishopric of Reval was created in Duchy of Estonia by Valdemar II of Denmark in 1240. Contradictory to canon law Valdemar II reserved the right to appoint the bishops of Reval to himself and his successor kings of Denmark. The decision to simply nominate the holy see of Reval was unique in the...
and established the Kingdom of Livonia
Kingdom of Livonia
The Kingdom of Livonia was a nominal state in what is now the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia, declared as such by Ivan IV during the Livonian War but never properly established. On June 10, 1570 the Danish Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow where he was crowned King of Livonia...
under Ivan IV's patronage. After the Polish-Swedish victory in the Battle of Wenden (1578), Russian forces were subsequently expelled from Livonia, and the Livonian War
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
ended with the treaties of Jam Zapolski and Narva-Plyussa
Treaty of Plussa
The Treaty or Truce of Plussa, Pljussa, Plyussa or Narva and Plusa was a truce between Russia and Sweden, which ended the Livonian War . The truce was signed on 10 August 1583 at the Plyussa River in the Pskov region...
. Only then, Sigismund's successor Stephen Báthory (Batory) was able to re-assume control over the Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
.
Báthory however regarded the re-conquered territories as his war booty, refused to confirm the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti, and in 1582 replaced it with the Constitutiones Livoniae, which tolerated Indigenat and Augsburg Confession, but revoked their status as elementary right and else did not contain any privileges. The traditional German administration and jurisdiction was gradually impaired by the establishment of voivodeships, the appointment of Royal officials, and the replacement of German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
with Polish
Polish language
Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
as administrative language. Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
was added to Polish-Lithuanian Livonia by the Treaty of Drohiczyn
Treaty of Drohiczyn
The Treaty of Drohiczyn was concluded on 14 January 1581, during the Livonian War, between the city of Riga and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The former Free imperial city Riga was added to Polish-Lithuanian Livonia. Its freedoms and privileges were in part confirmed in the Corpus...
of 14 January 1581, including a Corpus Privilegiorum Stephanorum similarly reducing its freedoms.
Under Stephen Báthory, the Duchy of Livonia was subjected to counter-reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
led by bishop Otto von Schenking, who had converted to Catholicism
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
, and the Jesuits
Society of Jesus
The Society of Jesus is a Catholic male religious order that follows the teachings of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits, and are also known colloquially as "God's Army" and as "The Company," these being references to founder Ignatius of Loyola's military background and a...
of Riga and Dorpat
Tartu
Tartu is the second largest city of Estonia. In contrast to Estonia's political and financial capital Tallinn, Tartu is often considered the intellectual and cultural hub, especially since it is home to Estonia's oldest and most renowned university. Situated 186 km southeast of Tallinn, the...
(Tartu). The respective Jesuit colleges and the Catholic bishopric with its see in Wenden
Cesis
Cēsis , is a town in Latvia located in the northern part of the Central Vidzeme Upland. Cēsis is on the Gauja River valley, and is built on a series of ridges above the river overlooking the woods below...
(Cēsis) were founded in 1566. Counter-reformation focussed on the Latvian
Latvians
Latvians or Letts are the indigenous Baltic people of Latvia.-History:Latvians occasionally refer to themselves by the ancient name of Latvji, which may have originated from the word Latve which is a name of the river that presumably flowed through what is now eastern Latvia...
and Estonian
Estonians
Estonians are a Finnic people closely related to the Finns and inhabiting, primarily, the country of Estonia. They speak a Finnic language known as Estonian...
population, since they were not explicitly mentioned in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti - a disputed interpretation since the German Livonian estates traditionally spoke for all Livonians. Lutherans
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
were forbidden to preach in Estonian
Estonian language
Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various émigré communities...
, Latvian
Latvian language
Latvian is the official state language of Latvia. It is also sometimes referred to as Lettish. There are about 1.4 million native Latvian speakers in Latvia and about 150,000 abroad. The Latvian language has a relatively large number of non-native speakers, atypical for a small language...
and Russian language
Russian language
Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...
, while at the same time Catholic documents were published in these languages. Stephen Batory participated in counter-reformation by granting revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants to the Catholic Church and by initiating a (largely unsuccessful) recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.
These measures however proved to have only limited impact on the Estonian and Latvian population, while alienating the German gentry to a degree that they supported the Swedish take-over of Livonia (without Latgalia, Courland and Semigallia
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1569 as a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569...
), formalized in the treaties of Altmark (1629) and Stuhmsdorf (1635). The Polish–Swedish wars
Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)
The Polish–Swedish War was twice interrupted by periods of truce and thus can be divided into:* Polish–Swedish War * Polish–Swedish War...
had begun in 1600, when Catholic Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, a monarch of the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden from 1592 until he was deposed in 1599...
tried to incorporate Protestant Swedish Estonia
Swedish Estonia
The Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following its capitulation in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united...
into the Polish-Lithuanian Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
, whereupon the local nobles turned to the duke of Södermanland
Södermanland
', sometimes referred to under its Latin form Sudermannia or Sudermania, is a historical province or landskap on the south eastern coast of Sweden. It borders Östergötland, Närke, Västmanland and Uppland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic sea.In Swedish, the province name is...
and later Swedish king, Charles IX
Charles IX of Sweden
Charles IX of Sweden also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1604 until his death. He was the youngest son of King Gustav I of Sweden and his second wife, Margaret Leijonhufvud, brother of Eric XIV and John III of Sweden, and uncle of Sigismund III Vasa king of both Sweden and Poland...
for protection. Charles IX expelled the Polish forces from Estonia, and his campaigns in the Duchy of Livonia were concluded in 1621 by his successor Gustavus Adolphus
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
Gustav II Adolf has been widely known in English by his Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus Magnus and variously in historical writings also as Gustavus, or Gustavus the Great, or Gustav Adolph the Great,...
, who established the dominion
Dominions of Sweden
The Dominions of Sweden or Svenska besittningar were territories that historically came under control of the Swedish Crown, but never became fully integrated with Sweden. This generally meant that they were ruled by Governors-General under the Swedish monarch, but within certain limits retained...
of Swedish Livonia
Swedish Livonia
- Swedish infantry and cavalry regiments:Infantry regiments:* Garnisonsregementet i Riga * Guvenörsregementet i Riga * Livländsk infanteribataljon I...
from the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
.
Swedish rule ended the counter-reformation, and the privileges of the Livonian nobles resembled those outlined in the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti. When in 1710 Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia
Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia
With the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 the Swedish dominions Estonia and Livonia were integrated into the Russian Empire following their conquest during the Great Northern War...
during the Great Northern War
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in northern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of...
, the capitulations explicitly referred to the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti, with the respective references being confirmed in the Treaty of Nystad
Treaty of Nystad
The Treaty of Nystad was the last peace treaty of the Great Northern War. It was concluded between the Tsardom of Russia and Swedish Empire on 30 August / 10 September 1721 in the then Swedish town of Nystad , after Sweden had settled with the other parties in Stockholm and Frederiksborg.During...
(1721).