Southern Giant Petrel
Encyclopedia
The Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus), also known as the Antarctic Giant Petrel, Giant Fulmar, Stinker, and Stinkpot, is a large seabird
of the southern oceans. Its distribution overlaps broadly with the similar Northern Giant Petrel
, though it overall is centered slightly further south. Adults of the two species can be separated by the colour of their bill-tip: greenish in the Southern and reddish in the Northern.
Macronectes, which in turn, along with 14 other genera, comprise the Procellariidae
family
. Macronectes, also referred to as the Giant Petrels, along with the genus Fulmarus, Cape Petrel
, Antarctic Petrel
, and the Snow Petrel
form a sub-family within the larger family.
The Southern Giant Petrel was first described as Macronectes giganteus by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
, in 1789, based on a specimen from Staten Island
off Tierra del Fuego
.
word meaning long or large and nēktēs meaning swimmer, and giganteus from the Latin
for gigantic. Southern Giant Petrel starts with southern referring to their habitat being further south than their counterpart the Northern Giant Petrel
, and Petrel refers to St. Peter and from the story of him walking on water, which refers to how they run on top of the water as they are getting airborne. They were also called Fulmar, which comes from full an Old Norse
word meaning foul, and mar meaning gull. They resemble seagulls and they have the ability of spitting a foul smelling concoction at predators.
, with a green tip and greyish-brown legs. There are two different morphs, the dark which resembles the Northern Giant Petrel
, and the more distinct light morph. On the dark morph the upper breast, head and neck are light with the remainder of its plumage
being mottled brown. The leading edge of its wing was lighter as are the base of the inner primaries, on the underside. The light morph is rarer and very distinct with only slight black speckles on an otherwise all white look. As juveniles, the dark morph starts off more sooty brown and pales as it ages. Both Giant Petrels have legs that are stronger and thus can move around on land rather effectively. Finally, when in flight this species
has a somewhat hunchbacked appearance.
It, like all members of the Procellariiformes
have certain features that set them apart from other birds. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. Although the nostrils on the Petrels are on the top of the bill. The bills of all Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax ester
s and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus
. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe; it excretes a concentrated saline solution from the nostrils.
at six or seven years of age; however the average age of first breeding is ten years. Its breeding season begins in October. Its nest
is a mound of moss
, grass
, and stones with a depression in the center and located on bare or grassy ground. They form loose colonies
except in the Falkland Islands
where the colonies are much larger. One egg
is laid and is incubate
d for 55–66 days. When the white chick is born it is brood
ed for two to three weeks and it fledges at 104–132 days.
, squid
, and offal
in coastal and pelagic waters, and unlike most other Procellariiformes
, this bird will eat carrion
and even attack smaller seabirds. The males exclude females from the carcasses that they are feeding off.
The range of this bird is quite large as it ranges from Antarctica to the subtropics
of Chile
, Africa
, and Australia
, and has an occurrence range
of 36000000 km² (13,899,677.7 sq mi). It breeds
on numerous islands throughout the southern oceans. The islands with larger populations include the Falkland Islands
, South Georgia, South Orkney Islands
, Staten Island
, South Shetland, Heard Island, Macquarie Island
, Prince Edward Islands
, and Crozet Islands
. The other locations with small populations are the Kerguelen Islands
, Gough Island
, Tristan da Cunha
, Diego Ramirez, Isla Noir as well as four locations on the continent
of Antarctica, including Terre Adélie, and small islands off the coast of Argentina
near Chubut
province
. The colonies are visited year round.
from Near Threatened
, by the IUCN. This downgrade is not as optimistic as it sounds as it is not so much due to a recovering population, but a clearer picture and more accurate censuses. Overall population trends show that in the 1980s there were 38,000 pair which dropped to 31,000 in the late 1990s followed by 46,800 presently. The Falkland Islands
and most of the South Georgia Archipelago has shown increases from the 1980s to the present. Terre Adélie has shown a drastic reduction as the count fell to 10—15 pairs from 80 pairs in the 1980s. The official 10/3 generation trend is listed by BirdLife International
at a 1%—9% declinatation, but it is stated that this is a conservative number. They elaborate that a best case scenario puts it at a 17% increase and a worst case scenario of a 7.2% reduction.
Major threats to the well-being of this species start with the typical accidental deaths caused by longline fishing as well as trawl fishing near the Falkland Islands
. Between 2,000 and 4,000 were killed in 1997—1998 due to illegal longline fishing. Also the numbers of Southern Elephant Seal
, which is an important source of food as carrion
, have been shrinking. Human disturbances have also adversely affected this bird.
To assist in this birds continued survival it was placed in CMS Appendix II
and ACAP Annex I
. Many of the islands that it breeds on are nature reserves, and Gough Island
and Macquarie Island
are World heritage sites. Monitoring is done on South Georgia, Marion Island, Crozet Islands
, Terre Adélie, and Macquarie Island
.Gough Island
has had 2 censuses in the last decade.
Continued monitoring and surveys at major breeding sites have been proposed, as well as researching movement and migration
. Finally continued promotion of "best-practice mitigation measures" via existing methods outlined in CCAMLR, CMS
, and FAO
.
Seabird
Seabirds are birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations...
of the southern oceans. Its distribution overlaps broadly with the similar Northern Giant Petrel
Northern Giant Petrel
The Northern Giant Petrel , also known as the Hall's Giant Petrel, is a large seabird of the southern oceans. Its distribution overlaps broadly with the similar Southern Giant Petrel, though it overall is centered slightly further north.-Taxonomy:The Northern Giant Petrel along with its...
, though it overall is centered slightly further south. Adults of the two species can be separated by the colour of their bill-tip: greenish in the Southern and reddish in the Northern.
Taxonomy
The Southern Giant Petrel is one of two members of the genusGenus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Macronectes, which in turn, along with 14 other genera, comprise the Procellariidae
Procellariidae
The family Procellariidae is a group of seabirds that comprises the fulmarine petrels, the gadfly petrels, the prions, and the shearwaters. This family is part of the bird order Procellariiformes , which also includes the albatrosses, the storm-petrels, and the diving petrels.The procellariids are...
family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
. Macronectes, also referred to as the Giant Petrels, along with the genus Fulmarus, Cape Petrel
Cape Petrel
The Cape Petrel also called Cape Pigeon or Pintado Petrel, is a common seabird of the Southern Ocean from the family Procellariidae. It is the only member of the genus Daption, and is allied to the fulmarine petrels, and the Giant Petrels. It is also sometimes known as the Cape Fulmar...
, Antarctic Petrel
Antarctic Petrel
The Antarctic Petrel is a boldly marked dark brown and white petrel, found in Antarctica, most commonly in the Ross and Weddell seas. They eat Antarctic krill, fish, and small squid...
, and the Snow Petrel
Snow Petrel
The Snow Petrel is the only member of the genus Pagodroma. It is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and has been seen at the South Pole. It has the most southerly breeding distribution of any bird.-Taxonomy:...
form a sub-family within the larger family.
The Southern Giant Petrel was first described as Macronectes giganteus by Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Johann Friedrich Gmelin
Johann Friedrich Gmelin was a German naturalist, botanist, entomologist, herpetologist and malacologist.- Education :Johann Friedrich Gmelin was born as the eldest son of Philipp Friedrich Gmelin in 1748 in Tübingen...
, in 1789, based on a specimen from Staten Island
Isla de los Estados
Isla de los Estados is an Argentine island that lies off the eastern extremity of the Argentine portion of Tierra del Fuego, from which it is separated by the Le Maire Strait...
off Tierra del Fuego
Tierra del Fuego
Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of a main island Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego divided between Chile and Argentina with an area of , and a group of smaller islands including Cape...
.
Etymology
Macronectes giganteus can be broken down as makros a GreekGreek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
word meaning long or large and nēktēs meaning swimmer, and giganteus from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
for gigantic. Southern Giant Petrel starts with southern referring to their habitat being further south than their counterpart the Northern Giant Petrel
Northern Giant Petrel
The Northern Giant Petrel , also known as the Hall's Giant Petrel, is a large seabird of the southern oceans. Its distribution overlaps broadly with the similar Southern Giant Petrel, though it overall is centered slightly further north.-Taxonomy:The Northern Giant Petrel along with its...
, and Petrel refers to St. Peter and from the story of him walking on water, which refers to how they run on top of the water as they are getting airborne. They were also called Fulmar, which comes from full an Old Norse
Old Norse
Old Norse is a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during the Viking Age, until about 1300....
word meaning foul, and mar meaning gull. They resemble seagulls and they have the ability of spitting a foul smelling concoction at predators.
Description
This petrel is the largest of the Precellariidae and measures 86 to 99 cm (33.9 to 39 in) with a wingspan of 185 centimetre. The male weighs approximately 5 kg (11 lb) and the female 3 to 8 kg (6.6 to 17.6 lb). They have a very large yellow billBeak
The beak, bill or rostrum is an external anatomical structure of birds which is used for eating and for grooming, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food, courtship and feeding young...
, with a green tip and greyish-brown legs. There are two different morphs, the dark which resembles the Northern Giant Petrel
Northern Giant Petrel
The Northern Giant Petrel , also known as the Hall's Giant Petrel, is a large seabird of the southern oceans. Its distribution overlaps broadly with the similar Southern Giant Petrel, though it overall is centered slightly further north.-Taxonomy:The Northern Giant Petrel along with its...
, and the more distinct light morph. On the dark morph the upper breast, head and neck are light with the remainder of its plumage
Plumage
Plumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...
being mottled brown. The leading edge of its wing was lighter as are the base of the inner primaries, on the underside. The light morph is rarer and very distinct with only slight black speckles on an otherwise all white look. As juveniles, the dark morph starts off more sooty brown and pales as it ages. Both Giant Petrels have legs that are stronger and thus can move around on land rather effectively. Finally, when in flight this species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
has a somewhat hunchbacked appearance.
It, like all members of the Procellariiformes
Procellariiformes
Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four families: the albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters, storm petrels, and diving petrels...
have certain features that set them apart from other birds. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. Although the nostrils on the Petrels are on the top of the bill. The bills of all Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between 7 and 9 horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax ester
Wax ester
An ester of a fatty acid and a long-chain alcohol. These oils have similar properties as triglycerides, but are indigestible. They are found in some fish such as orange roughy, oilfish, escolar, black oreo, smooth oreo and other deep water fish. They are also present in marine copepods. Wax...
s and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus
Proventriculus
The proventriculus is part of the digestive system of birds, invertebrates and insects.-Birds:The proventriculus is a standard part of avian anatomy...
. This is used against predators as well as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. They also have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe; it excretes a concentrated saline solution from the nostrils.
Reproduction
The Southern Giant Petrel achieves sexual maturitySexual maturity
Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an organism can reproduce. It is sometimes considered synonymous with adulthood, though the two are distinct...
at six or seven years of age; however the average age of first breeding is ten years. Its breeding season begins in October. Its nest
Bird nest
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American Robin or Eurasian Blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the...
is a mound of moss
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems...
, grass
Grass
Grasses, or more technically graminoids, are monocotyledonous, usually herbaceous plants with narrow leaves growing from the base. They include the "true grasses", of the Poaceae family, as well as the sedges and the rushes . The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns ...
, and stones with a depression in the center and located on bare or grassy ground. They form loose colonies
Bird colony
A bird colony is a large congregation of individuals of one or more species of bird that nest or roost in close proximity at a particular location. Many kinds of birds are known to congregate in groups of varying size; a congregation of nesting birds is called a breeding colony...
except in the Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located about from the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago consists of East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 lesser islands. The capital, Stanley, is on East Falkland...
where the colonies are much larger. One egg
Egg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
is laid and is incubate
Avian incubation
Incubation refers to the process by which certain oviparous animals hatch their eggs, and to the development of the embryo within the egg. The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature required for its development over a specific period. Especially in domestic fowl, the act of...
d for 55–66 days. When the white chick is born it is brood
Offspring
In biology, offspring is the product of reproduction, of a new organism produced by one or more parents.Collective offspring may be known as a brood or progeny in a more general way...
ed for two to three weeks and it fledges at 104–132 days.
Feeding
This Petrel will feed on krillKrill
Krill is the common name given to the order Euphausiacea of shrimp-like marine crustaceans. Also known as euphausiids, these small invertebrates are found in all oceans of the world...
, squid
Squid
Squid are cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 300 species. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a distinct head, bilateral symmetry, a mantle, and arms. Squid, like cuttlefish, have eight arms arranged in pairs and two, usually longer, tentacles...
, and offal
Offal
Offal , also called, especially in the United States, variety meats or organ meats, refers to the internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of edible organs, which varies by culture and region, but includes most internal organs other than...
in coastal and pelagic waters, and unlike most other Procellariiformes
Procellariiformes
Procellariiformes is an order of seabirds that comprises four families: the albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters, storm petrels, and diving petrels...
, this bird will eat carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...
and even attack smaller seabirds. The males exclude females from the carcasses that they are feeding off.
Range and habitat
| Location | Population | Date | Trend |
|---|---|---|---|
| Falkland Islands Falkland Islands The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located about from the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago consists of East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 lesser islands. The capital, Stanley, is on East Falkland... |
19,500 pair | 2005 | Increasing |
| South Georgia | 5,500 pair | 2006 | Increasing |
| South Shetland | 5,400 pair | 2006 | Increasing |
| South Orkney Islands South Orkney Islands The South Orkney Islands are a group of islands in the Southern Ocean, about north-east of the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. They have a total area of about .... |
3,350 pair | 2006 | Increasing |
| Heard Island & MacDonald Island MacDonald Island MacDonald Island is part of Princess Louisa Inlet in British Columbia, between the entrance of the inlet at Malibu Rapids to the head of the inlet at Chatterbox Falls. It is a popular mooring place for it is one of the only shallow places of the deep fjord. The island was originally named after... |
2,500 pair | 2005 | Decreasing |
| South America South America South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east... (Isla Noir, Diego Ramirez, Staten Island Isla de los Estados Isla de los Estados is an Argentine island that lies off the eastern extremity of the Argentine portion of Tierra del Fuego, from which it is separated by the Le Maire Strait... , Patagonia Patagonia Patagonia is a region located in Argentina and Chile, integrating the southernmost section of the Andes mountains to the southwest towards the Pacific ocean and from the east of the cordillera to the valleys it follows south through Colorado River towards Carmen de Patagones in the Atlantic Ocean... , islands off Chubut Chubut Province Chubut a province in the southern part of Argentina situated between the 42nd parallel south and the 46th parallel south , the Andes range separating Argentina from Chile, and the Atlantic ocean... , Argentina Argentina Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires... ) |
2,300 pair | 2006 | |
| Macquarie Island Macquarie Island Macquarie Island lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it has formed part of the Australian state of Tasmania since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a world heritage... |
2,145 pair | 2005 | Decreasing |
| Prince Edward Islands Prince Edward Islands The Prince Edward Islands are two small islands in the sub-antarctic Indian Ocean that are part of South Africa. The islands, named Marion Island and Prince Edward Island, are located at .... |
1,800 pair | ||
| South Sandwich Islands | 1,550 pair | 2006 | Increasing |
| Antarctic Peninsula Antarctic Peninsula The Antarctic Peninsula is the northernmost part of the mainland of Antarctica. It extends from a line between Cape Adams and a point on the mainland south of Eklund Islands.... |
1,190 pair | Decreasing | |
| Crozet Islands Crozet Islands The Crozet Islands are a sub-antarctic archipelago of small islands in the southern Indian Ocean. They form one of the five administrative districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.-Geography:... |
1,060 pair | Increasing | |
| Antarctic Continent (Terre Adélie) | 280 pair | 2006 | Decreasing |
| Tristan da Cunha Islands | 230 pair | 2004 | Increasing |
| Kerguelen Islands Kerguelen Islands The Kerguelen Islands , also known as the Desolation Islands, are a group of islands in the southern Indian Ocean constituting the emerged part of the otherwise submerged Kerguelen Plateau. The islands, along with Adélie Land, the Crozet Islands and the Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands are part of... |
4 pair | ||
| Gough Island Gough Island Gough Island , also known historically as Gonçalo Álvares or Diego Alvarez, is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha and part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha... |
1+ pair | Increasing | |
| Total | 97,000 | 2007 | Decreasing 1%—9% per 10 yr/Increasing now |
The range of this bird is quite large as it ranges from Antarctica to the subtropics
Subtropics
The subtropics are the geographical and climatical zone of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropical zone, which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, at latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S...
of Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
, Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, and Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, and has an occurrence range
Range (biology)
In biology, the range or distribution of a species is the geographical area within which that species can be found. Within that range, dispersion is variation in local density.The term is often qualified:...
of 36000000 km² (13,899,677.7 sq mi). It breeds
Breeding in the wild
Breeding in the wild is the natural process of animal reproduction occurring in the natural habitat of a given species. This terminology is distinct from animal husbandry or breeding of species in captivity...
on numerous islands throughout the southern oceans. The islands with larger populations include the Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located about from the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago consists of East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 lesser islands. The capital, Stanley, is on East Falkland...
, South Georgia, South Orkney Islands
South Orkney Islands
The South Orkney Islands are a group of islands in the Southern Ocean, about north-east of the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. They have a total area of about ....
, Staten Island
Isla de los Estados
Isla de los Estados is an Argentine island that lies off the eastern extremity of the Argentine portion of Tierra del Fuego, from which it is separated by the Le Maire Strait...
, South Shetland, Heard Island, Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it has formed part of the Australian state of Tasmania since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a world heritage...
, Prince Edward Islands
Prince Edward Islands
The Prince Edward Islands are two small islands in the sub-antarctic Indian Ocean that are part of South Africa. The islands, named Marion Island and Prince Edward Island, are located at ....
, and Crozet Islands
Crozet Islands
The Crozet Islands are a sub-antarctic archipelago of small islands in the southern Indian Ocean. They form one of the five administrative districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.-Geography:...
. The other locations with small populations are the Kerguelen Islands
Kerguelen Islands
The Kerguelen Islands , also known as the Desolation Islands, are a group of islands in the southern Indian Ocean constituting the emerged part of the otherwise submerged Kerguelen Plateau. The islands, along with Adélie Land, the Crozet Islands and the Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands are part of...
, Gough Island
Gough Island
Gough Island , also known historically as Gonçalo Álvares or Diego Alvarez, is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha and part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha...
, Tristan da Cunha
Tristan da Cunha
Tristan da Cunha is a remote volcanic group of islands in the south Atlantic Ocean and the main island of that group. It is the most remote inhabited archipelago in the world, lying from the nearest land, South Africa, and from South America...
, Diego Ramirez, Isla Noir as well as four locations on the continent
Continent
A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, with seven regions commonly regarded as continents—they are : Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.Plate tectonics is...
of Antarctica, including Terre Adélie, and small islands off the coast of Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
near Chubut
Chubut Province
Chubut a province in the southern part of Argentina situated between the 42nd parallel south and the 46th parallel south , the Andes range separating Argentina from Chile, and the Atlantic ocean...
province
Province
A province is a territorial unit, almost always an administrative division, within a country or state.-Etymology:The English word "province" is attested since about 1330 and derives from the 13th-century Old French "province," which itself comes from the Latin word "provincia," which referred to...
. The colonies are visited year round.
Conservation
2009 was a good year for this species as it was upgraded to a status of Least ConcernLeast Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
from Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened is a conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa that may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future, although it does not currently qualify for the threatened status...
, by the IUCN. This downgrade is not as optimistic as it sounds as it is not so much due to a recovering population, but a clearer picture and more accurate censuses. Overall population trends show that in the 1980s there were 38,000 pair which dropped to 31,000 in the late 1990s followed by 46,800 presently. The Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located about from the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago consists of East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 lesser islands. The capital, Stanley, is on East Falkland...
and most of the South Georgia Archipelago has shown increases from the 1980s to the present. Terre Adélie has shown a drastic reduction as the count fell to 10—15 pairs from 80 pairs in the 1980s. The official 10/3 generation trend is listed by BirdLife International
BirdLife International
BirdLife International is a global Partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources...
at a 1%—9% declinatation, but it is stated that this is a conservative number. They elaborate that a best case scenario puts it at a 17% increase and a worst case scenario of a 7.2% reduction.
Major threats to the well-being of this species start with the typical accidental deaths caused by longline fishing as well as trawl fishing near the Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located about from the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago consists of East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 lesser islands. The capital, Stanley, is on East Falkland...
. Between 2,000 and 4,000 were killed in 1997—1998 due to illegal longline fishing. Also the numbers of Southern Elephant Seal
Southern Elephant Seal
The Southern Elephant Seal is one of the two extant species of elephant seal. It is both the most massive pinniped and member of the order Carnivora living today...
, which is an important source of food as carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...
, have been shrinking. Human disturbances have also adversely affected this bird.
To assist in this birds continued survival it was placed in CMS Appendix II
Bonn Convention
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range...
and ACAP Annex I
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels
The Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels is a legally binding international treaty signed in 2001.It was created in order to halt the drastic decline of seabird populations in the Southern Hemisphere, particularly albatrosses and procellariids...
. Many of the islands that it breeds on are nature reserves, and Gough Island
Gough Island
Gough Island , also known historically as Gonçalo Álvares or Diego Alvarez, is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha and part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha...
and Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it has formed part of the Australian state of Tasmania since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a world heritage...
are World heritage sites. Monitoring is done on South Georgia, Marion Island, Crozet Islands
Crozet Islands
The Crozet Islands are a sub-antarctic archipelago of small islands in the southern Indian Ocean. They form one of the five administrative districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.-Geography:...
, Terre Adélie, and Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it has formed part of the Australian state of Tasmania since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a world heritage...
.Gough Island
Gough Island
Gough Island , also known historically as Gonçalo Álvares or Diego Alvarez, is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha and part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha...
has had 2 censuses in the last decade.
Continued monitoring and surveys at major breeding sites have been proposed, as well as researching movement and migration
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
. Finally continued promotion of "best-practice mitigation measures" via existing methods outlined in CCAMLR, CMS
Conservation management system
A conservation management system is a procedure for maintaining a species or habitat in a particular state. It is a means whereby humankind secures wildlife in a favourable condition for contemplation, education or research, in perpetuity. It is an important topic in cultural ecology, where...
, and FAO
Fão
Fão is a town in Esposende Municipality in Portugal....
.