.gif)
Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
Encyclopedia
The Second Constitutional Era (ايکنجى مشروطيت دورى İkinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri) of the Ottoman Empire
began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid II restored the constitutional monarchy
after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution
. The period established many political groups. A series of elections during this period resulted in the gradual ascendance of the Committee of Union and Progress
's ("CUP") domination in politics. The second biggest party Liberal Union (Ottoman Empire)
("LU") (Turkish: Hürriyet ve İtilâf) was in fact a coalition of parties led by Prince Sabahaddin. The constitutional era ended after World War I
with the Occupation of Istanbul on 13 November 1918. The last meeting on March 18 produced a letter of protest to the Allies, and a black cloth covered the pulpit of the Parliament as reminder of its absent members.
The Young Turk Revolution
which began in the Balkan
provinces spread quickly throughout the empire and resulted in the Sultan announcing the restoration of the 1876 constitution and reconvening the parliament on 3 July 1908.
The reason behind the revolt, still localized at that stage, had been the Sultan’s heavily oppressive policies (istibdâd as marked by contemporaries, although many were to express longings for his old-fashioned despotism
a few years into the new regime), which were based on a vast array of spies (hafiye), as well as constant interventions by the European powers to the point of endangering the Empire's sovereignty.
of the First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
that had prevailed in 1876. Since the sultan declared never having officially closed the first Ottoman Parliament at the restoration of constitutionalism the former parliamentarians (those still available) who had gathered 33 years before suddenly found themselves representing the people again. The parliament consisted of two chambers, a Senate (Upper House), nominated by the Sultan, and a Chamber of Deputies (Council of the House of Representatives – Lower House), elected by the people, in the ratio of one member for every fifty thousand males of the population over the age of twenty-five paying taxes.
Senators, on the other hand, were nominated by the Sultan; their number must not exceed a third of that composing the Lower Chamber, and these members of the Ottoman Senate, holding office for life, must be over forty years of age. General elections were to take place every four years. The general elector did not, however, vote directly for the Deputy he desired to represent him in Parliament. In each of the fifteen electoral districts, the registered voters were entitled to choose delegates in the proportion of one to every 500 of the voters, and these delegates (elected Administrative Councils) had the actual power of choosing the Parliamentary representatives. Moreover, the administration of territories was entrusted to elected Administrative Councils. Those Councils were elected and existed in the provinces, districts, and sub-districts.
The parliament convened after the revolution only briefly and rather symbolically. The only task they performed was to call a new election. In the first Parliament, the President of the Chamber of Deputies was a Deputy from Jerusalem, Yusif Dia Pasha Al Khalidi
.
The new parliament comprised 142 Turks
, 60 Arabs, 25 Albanians, 23 Greeks, 12 Armenians (including four Dashnaks and two Hunchaks), 5 Jews, 4 Bulgarians, 3 Serbs
and 1 Vlach
in the elections of 1908. The CUP could count on the support of about 60 deputies. The CUP, the main driving force behind the revolution, managed to gain the upper hand against LU. LU was liberal in outlook, bearing a strong British
imprint, and closer to the Palace. CUP come as the biggest party among a fragmented parliament by only 60 of the 275 seats.
On 30 January 1909, the minister of the interior, Huseyin Hilmi Pasha
, took the podium to answer an inquiry sponsored by both Muslims and non-Muslims, all but one of whom were from cities in the Balkans. It was about how the government would deal with what these deputies called lacking of the law and order; the rise of assassinations and armed assaults; the roaming of bandits. Ethnic and sectarian violence between various communities in the empire was costing both lives and resources. This was an important event as the newly established system was passing the first test regarding the "proper" parliamentary conduct. There were members of various diplomatic missions among the audience. The new constitution secured the freedom of the press, newspapermen and other guests were observing the proceedings. The first section of the protocol (minister's speech, deputies oppositions) achieved. However arguments began to break out between deputies and soon all decorum was cast aside, the verbal struggle was representation of the ethnic troubles plaguing the empire. The interchanges were performed along the nationalism lines among the non-Muslim deputies, according to their ethnic and religious origins, and of Ottomanism
as a response to these competing ideologies.
in constitutional and parliamentary government. After nine months into the new parliamentary term, discontent and reaction found expression in a fundamentalist movement named as Countercoup (1909)
.
Countercoup faced with the counter-revolutionary 31 March Incident
. According to Ottoman calendar 31 March Incident actually occurred on 13 April 1909. Many aspects of 31 March Incident, that started within certain sections of the mutinying army in Istanbul, are still yet to be analyzed.
The Chamber of Deputies met in secret session two days later, voted unanimously for the deposition of Abdulhamit II. His younger brother become the new Sultan. Hilmi Pasha again became grand vizier, but resigned on the 5th of December 1909, when he was succeeded by Hakki Bey.
The new constitution banned all secret societies. Parliament was prorogued for three months on the 27th. During the recess the CUP met at Salonica
and modified its own rules. CUP ceased to be a secret association. This was regarded as an expression of confidence in the reformed parliament, which had laid the foundation of the important financial and administrative reforms.
For most the new changes in constitution was received as a state of enlightenment and prosperity. However if this parliament was able to render the capability of self governing was in question. The mighty statesmanship of governing the Empire was required from them.
-_ottoman_parlementers.png)
Tensions and clashes arose between Zionist colonists and Palestinian farmers
near Nazareth. A Palestinian deputy from Jaffa raised the Zionist issue for the first time in Ottoman parliament.
Once in power, the CUP introduced a number of new initiatives intended to promote the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. CUP advocated a program of orderly reform under a strong central government, as well as the exclusion of all foreign influence. CUP promoted industrialization and administrative reforms. Administrative reforms of provincial administration quickly led to a higher degree of centralization.
Although the CUP collaborated with the LU, their respective goals contrasted strongly. LU favored administrative decentralization and European assistance to implement reforms and also promoted industrialization. In addition, the CUP implemented the secularization of the legal system and provided subsidies for the education of women, and altered the administrative structure of the state-operated primary schools. The new parliament sought to modernize the Empire's communications and transportation networks, trying at the same time not to put themselves in the hands of European conglomerates and non-Muslim bankers.
Germany and Italy already owned the paltry Ottoman railways (5,991 km of single-track railroads in the whole of the Ottoman dominions in 1914) and since 1881 administration of the defaulted Ottoman foreign debt had been in European hands. The Ottoman Empire was virtually an economic colony.
Towards the end of 1911, the opposition gathered around the re-organized LU seemed on the rise. A by-election in December 1911 (actually covering a single constituency) in which the Liberal Union candidate won was taken as a confirmation of a new political atmosphere and its repercussions were extensive. By 1912, the Committee of Union and Progress had been in power for four years.
On 5 August 1912, due to the situation of emergency created by the First Balkan War
, the Parliament was closed.
The LU government with Mehmed Kamil Pasha as the Grand Vizer was overthrown in a coup d'état engineered by CUP leaders Ahmet Cemal Pasha and Ismail Enver Pasha. On 23 January 1913, Enver Pasha burst with some of his associates into the Sublime Porte while the cabinet was in session. Yakup Cemil shot the Minister of War Nazım Pasha. A new CUP-led government was formed, headed by Mahmud Şevket Pasha
. The primary reason for the coup had been the disastrous fortunes of the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars
.
Mahmud Şevket Pasha was assassinated on 11 June 1913. He was succeeded by Said Halim Pasha
.
, Ottoman Empire became an entity with two major constituents; namely Turks and Arabs. In the new framework, the percentage of representatives from Arab provinces increased from 23% (1908) to 27%, Turkomans 14% (1908) to 22% and in total CUP members from 39% (1908) to 67%.
Interestingly, in this new consolidated structure minority issues, such as those affecting the Armenians, dominated mainstream politics. Armenian
politicians were supporting the CUP, but when the parliament was formed the result was very different from the expected one. The Balkan wars had significantly shifted from a multiethnic and multireligious Ottoman Empire to a Muslim core. The size of the CUP's majority in parliament proved to be a source of weakness rather than strength as minorities became outsiders. The deported Muslims (Turks) from the Balkans were located in the western parts of Anatolia and they brought their own issues. Armenians were expecting more representation through the parliament, but the nature of democracy kept them in a minority position. That was an unexpected result for the Armenians after they had been in a very protected position since 1453.
In 1913, politics in Istanbul was centred around trying to find a solution to the demands of Arab and Armenian
reformist groups. 19th century politics of Ottoman Empire dealt with the decentralist demands of the Balkan nations. In 1913, the same pattern was originating from the eastern provinces. With most of the Christian population having already left the Empire after the Balkan Wars
, a redefinition of Ottoman politics was in place with a greater emphasis on Islam as a binding force. The choice of this policy should also be considered as external forces (imperialists) were Christians. It was a policy of "them against us".
In 1913, the CUP was trying to govern through populist politics. To gain more legitimacy among the population the CUP propagated an Islamic propaganda effort with anti-imperialist rhetoric. All around the Empire CUP
clubs were springing up. The CUP
was challenging traditional forces; this proved to be the source of its destruction.
and of Libya
for the Ottoman Empire and despite the single-party regime instaured by the CUP, the Ottoman ethnic minorities were going to be represented at similar proportions during the 1914-1918 term of the Ottoman Parliament, with 11 Armenians and a dozen Greeks being elected as deputies and having served in that capacity.
New elections in a single-party framework were held in 1914 and the CUP gained all constituencies. The effective power lay in the hands of Mehmed Talat Pasha
, the Interior Minister, Enver Pasha, the Minister of War, and Cemal Pasha, the Minister of the Navy, till 1918. Talat Pasha became the grand vizier himself in 1917.
Declaration of War, 1914
A fraction within the CUP led the Ottoman Empire to make a secret Ottoman–German Alliance which brought it into World War I
. The Empire's role as an ally of the Central Powers
is part of the history of that war. With the collapse of Bulgaria
and Germany's capitulation, the Ottoman Empire was isolated.
by the Allies.
was signed aboard a British battleship in the Aegean Sea
at the end of the month. On November 2, Enver, Talat and Cemal escaped from İstanbul
into exile.
, opened the fourth (and last) term of the Parliament on 12 January 1920.
(National Oath).
In practical terms, the meeting of March 18 was the end of the Ottoman parliamentarian system and of the Parliament itself, the noble symbol of a generation's quest for "eternal freedom" (hürriyet-i ebediye) for which men had sacrificed themselves. The British move on the Parliament had left the Sultan as the sole tangible authority in the Empire. The Sultan announced his own version of the declaration of the Parliament's dissolution on April 11. About a hundred Ottoman politicians were sent to exile in Malta
(see Malta exiles
).
More than a hundred of the remaining members soon took the passage to Ankara and formed the core of the new assembly. On April 5, the sultan Mehmed VI
Vahdeddin, under the pressure of the Allies, closed the Ottoman Parliament officially.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
began shortly after Sultan Abdülhamid II restored the constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, marking the onset of the Second Constitutional Era...
. The period established many political groups. A series of elections during this period resulted in the gradual ascendance of the Committee of Union and Progress
Committee of Union and Progress
The Committee of Union and Progress began as a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" in 1889 by the medical students İbrahim Temo, Abdullah Cevdet, İshak Sükuti and Ali Hüseyinzade...
's ("CUP") domination in politics. The second biggest party Liberal Union (Ottoman Empire)
Liberal Union (Ottoman Empire)
Liberal Union was the second biggest party in the Ottoman parliament of 1909. It had managed to organize covering most of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire...
("LU") (Turkish: Hürriyet ve İtilâf) was in fact a coalition of parties led by Prince Sabahaddin. The constitutional era ended after World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
with the Occupation of Istanbul on 13 November 1918. The last meeting on March 18 produced a letter of protest to the Allies, and a black cloth covered the pulpit of the Parliament as reminder of its absent members.
Restoration
Young Turk Revolution
The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, marking the onset of the Second Constitutional Era...
which began in the Balkan
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
provinces spread quickly throughout the empire and resulted in the Sultan announcing the restoration of the 1876 constitution and reconvening the parliament on 3 July 1908.
The reason behind the revolt, still localized at that stage, had been the Sultan’s heavily oppressive policies (istibdâd as marked by contemporaries, although many were to express longings for his old-fashioned despotism
Despotism
Despotism is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. That entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, as in an oligarchy...
a few years into the new regime), which were based on a vast array of spies (hafiye), as well as constant interventions by the European powers to the point of endangering the Empire's sovereignty.
Constitution of 1876
The legal framework was that of Kanûn-ı EsâsîKanûn-i Esâsî
The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire. Written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II , the constitution was only in effect for two years, from 1876 to 1878.A large part of the reason for the...
of the First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)
The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî , written by members of the Young Ottomans, on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878...
that had prevailed in 1876. Since the sultan declared never having officially closed the first Ottoman Parliament at the restoration of constitutionalism the former parliamentarians (those still available) who had gathered 33 years before suddenly found themselves representing the people again. The parliament consisted of two chambers, a Senate (Upper House), nominated by the Sultan, and a Chamber of Deputies (Council of the House of Representatives – Lower House), elected by the people, in the ratio of one member for every fifty thousand males of the population over the age of twenty-five paying taxes.
Senators, on the other hand, were nominated by the Sultan; their number must not exceed a third of that composing the Lower Chamber, and these members of the Ottoman Senate, holding office for life, must be over forty years of age. General elections were to take place every four years. The general elector did not, however, vote directly for the Deputy he desired to represent him in Parliament. In each of the fifteen electoral districts, the registered voters were entitled to choose delegates in the proportion of one to every 500 of the voters, and these delegates (elected Administrative Councils) had the actual power of choosing the Parliamentary representatives. Moreover, the administration of territories was entrusted to elected Administrative Councils. Those Councils were elected and existed in the provinces, districts, and sub-districts.
The parliament convened after the revolution only briefly and rather symbolically. The only task they performed was to call a new election. In the first Parliament, the President of the Chamber of Deputies was a Deputy from Jerusalem, Yusif Dia Pasha Al Khalidi
Yousef al-Khalidi
Yusuf Dia Pasha al-Khalidi was a prominent Palestinian who played a major political role in the Ottoman Empire dominance period. He was born in 1829 in Jerusalem....
.
First term, 1908
Turkish people
Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" , are an ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Romania...
, 60 Arabs, 25 Albanians, 23 Greeks, 12 Armenians (including four Dashnaks and two Hunchaks), 5 Jews, 4 Bulgarians, 3 Serbs
Serbs
The Serbs are a South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs are located mainly in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form a sizable minority in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in...
and 1 Vlach
Vlachs
Vlach is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinised population in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe. English variations on the name include: Walla, Wlachs, Wallachs, Vlahs, Olahs or Ulahs...
in the elections of 1908. The CUP could count on the support of about 60 deputies. The CUP, the main driving force behind the revolution, managed to gain the upper hand against LU. LU was liberal in outlook, bearing a strong British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
imprint, and closer to the Palace. CUP come as the biggest party among a fragmented parliament by only 60 of the 275 seats.
On 30 January 1909, the minister of the interior, Huseyin Hilmi Pasha
Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha
Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha was a statesman and twice Grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the Second Constitutional Era and was also Co-founder and Head of the Turkish Red Crescent...
, took the podium to answer an inquiry sponsored by both Muslims and non-Muslims, all but one of whom were from cities in the Balkans. It was about how the government would deal with what these deputies called lacking of the law and order; the rise of assassinations and armed assaults; the roaming of bandits. Ethnic and sectarian violence between various communities in the empire was costing both lives and resources. This was an important event as the newly established system was passing the first test regarding the "proper" parliamentary conduct. There were members of various diplomatic missions among the audience. The new constitution secured the freedom of the press, newspapermen and other guests were observing the proceedings. The first section of the protocol (minister's speech, deputies oppositions) achieved. However arguments began to break out between deputies and soon all decorum was cast aside, the verbal struggle was representation of the ethnic troubles plaguing the empire. The interchanges were performed along the nationalism lines among the non-Muslim deputies, according to their ethnic and religious origins, and of Ottomanism
Ottomanism
Ottomanism was a concept which developed prior to the First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire. Its proponents believed that it could solve the social issues that the empire was facing. Ottomanism was highly affected by thinkers such as Montesquieu and Rousseau and the French Revolution. It...
as a response to these competing ideologies.
March Incident, April 1909
But shortly events of a startling nature occurred, which seemed to mean the abrupt termination of this experimentin constitutional and parliamentary government. After nine months into the new parliamentary term, discontent and reaction found expression in a fundamentalist movement named as Countercoup (1909)
Countercoup (1909)
The Countercoup of 1909 was an attempt to dismantle the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire and replace it with a monarchy under Sultan Abdul Hamid II...
.
Countercoup faced with the counter-revolutionary 31 March Incident
31 March Incident
The 31 March Incident was a 1909 rebellion of reactionaries in İstanbul against the restoration of constitutional monarchy that had taken place in 1908. It took place on 13 April 1909...
. According to Ottoman calendar 31 March Incident actually occurred on 13 April 1909. Many aspects of 31 March Incident, that started within certain sections of the mutinying army in Istanbul, are still yet to be analyzed.
The Chamber of Deputies met in secret session two days later, voted unanimously for the deposition of Abdulhamit II. His younger brother become the new Sultan. Hilmi Pasha again became grand vizier, but resigned on the 5th of December 1909, when he was succeeded by Hakki Bey.
Constitutional Revision, August 1909
The CUP was again in power. Holding that the "Countercoup" had been inspired and organized by the Sultan, who had corrupted the troops so that he might restore the old regime, they resolved to terminate his rule. However, there is very little evidence to show that Abdulhamid actually organised the 1909 counter-coup. This was achieved by removing the powers of the Sultan from the constitution and removing him from the throne. This brought the parliament's powers being consolidated and increased as a result of these changes.The new constitution banned all secret societies. Parliament was prorogued for three months on the 27th. During the recess the CUP met at Salonica
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki , historically also known as Thessalonica, Salonika or Salonica, is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the region of Central Macedonia as well as the capital of the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace...
and modified its own rules. CUP ceased to be a secret association. This was regarded as an expression of confidence in the reformed parliament, which had laid the foundation of the important financial and administrative reforms.
For most the new changes in constitution was received as a state of enlightenment and prosperity. However if this parliament was able to render the capability of self governing was in question. The mighty statesmanship of governing the Empire was required from them.
Policies
Zionist and Palestinian Arab attitudes before 1948
As used here, "Zionists" refers to members of the movement for a "Jewish Homeland" in Palestine, and "Palestinian Arabs" refers to the non-Jewish population of Palestine at the same time...
near Nazareth. A Palestinian deputy from Jaffa raised the Zionist issue for the first time in Ottoman parliament.
Once in power, the CUP introduced a number of new initiatives intended to promote the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. CUP advocated a program of orderly reform under a strong central government, as well as the exclusion of all foreign influence. CUP promoted industrialization and administrative reforms. Administrative reforms of provincial administration quickly led to a higher degree of centralization.
Although the CUP collaborated with the LU, their respective goals contrasted strongly. LU favored administrative decentralization and European assistance to implement reforms and also promoted industrialization. In addition, the CUP implemented the secularization of the legal system and provided subsidies for the education of women, and altered the administrative structure of the state-operated primary schools. The new parliament sought to modernize the Empire's communications and transportation networks, trying at the same time not to put themselves in the hands of European conglomerates and non-Muslim bankers.
Germany and Italy already owned the paltry Ottoman railways (5,991 km of single-track railroads in the whole of the Ottoman dominions in 1914) and since 1881 administration of the defaulted Ottoman foreign debt had been in European hands. The Ottoman Empire was virtually an economic colony.
Towards the end of 1911, the opposition gathered around the re-organized LU seemed on the rise. A by-election in December 1911 (actually covering a single constituency) in which the Liberal Union candidate won was taken as a confirmation of a new political atmosphere and its repercussions were extensive. By 1912, the Committee of Union and Progress had been in power for four years.
Second term, 1912
The CUP then sought national elections before the things slipped out of the party's control, as they perceived. In the two-party general elections held in the spring of 1912. The CUP wins an overwhelming majority in fresh elections held in April. Military losses to Italy see its support quickly dwindle. The CUP still had the upper hand in the Parliament. But with the Balkan countries preparing to launch a war against the Ottoman Empire. Many deputies owing allegiance to those countries. The Parliament that opened proved unworkable. In July it is forced to yield office to a political coalition called the Liberal Union.On 5 August 1912, due to the situation of emergency created by the First Balkan War
First Balkan War
The First Balkan War, which lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, pitted the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success...
, the Parliament was closed.
Coup of 1913
Mahmud Sevket Pasha
Mahmud Shevket Pasha was an Ottoman general and statesman of Arab and Georgian descent. Some sources also note Chechen or Circassian ancestry. He was born in Baghdad where he finished his primary education before going on to the Military Academy in Constantinople. He joined the army in 1882 as...
. The primary reason for the coup had been the disastrous fortunes of the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.By the early 20th century, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia, the countries of the Balkan League, had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic...
.
Mahmud Şevket Pasha was assassinated on 11 June 1913. He was succeeded by Said Halim Pasha
Said Halim Pasha
Said Halim Pasha , Ottoman Empire Grand Vizier from 1913-17. Born in Cairo, Egypt, he was the grandson of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, "founder of modern Egypt". The "Pasha" in his name is an honorific that translates in English to "Lord", or "Lord Said Halim".He was one of the signers in Ottoman-German...
.
Policies
After the Balkan WarsBalkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.By the early 20th century, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia, the countries of the Balkan League, had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic...
, Ottoman Empire became an entity with two major constituents; namely Turks and Arabs. In the new framework, the percentage of representatives from Arab provinces increased from 23% (1908) to 27%, Turkomans 14% (1908) to 22% and in total CUP members from 39% (1908) to 67%.
Interestingly, in this new consolidated structure minority issues, such as those affecting the Armenians, dominated mainstream politics. Armenian
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian...
politicians were supporting the CUP, but when the parliament was formed the result was very different from the expected one. The Balkan wars had significantly shifted from a multiethnic and multireligious Ottoman Empire to a Muslim core. The size of the CUP's majority in parliament proved to be a source of weakness rather than strength as minorities became outsiders. The deported Muslims (Turks) from the Balkans were located in the western parts of Anatolia and they brought their own issues. Armenians were expecting more representation through the parliament, but the nature of democracy kept them in a minority position. That was an unexpected result for the Armenians after they had been in a very protected position since 1453.
In 1913, politics in Istanbul was centred around trying to find a solution to the demands of Arab and Armenian
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
The Armenian Revolutionary Federation is an Armenian political party founded in Tiflis in 1890 by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian...
reformist groups. 19th century politics of Ottoman Empire dealt with the decentralist demands of the Balkan nations. In 1913, the same pattern was originating from the eastern provinces. With most of the Christian population having already left the Empire after the Balkan Wars
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.By the early 20th century, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia, the countries of the Balkan League, had achieved their independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large parts of their ethnic...
, a redefinition of Ottoman politics was in place with a greater emphasis on Islam as a binding force. The choice of this policy should also be considered as external forces (imperialists) were Christians. It was a policy of "them against us".
In 1913, the CUP was trying to govern through populist politics. To gain more legitimacy among the population the CUP propagated an Islamic propaganda effort with anti-imperialist rhetoric. All around the Empire CUP
Committee of Union and Progress
The Committee of Union and Progress began as a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" in 1889 by the medical students İbrahim Temo, Abdullah Cevdet, İshak Sükuti and Ali Hüseyinzade...
clubs were springing up. The CUP
Committee of Union and Progress
The Committee of Union and Progress began as a secret society established as the "Committee of Ottoman Union" in 1889 by the medical students İbrahim Temo, Abdullah Cevdet, İshak Sükuti and Ali Hüseyinzade...
was challenging traditional forces; this proved to be the source of its destruction.
Third term, 1914 - 1918
Taking account of the loss of the BalkansBalkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
and of Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
for the Ottoman Empire and despite the single-party regime instaured by the CUP, the Ottoman ethnic minorities were going to be represented at similar proportions during the 1914-1918 term of the Ottoman Parliament, with 11 Armenians and a dozen Greeks being elected as deputies and having served in that capacity.
New elections in a single-party framework were held in 1914 and the CUP gained all constituencies. The effective power lay in the hands of Mehmed Talat Pasha
Mehmed Talat Pasha
Talaat Pasha Talaat Pasha Talaat Pasha (also transliterated as Tala'at Pasha or Talat Pasha was one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress that controlled the Ottoman Empire during the First World War.He was born in Edirne Vilayet. He was of Pomak descent...
, the Interior Minister, Enver Pasha, the Minister of War, and Cemal Pasha, the Minister of the Navy, till 1918. Talat Pasha became the grand vizier himself in 1917.
Declaration of War, 1914
A fraction within the CUP led the Ottoman Empire to make a secret Ottoman–German Alliance which brought it into World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
. The Empire's role as an ally of the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
is part of the history of that war. With the collapse of Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Bulgaria , officially the Republic of Bulgaria , is a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic in Southeast Europe. The country borders Romania to the north, Serbia and Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south, as well as the Black Sea to the east...
and Germany's capitulation, the Ottoman Empire was isolated.
Fourth term, 1919
The last term elections were performed under the military Occupation of İstanbulOccupation of Istanbul
The Occupation of Constantinople was the occupation of the capital of the Ottoman Empire by the Triple Entente, following the Armistice of Mudros which ended Ottoman participation in the First World War. The first French troops entered the city on November 12, 1918, followed by British troops the...
by the Allies.
End of CUP, 1919
On October 13, 1918, Talat and the CUP ministry resigned, and the Armistice of MudrosArmistice of Mudros
The Armistice of Moudros , concluded on 30 October 1918, ended the hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I...
was signed aboard a British battleship in the Aegean Sea
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea[p] is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus...
at the end of the month. On November 2, Enver, Talat and Cemal escaped from İstanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
into exile.
Occupation issues, January 1920
The last elections for the Ottoman Parliament were held in December 1919. The newly elected 140 members of the Ottoman Parliament, composed in their sweeping majority of candidates of "Association for Defense of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia (Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti)", headed by Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who himself remained in AnkaraAnkara
Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after Istanbul. The city has a mean elevation of , and as of 2010 the metropolitan area in the entire Ankara Province had a population of 4.4 million....
, opened the fourth (and last) term of the Parliament on 12 January 1920.
National Oath, February 1920
Despite being short-lived and the exceptional conditions, this last assembly took a number of important decisions that are called Misak-ı MilliMisak-i Millî
Misak-ı Millî is the set of six important decisions made by the last term of the Ottoman Parliament. Parliament met on 28 January 1920 and published their decisions on 12 February 1920...
(National Oath).
Dissolution, March 1920
On the night of March 15 British troops began to occupy the key buildings and arrested five parliament members. The 10th division and military music school resisted the arrest. At least 10 students died under the gunfire of the British Indian army. The total death toll is unknown. Nevertheless, on March 18, the Ottoman parliamentarian came together in a last meeting. A black cloth covered the pulpit of the Parliament as reminder of its absent members and the Parliament sent a letter of protest to the Allies, declaring the arrest of five of its members as unacceptable.In practical terms, the meeting of March 18 was the end of the Ottoman parliamentarian system and of the Parliament itself, the noble symbol of a generation's quest for "eternal freedom" (hürriyet-i ebediye) for which men had sacrificed themselves. The British move on the Parliament had left the Sultan as the sole tangible authority in the Empire. The Sultan announced his own version of the declaration of the Parliament's dissolution on April 11. About a hundred Ottoman politicians were sent to exile in Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
(see Malta exiles
Malta exiles
Malta exiles is the term for politicians, high ranking soldiers , administrators and intellectuals of the Ottoman Empire who were sent into exile on Malta after the armistice of Mudros during the Occupation of İstanbul by the Allied forces...
).
More than a hundred of the remaining members soon took the passage to Ankara and formed the core of the new assembly. On April 5, the sultan Mehmed VI
Mehmed VI
Mehmet VI was the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1918 to 1922...
Vahdeddin, under the pressure of the Allies, closed the Ottoman Parliament officially.