Polish minority in Lithuania - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

The Polish minority in Lithuania numbered 234,989 persons, according to the Lithuanian census of 2001, or 6.74% of the total population of Lithuania

Lithuania

Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...

. It is the largest ethnic minority

Minority group

A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...

in the country and the second largest Polish diaspora group among the post-Soviet states

Post-Soviet states

The post-Soviet states, also commonly known as the Former Soviet Union or former Soviet republics, are the 15 independent states that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in its dissolution in December 1991...

. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius Region

Vilnius region

Vilnius Region , refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania, that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time,...

.

People of Polish ethnicity have lived in the territory of modern Lithuania for many centuries. The relationship between the two groups has been long and complex. Their countries were united during the era of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...

, but both nations lost their independence after the Partitions of Poland

Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...

in the late 18th century. Both nations regained their independence in the wake of World War I

World War I

World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...

, but hostilities

Polish-Lithuanian War

The Polish–Lithuanian War was an armed conflict between newly independent Lithuania and Poland in the aftermath of World War I. The conflict primarily concerned territorial control of the Vilnius Region, including Vilnius , and the Suwałki Region, including the towns of Suwałki, Augustów, and Sejny...

over the ownership of Vilnius

Vilnius

Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...

and the surrounding region broke out in 1920. The disputes became politically moot after the Soviet Union

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....

exercised its authority over both countries during and immediately after World War II

World War II

World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...

. Some tensions over the Vilnius Region resurfaced after Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, but have since remained at manageable levels. Poland was highly supportive of Lithuanian independence, and became one of the first countries to recognise independent Lithuania, despite apprehensions over Lithuania's treatment of its Polish minority.

Statistics

According to the Lithuanian census of 2001, the Polish minority in Lithuania numbered 234,989 persons, or 6.74% of the population of Lithuania. It is the largest ethnic minority in modern Lithuania, the second largest being the Russian minority. Poles are concentrated in the Vilnius region

Vilnius region

. The vast majority of Poles live in Vilnius county

Vilnius County

Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...

(216,012 people, or 26% of the county's population); Vilnius

Vilnius

, the capital of Lithuania, has 101,526 Poles, or 19.3% of the city's population. Especially large Polish communities are found in Vilnius district municipality

Vilnius district municipality

Vilnius district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania. It surrounds the capital on 3 sides, and the Trakai district municipality touches it on one....

(61.3% of the population) and Šalčininkai (Soleczniki) district municipality

Šalcininkai district municipality

Šalčininkai district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania.It has one of biggest Polish minority populations in Lithuania, with 31,223 or over 80% of the population claiming Polish ethnicity. Šalčininkai is the largest town in and the center of the region.-References:...

(79.5%).

Lithuanian municipalities with Polish minority exceeding 1% of the total population (according to the 2001 census) are listed in the table below:

Ethnic Poles in Lithuania according to the 2001 Lithuanian census
Municipality name	County	Total population	Number of ethnic Poles	Percentage
Druskininkai municipality	Alytus Alytus County Alytus County is one of ten counties in Lithuania. It is the southernmost county, and its capital is the city of Alytus. Its territory lies within the ethnographic region of Dzūkija...	25,440	995	3.9%
Varėna district municipality Varena district municipality Varėna district municipality is a municipality in southern Lithuania, Alytus County.- History :Along with Vilnius region, a large part of Varėna district municipality was on the Polish side of not-mutually recognized border during the interwar period. This was mainly due the strategic Warsaw –...	Alytus Alytus County Alytus County is one of ten counties in Lithuania. It is the southernmost county, and its capital is the city of Alytus. Its territory lies within the ethnographic region of Dzūkija...	31,137	2,067	6.6%
Jonava district municipality Jonava district municipality - Elderships :BukonysDumsiaiJonavaKulvaRuklaŠilaiUpninkaiUžusaliaiŽeimiai- Structure :District structure: 1 city – Jonava;* 3 towns – Panoteriai, Rukla and Žeimiai;* 277 villages.Biggest population :* Jonava – 34954* Rukla – 2376...	Kaunas Kaunas County Kaunas County is one of ten counties of Lithuania. It is in the centre of the country, and its capital is Kaunas...	52,289	713	1.4%
Kaišiadorys district municipality Kaišiadorys district municipality Kaišiadorys district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania.-External links:* Žasliai is in Kaišiadorys District...	Kaunas Kaunas County Kaunas County is one of ten counties of Lithuania. It is in the centre of the country, and its capital is Kaunas...	37,649	374	1.0%
Ignalina district municipality Ignalina district municipality - Structure :District structure:* 2 cities – Dūkštas and Ignalina;* 3 towns – Mielagėnai, Rimšė and Tverečius;* 726 villages.Largest population :Ignalina – 6591Didžiasalis – 1744Vidiškės – 1084Dūkštas – 1070Kazitiškis – 383Strigailiškis – 334...	Utena Utena County Utena County is one of ten counties in Lithuania. It is the most sparsely-populated county in Lithuania. The capital and the largest city in the county is Utena, which is located from Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania...	23,018	1,908	8.3%
Molėtai district municipality Moletai district municipality The Molėtai district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania.Molėtai is known for its many lakes. There are about 220 lakes in the district and they cover about 7% of the total territory. Since it is only about 60 km north of Vilnius, many Vilnians own summer homes there. The area...	Utena Utena County Utena County is one of ten counties in Lithuania. It is the most sparsely-populated county in Lithuania. The capital and the largest city in the county is Utena, which is located from Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania...	25,387	2,053	8.1%
Zarasai district municipality Zarasai district municipality Zarasai district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania. It borders with Latvia and Belarus.-Population:The district has two cities: Zarasai and Dukstai, three small towns : Antalieptė, Salakas, and Turmantas]] and about 800 rural settlements .-Geography and attractions:30% of the...	Utena Utena County Utena County is one of ten counties in Lithuania. It is the most sparsely-populated county in Lithuania. The capital and the largest city in the county is Utena, which is located from Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania...	22,826	1,518	6.7%
Vilnius city municipality Vilnius city municipality The Vilnius city municipality , is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania. It is in the southeastern part of country, in Vilnius County and consists of the city of Vilnius, the town of Grigiškės and some rural areas.- History :...	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	553,904	104,446	18.9%
— Vilnius Vilnius Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County... proper	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	542,287	101,526	18.7%
Elektrėnai municipality Elektrenai municipality Elektrėnai municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania....	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	28,923	2,175	7.5%
Šalčininkai district municipality Šalcininkai district municipality Šalčininkai district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania.It has one of biggest Polish minority populations in Lithuania, with 31,223 or over 80% of the population claiming Polish ethnicity. Šalčininkai is the largest town in and the center of the region.-References:...	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	39,282	31,223	79.5%
Širvintos district municipality Širvintos district municipality Širvintos district municipality is a municipality in Lithuania, it is in territory of Vilniaus Apskritis and its capital is Širvintos.-Geography:...	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	20,207	2,019	10%
Švenčionys district municipality Švencionys district municipality -Twin towns — Sister cities:Švenčionys district municipality is twinned with the following towns: Świdnica, Poland...	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	33,135	9,098	27.5%
Trakai district municipality Trakai district municipality -History:The Trakai district became significant early in its history due to the Old Trakai Castle built by the Grand Duke Gediminas in the 13th century. Many other castles were built in the area soon after this one, including the Trakai Peninsula Castle and the Trakai Island Castle...	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	37,376	12,403	33.2%
Vilnius district municipality Vilnius district municipality Vilnius district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania. It surrounds the capital on 3 sides, and the Trakai district municipality touches it on one....	Vilnius Vilnius County Vilnius County is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius. On 1 July 2010, the county administration was abolished, and since that date, Vilnius County remains as the territorial and statistical unit.-History:Until the Partitions of...	88,586	54,322	61.3%

Languages

Out of the 234,989 Poles in Lithuania, 187,918 (80.0%) consider the Polish language

Polish language

Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...

to be their mother tongue. 22,439 Poles (9.5%) speak Russian

Russian language

Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...

as their first language, while 17,233 (7.3%) speak Lithuanian

Lithuanian language

Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 170,000 abroad. Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they...

. 6,279 Poles (2.7%) did not indicate their first language. The remaining 0.5% speak various other languages.

Historical demographics

Population with Polish ethnic affiliations within current Lithuanian borders
Census year	1897	1923 est.	1959	1970	1979	1989	2001	2007 est.	2008 est.	2009 est.	2010 est.	2011 est.
Population	260,000	415,000	230,000	240,200	247,000	258,000	235,000	212,100	208,300	205,500	201,500	212,800
Percentage	9.7%	15.3%	8.5%	7.7%	7.3%	7.0%	6.7%	6.3%	6.2%	6.1%	6.0%	6.6%
Percentage of Poles in Lithuania stating Polish as their mother tongue (censuses data)
Census year			1959	1970	1979	1989	2001
Percentage			96.8%	92.4%	88.3%	85.0%	80.0%

Estimates based on the data of the central database of the Residents’ Register Service under the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Lithuania: 201,500 or 6.0 % (2010-01-1) and 212,800 or 6.6 % (2011-01-1). Increase of Poles number and share was was caused by the reduction of so called "not indicated" ethnicity in the Residents’ Register.

Education

Absolute numbers with Polish language education at Lithuanian rural Rural Rural areas or the country or countryside are areas that are not urbanized, though when large areas are described, country towns and smaller cities will be included. They have a low population density, and typically much of the land is devoted to agriculture... schools (1980)
District municipality Municipalities of Lithuania Lithuania is a country, situated in Northern Europe. It is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe and NATO. As of 2010, it had a population of approximately 3.3 million, and an area of . In the 14th century, Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and...	Lithuanian Lithuanian language Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 170,000 abroad. Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they...	Russian Russian language Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...	Polish Polish language Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
Vilnius Vilnius district municipality Vilnius district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania. It surrounds the capital on 3 sides, and the Trakai district municipality touches it on one.... / Wilno	1250	4150	6400
Šalčininkai Šalcininkai district municipality Šalčininkai district municipality is one of 60 municipalities in Lithuania.It has one of biggest Polish minority populations in Lithuania, with 31,223 or over 80% of the population claiming Polish ethnicity. Šalčininkai is the largest town in and the center of the region.-References:... / Soleczniki	500	2050	3200
Švenčionys Švencionys district municipality -Twin towns — Sister cities:Švenčionys district municipality is twinned with the following towns: Świdnica, Poland... / Święciany	1350	600	100
Trakai Trakai district municipality -History:The Trakai district became significant early in its history due to the Old Trakai Castle built by the Grand Duke Gediminas in the 13th century. Many other castles were built in the area soon after this one, including the Trakai Peninsula Castle and the Trakai Island Castle... / Troki	2900	50	950
Varėna Varena district municipality Varėna district municipality is a municipality in southern Lithuania, Alytus County.- History :Along with Vilnius region, a large part of Varėna district municipality was on the Polish side of not-mutually recognized border during the interwar period. This was mainly due the strategic Warsaw –... / Orany	6000	0	50
Širvintos Širvintos district municipality Širvintos district municipality is a municipality in Lithuania, it is in territory of Vilniaus Apskritis and its capital is Širvintos.-Geography:... / Szyrwinty	2400	100	100
Absolute number with Polish language education at Lithuanian urban Urban area An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.Urban areas are created and further... schools was 5 600

As of 1980, about 20% of Polish-Lithuanian students chose Polish as the language of instruction at school. In the same year, about 60-70% of rural Polish community chose Polish. However, even in towns with predominantly Polish population the share of Polish language education was less than the percentage of Poles. Even though, historically, Poles tended to strongly oppose Russification

Russification

Russification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attributes by non-Russian communities...

, one of the most important reasons to choose Russian language education was the absence of Polish language college and university learning in the USSR, and during Soviet times Polish students were not allowed to get college/university education in Poland. Only in 2007, the first small branch of the Polish Białystok University opened in Vilnius. In 1980 there were 16,400 school students instructed in Polish. Their number declined to 11,400 in 1990. In independent Lithuania between 1990 and 2001 the number of Polish mother tongue children attending schools with Polish as the language of instruction doubled to over 22,300, then gradually decreased to 18,392 in 2005.

History

People of Polish ethnicity have lived in Lithuania for many centuries. Many Poles in Lithuania today are the descendants of Polonized Lithuanians or Ruthenians

Ruthenians

The name Ruthenian |Rus']]) is a culturally loaded term and has different meanings according to the context in which it is used. Initially, it was the ethnonym used for the East Slavic peoples who lived in Rus'. Later it was used predominantly for Ukrainians...

. Historically, the number of Poles in modern Lithuanian territory has varied during different periods. Polish culture began to influence the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...

around the time of the Union of Lublin

Union of Lublin

The Union of Lublin replaced the personal union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was...

(16th century), and during the time of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

(1569–1795) much of the Lithuanian nobility was Polonized and joined the Polish-Lithuanian

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

szlachta
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...

class. Reformation

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...

gave another impetus to the spread of the Polish language

Polish language

Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...

, as the Bible

Bible

The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...

and other religious texts were translated from Latin

Latin

Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...

to Polish. In 1697 Polish replaced Ruthenian

Ruthenian language

Ruthenian, or Old Ruthenian , is a term used for the varieties of Eastern Slavonic spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth....

as a chancellery language. In the 19th century peasants of Polish nationality started to appear in Lithuania, mostly by Polonization

Polonization

Polonization was the acquisition or imposition of elements of Polish culture, in particular, Polish language, as experienced in some historic periods by non-Polish populations of territories controlled or substantially influenced by Poland...

of Lithuanian peasants in Dzūkija

Dzukija

Dzūkija or Dainava is one of five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. Dzūkija is a cultural region defined by traditional lifestyles and dialects of the local Lithuanian population and has never been defined as a political or administrative unit...

and to a lesser degree in Aukštaitija

Aukštaitija

Aukštaitija is the name of one of five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. The name comes from the relatively high elevation of the region, particularly the eastern parts.-Geography:...

.

A large portion of the Vilnius area was controlled by the Second Polish Republic

Second Polish Republic

The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...

during the interwar period, particularly the area of the Republic of Central Lithuania

Republic of Central Lithuania

The Republic of Central Lithuania or Middle Lithuania , or simply Central Lithuania , was a short-lived political entity, which did not gain international recognition...

, which had a significant Polish speaking population. For example, the Wilno Voivodeship

Wilno Voivodeship

The Wilno Voivodeship was one of Voivodeships in the Second Polish Republic, with the capital in Wilno. It was created in 1926 and populated predominantly by Poles with notable minorities of Belarusians, Jews, and Lithuanians....

in 1931

Polish census of 1931

The Polish census of 1931 or Second General Census in Poland was the second census taken in Poland, performed on December 9, 1931 by the Main Bureau of Statistics...

contained 59.7% Polish speakers and only 5.2% Lithuanian speakers; see Ethnic history of the region of Vilnius

Ethnic history of the region of Vilnius

Following is a list of censuses that have been taken in the city of Vilnius and its region since 1897. The list is incomplete. Data are at times fragmentary.-Ethnic and national background:...

for details. From 1918 to 1921 there were several conflicts, such as the activity of the Polish Military Organization, Sejny uprising

Sejny Uprising

The Sejny Uprising or Seinai Revolt refers to a Polish uprising in the ethnically-mixed area surrounding Sejny against the Lithuanian authorities in August 1919. When German forces, which occupied the territory during World War I, retreated from the area, the administration was handed to the...

(that was met with massive outrage in Lithuania) and a discovered attempt at a Polish coup on the Lithuanian government. From the documents stolen from Polish Military Organization headquarters safe in Vilnius

Vilnius

and given to Prime Minister of Lithuania

Prime Minister of Lithuania

The Prime Minister of Lithuania is the head of the executive arm of Lithuania's government, and is chosen by the Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas. The modern office of Prime Minister was established in 1990, although the official title was "Chairperson of the Council of Ministers" until 25...

Augustinas Voldemaras

Augustinas Voldemaras was a Lithuanian nationalist political figure. He served as the country's first Prime Minister in 1918, and again from 1926 to 1929.- Biography :...

, it is clear that this plot was directed by Józef Piłsudski himself. The Polish-Lithuanian War

Polish-Lithuanian War

and Żeligowski's Mutiny

Zeligowski's Mutiny

Żeligowski's Mutiny was a sham mutiny led by Polish General Lucjan Żeligowski in October 1920, which resulted in the creation of the short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania. Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski had surreptitiously ordered Żeligowski to carry out the operation, and revealed the...

contributed to a worsening of Polish-Lithuanian relations; increasingly Polish people were viewed with suspicion in Lithuania. The loss of Vilnius was a stunning blow to Lithuanian aspirations and identity, and the unrelenting irredentist demand for its return became one of the most important elements of Lithuanian political and social life in the interwar period. The irredentist campaign resulted in the emergence of feelings of hatred and revenge directed against the Poles in the Lithuanian society. In fact, the largest social organization in interwar Lithuania was the League for the Liberation of Vilnius (Vilniaus Vadavimo Sąjunga, or VVS), which propagated irredentist views in its magazine "Our Vilnius" (Mūsų Vilnius)."

Hence, in the interwar period, the Polish minority was persecuted by the administration of independent Lithuania. The Lithuanian census of 1923

Lithuanian census of 1923

The Lithuanian census of 1923 was performed between September 17 and September 23, several years after Lithuania re-established its independence in 1918. It was mandated by the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania in 1922. The census counted the total population of 2,028,971...

showed that Poles constituted 65,600 Lithuania inhabitants (3.2% of total population). In interwar Lithuania, people declaring Polish ethnicity were officially described as Polonized

Polonization

Lithuanians who merely needed to be re-Lithuanized

Lithuanization

Lithuanization is a process of cultural assimilation - adoption, either forced or voluntary, of Lithuanian culture or language, experienced by non-Lithuanian people or groups of people.- History :...

, Polish-owned land was confistacted, and Polish religious services, schools, publications, and voting rights were restricted.

During the WWII expulsions and shortly after the war, the Soviet Union

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....

, during its struggle to establish the People's Republic of Poland

People's Republic of Poland

The People's Republic of Poland was the official name of Poland from 1952 to 1990. Although the Soviet Union took control of the country immediately after the liberation from Nazi Germany in 1944, the name of the state was not changed until eight years later...

, forcibly resettled many Poles, who lived in the Lithuanian SSR

Lithuanian SSR

The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic , also known as the Lithuanian SSR, was one of the republics that made up the former Soviet Union...

and were seen as enemies of the state, into Siberia

Siberia

Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...

. After the war, in 1945-1948, the Soviet Union allowed 197,000 Poles to leave to Poland; in 1956-1959, another 46,600 were able to leave. In the 1950s the remaining Polish minority was a target of several attempted campaigns of Lithuanization

Lithuanization

Lithuanization is a process of cultural assimilation - adoption, either forced or voluntary, of Lithuanian culture or language, experienced by non-Lithuanian people or groups of people.- History :...

by the Communist Party of Lithuania

Communist Party of Lithuania

The Communist Party of Lithuania was a communist party in Lithuania, established in early October 1918. The party was banned in December 1926.-History:...

, which tried to ban any teaching in the Polish language; those attempts, however, were vetoed by Moscow

Moscow

Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...

, which saw them as too nationalistic. The Soviet census of 1959 showed 230,100 Poles concentrated in the Vilnius region (8.5% of the Lithuanian SSR's population). The Polish minority increased in size, but more slowly than other ethnic groups in Lithuania; the last Soviet census of 1989 showed 258,000 Poles (7.0% of the Lithuanian SSR's population). The Polish minority, subject in the past to massive, often voluntary Russification

Russification

Russification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attributes by non-Russian communities...

and Sovietization

Sovietization

Sovietization is term that may be used with two distinct meanings:*the adoption of a political system based on the model of soviets .*the adoption of a way of life and mentality modelled after the Soviet Union....

, and recently to mostly voluntary processes of Lithuanization

Lithuanization

Lithuanization is a process of cultural assimilation - adoption, either forced or voluntary, of Lithuanian culture or language, experienced by non-Lithuanian people or groups of people.- History :...

, shows many and increasing signs of assimilation

Cultural assimilation

Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...

with Lithuanians

Lithuanians

Lithuanians are the Baltic ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number around 2,765,600 people. Another million or more make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in countries such as the United States, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Russia, United Kingdom and Ireland. Their native language...

. However, some young Poles don't speak Lithuanian fluently, so they prefer to study in Poland or in the Polish language University of Białystok branch in Vilnius

Vilnius

, rather than in Lithuanian universities.

Some Poles who live southwards of Vilnius speak a dialect of Polish, that contains many substratical relics from Lithuanian

Lithuanian language

and Belarusian

Belarusian language

The Belarusian language , sometimes referred to as White Russian or White Ruthenian, is the language of the Belarusian people...

In independent Lithuania

The situation of the Polish minority in Lithuania has caused occasional tensions in Polish-Lithuanian relations during the late 20th and early 21st centuries. When Lithuania declared its independence from the Soviet Union

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....

in 1990, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev is a former Soviet statesman, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991, and as the last head of state of the USSR, having served from 1988 until its dissolution in 1991...

sought help from the Polish minority. The Polish minority, still remembering the 1950s attempts to ban the Polish language, was much more supportive of the Soviet Union and afraid that the new Lithuanian government might want to reintroduce the Lithuanisation policies. A pro-Moscow anti-independence movement similar to Internationalist movements in Latvia and Estonia was formed in 1989, called the Unity

Yedinstvo (Lithuania)

Yedinstvo was a pro-Moscow and anti-Sąjūdis movement in the Lithuanian SSR during the Perestroika era. The goals of the movement were similar to those of the Latvian and Estonian Internationalist Movements, e.g. opposition to disintegration of the Soviet Union...

. The organization was supported by many Poles of Lithuania, making it perhaps more popular with the Polish minority than with the Russophone minority of Lithuania. This might have surprised the Poles of Warsaw, then seeking a de-communization in Poland and declaring the question of Polish minority in Lithuania an internal matter of Lithuania. The pro-Moscow stance of some leading Poles of Lithuania compromised at times the activities of more Lithuania-friendly Poles. At the election to the Soviet Congress of People's Deputies, two Poles (one of them Jan Ciechanowicz

Jan Ciechanowicz

Jan Ciechanowicz ; born 2 July 1946 in Worniany) is a politician of the Polish minority in Lithuania...

) were elected to that body, both pro-Moscow.

According to surveys conducted in the spring of 1990, 47% of Poles in Lithuania supported the pro-Soviet Communist party (in contrast to 8% support among ethnic Lithuanians), while 35% supported Lithuanian independence. The regional authorities in Vilnius and Šalčininkai region, under Polish leadership, with support from Soviet authorities, argued for the establishment of an autonomous region in South Eastern Lithuania, a request that was declined by the Lithuanian government and left lasting resentment among some residents. The same Polish regional leaders later voiced support for the Soviet coup attempt of 1991

Soviet coup attempt of 1991

The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt , also known as the August Putsch or August Coup , was an attempt by a group of members of the Soviet Union's government to take control of the country from Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev...

in Moscow. The Government of Poland, however, never supported the autonomist tendencies of the Polish minority in Lithuania.

Current tensions arise regarding Polish education and spelling of names. The United States Department of State

United States Department of State

The United States Department of State , is the United States federal executive department responsible for international relations of the United States, equivalent to the foreign ministries of other countries...

stated, in a report issued in 2001, that the Polish minority had issued complaints with regard to its status in Lithuania, and that members of the Polish Parliament

Sejm

The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....

criticized the government of Lithuania over alleged discrimination against the Polish minority. In recent years, the Lithuanian government budgets 40,000 litas

Lithuanian litas

The Lithuanian litas is the currency of Lithuania. It is divided into 100 centų...

(~$15,000) for the needs of the Polish minority (out of the 7 million litas budget of the Department of National Minorities). In 2006 Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Meller

Stefan Meller

Stefan Meller was a Polish diplomat and academician. He served as foreign minister of Poland from 31 October 2005, to 9 May 2006, in the cabinet of Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz....

asserted that Polish educational institutions in Lithuania are severely underfunded. Similar concerns were voiced in 2007 by a Polish parliamentary commission. According to a report issued by the European Union

European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...

Fundamental Rights Agency in 2004, Poles in Lithuania were the second least-educated minority group in Lithuania. The branch of the University of Białystok in Vilnius

Vilnius

educates mostly members of the Polish minority.

A report by the Council of Europe

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe is an international organisation promoting co-operation between all countries of Europe in the areas of legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation...

, issued in 2007, stated that on the whole, minorities were integrated quite well into the everyday life of Lithuania. The report expressed a concern with Lithuanian nationality law

Lithuanian nationality law

right|150pxLithuanian nationality law automatically grants citizenship to persons born within the current borders of Lithuania. Citizenship may also be granted by naturalization...

, which contains a right of return

Right of return

The term right of return refers to a principle of international law, codified in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, giving any person the right to return to, and re-enter, his or her country of origin...

clause. The citizenship law was under discussion during 2007; it was deemed unconstitutional on 13 November 2006. A proposed constitutional amendment would allow the Polish minority in Lithuania to apply for Polish passports. Several members of the Lithuanian Seimas

Seimas

The Seimas is the unicameral Lithuanian parliament. It has 141 members that are elected for a four-year term. About half of the members of this legislative body are elected in individual constituencies , and the other half are elected by nationwide vote according to proportional representation...

, including Gintaras Songaila and Andrius Kubilius

Andrius Kubilius

Andrius Kubilius is a Lithuanian politician who has been Prime Minister of Lithuania since 2008. He previously served as Prime Minister from 1999 to 2000. He is the leader of the conservative political party Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian Democrats.- Biography :Kubilius was born at Vilnius...

, publicly stated that two members of the Seimas who represent Polish minority there (Waldemar Tomaszewski and Michal Mackiewicz) should resign, because they accepted the Karta Polaka.

Lithuanian constitutional law stipulates that everyone (not only Poles) who has Lithuanian citizenship and resides within the country has to Lithuanianise their name (i.e. spell it in the Lithuanian phonetics and alphabet); for example, the name Kleczkowski has to be spelled Klečkovski in official documents. Representatives of the Lithuanian government demanded removal of Polish names of the streets in Maišiagala

Maišiagala

Maišiagala is a historic town in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania. It is located about northwest of Vilnius near the Vilnius–Panevėžys highway. According to the 2001 census, it had population of 1,634.-History:...

(Mejszagoła), Raudondvaris

Raudondvaris

Raudondvaris is a village on the Neman River in Kaunas district, Lithuania, west of Kaunas.-History:The town was first mentioned in Teutonic chronicles in 1392. The old castle was rebuilt after the Battle of Grunwald and became Grand Duke's property. In 1549 Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus...

(Czerwony Dwór), Riešė (Rzesza) and Sudervė (Suderwa) as by consitutional law all names have to be in Lithuanian. Tensions have been reported between the Lithuanian Roman Catholic clergy and its Polish parishioniers in Lithuania. The Seimas voted against foreign surnames in Lithuanian passports.

The situation is further escalated by extremist groups on both sides. Lithuanian extremist nationalist organization Vilnija

Vilnija

Vilnija is a Lithuanian political organization, considered to be extremist and nationalist.-History and policies:The organization was formed in 1988, in the LSSR, by Lithuanian nationalists and communists and its primary aim was the Lithuanization of ethnic Poles living in the Eastern part of...

seeks the Lithuanisation of ethnic Poles living in the Eastern part of Lithuania

Lithuania

. The former Polish ambassador to Lithuania, Jan Widacki, has criticised some Polish organizations in Lithuania as being far-right and nationalist. Jan Sienkiewicz has criticized Jan Widacki.

In late May 2008, the Association of Poles in Lithuania

Association of Poles in Lithuania

The Association of Poles in Lithuania is an organization formed in 1989 to bring together members of Polish minority in Lithuania. It numbers between 6,000 to 11,000 members. It defends the civil rights of the Polish minority and engages in educational, cultural and economic activities...

issued a letter, addressed to the government of Lithuania, complaining about anti-minority (primarily, anti-Polish) rhetoric in media, citing upcoming parliamentary elections as a motive, and asking for better treatment of the ethnic minorities. The Association has also filed a complaint with the Lithuanian prosecutor, asking for investigation of the issue.

Lithuania has not ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages is a European treaty adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages in Europe...

.
60,000 Poles have signed a petition against an education system reform. A school strike was declared and suspended.

Surnames

The surnames of Lithuanian Poles that are of Polish forms, many of them ending in suffixes -e/owski, -e/owicz, rarer -(ń)ski, and more rare -cki (Lithuanian spelling -e/ovski, -e/ovič, -(n)ski, -cki), are commonly the same as their counterparts in Poland and usually have cognate

Cognate

In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term derives from the Latin cognatus . Cognates within the same language are called doublets. Strictly speaking, loanwords from another language are usually not meant by the term, e.g...

s among Lithuanian surnames

Lithuanian name

A personal name, like in most European cultures, consists of two main elements: the given name followed by family name . The usage of personal names in Lithuania is generally governed by three major factors: civil law, canon law, and tradition. Lithuanian names always follow the rules of the...

, which reflects the historical living in the common

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

cultural area, ethnic, cultural, or linguistic assimilation, and common use of the same Slavic patronymic suffixes: Pol.

Polish language

Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...

-e/owski and -e/owicz, Lith.

Lithuanian language

-(i)auskas and -e/avičius, and Belarusian

Belarusian language

The Belarusian language , sometimes referred to as White Russian or White Ruthenian, is the language of the Belarusian people...

-оўскі and -e/овіч. The suffixes -e/owski, -(ń)ski, and -cki are historically characteristic of Polish name

Polish name

A Polish personal name, like names in most European cultures, consists of two main elements: imię, the first name, or given name, followed by nazwisko, the last name, surname, or family name....

s and -e/ovič of Belarusian name

Belarusian name

A modern Belarusian name of a person consists of three parts: given name, patronymic, and family name, similarly to names in other East Slavic cultures: Russian names and Ukrainian names.-Belarusian given names:...

s. Surnames ending with -e/ovič, which is more frequent among Lithuanians (-e/-avičius), Belarusians, and Lithuanian Poles, is rarer in Poland.

The frequency of Lithuanian-specific surnames among the surnames of Lithuanian Poles is moderate. The sketchy examples include anthroponyms of two roots — Talmont, Narvoiš, Bowgerd, Dowgiało, Golmont, Žybort, etc. — with Lithuanian patronymic suffixes – Pieciun, Wickun, Mikalajun, Masojć, Matulaniec — with Lithuanian diminutive suffixes − Jurgiel, Wierbiel, Banel, Jusel, Drawnel, Rekiel, Szuksztul — Lithuanian root — Garszwo, Plokszto, Pażuś, Gejgall, Szyllo, Wojsznis — Lithuanian root with a Slavic suffix — Mieżewicz, Pażusińskaja, Dziedulewicz, Gilewicz, Błaszkiewicz, Balsewicz, Dajnowicz, Tarejkowicz, Narkiewicz.

Measuring the historical ethnic "charge" of a surname has certain specific features, as, for example, there were many surnames made from the same Christian names and Slavic-form suffixes used by Lithuanian, Belarusian, and Polish speakers. Surnames could also be made from a Lithuanian root and a Slavic suffix, a Belarusian-characteristic root and a Polish-characteristic suffix, and so on.

Organizations

The Lithuanian arm of the Poles in Lithuania is organized by several groups and associations.

The Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania is an ethnic minority-based political party formed in 1994, able to exert significant political influence in the administrative districts where Poles form a majority or significant minority. This party has held 1-2 seats in the parliament of Lithuania for the past decade; in the last general elections it got about 4% of votes. The party is more active in local politics and controls several municipal council

Municipal council

A municipal council is the local government of a municipality. Specifically the term can refer to the institutions of various countries that can be translated by this term...

s.

The Association of Poles in Lithuania

Association of Poles in Lithuania

is an organization formed in 1989 to bring together Polish activists in Lithuania. It numbers between 6,000 to 11,000 members. It defends the civil rights

Civil rights

Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from unwarranted infringement by governments and private organizations, and ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression.Civil rights include...

of the Polish minority and engages in educational, cultural, and economic activities.

Prior to 1940

Gabriel Narutowicz
Gabriel Narutowicz
Gabriel Narutowicz was a Lithuanian-born professor of hydroelectric engineering at Switzerland's Zurich Polytechnic, and Poland's Minister of Public Works , Minister of Foreign Affairs , and the first president of the Second Polish Republic....

- president of Poland
Józef Piłsudski - Polish statesman
Wiktor Budzyński
Wiktor Budzynski
Wiktor Budzyński , born March 7, 1888 in the village of Eustachow near Vilkaviškis, died 1976 in Puszczykowo near Poznan, was an ethnic Polish politician, active in the interbellum period in the Republic of Lithuania...

- politician

Today

Anicet Brodawski
Anicet Brodawski
Anicet Brodawski is an activist of the Polish minority in Lithuania, from 1989 to 1991 he was a deputy in the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, and was known one of the promoters of the territorial autonomy of the Vilnius region in 1991.- Biography :Brodawski graduated from the Lithuanian...

- a Polish autonomist leader during the late 1980s
Dariusz Ławrynowicz
Darjuš Lavrinovic
Darjuš Lavrinovič Darjuš Lavrinovič Darjuš Lavrinovič (alternate spelling: Darius Lavrinovič; ; Russian Cyrillic: Дарюс Лавринович ; born November 1, 1979 in Vilnius, Lithuania, is a Polish-Lithuanian professional basketball player. His twin brother Kšyštof is also a professional basketball...

- basketball player
Krzysztof Ławrynowicz
Kšyštof Lavrinovic
Kšyštof Lavrinovič Kšyštof Lavrinovič Kšyštof Lavrinovič (born November 1, 1979 in Vilnius, Lithuania, is a Polish-Lithuanian professional basketball player. He plays at the power forward and center positions. He is 2.10 m (6' 10¾") in height...

- basketball player
Artur Ludkowski - former deputy mayor of Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
Jarosław Niewierowicz - former vice-minister of foreign affairs
Czesław Okińczyc
Česlav Okinčic
Česlav Okinčic is a Polish-Lithuanian politician. In 1990 he was among those who signed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania.-References:*...

- politician, journalist
Artur Płokszto - secretary of Ministry of National Defence
Leokadia Poczykowska
Leokadija Pocikovska
Leokadija Počikovska-Janušauskienė is a Lithuanian politician of Polish nationality and a public activist. She was a deputy chairman of the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania and the mayor of the Vilnius district municipality. She is a member of Seimas since the 2004 elections...

- politician
Jan Sienkiewicz - politician, journalist
Waldemar Tomaszewski - leader of Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania
Jarosław Wołkonowski - dean of branch of University of Białystok in Vilnius

External links

POLES IN LITHUANIA FROM THE SECOND HALF OF 1944 UNTIL 1946: CHOOSING BETWEEN STAYING OR EMIGRATING TO POLAND by VITALIJA STRAVINSKIENĖ, The Lithuanian Institute of History, January 19, 2006
Chronology for Poles in Lithuania
The Polish language in education in Lithuania
Discrimination in Lithuania
Observance of Polish minority rights in Lithuania Report by «Wspólnota Polska», Union of Poles in Lithuania and the Association of Teachers of Polish Schools in Lithuania, 2009 Organizacje Polonii na Litwie (Organizations of Polonia in Lithuania) Polonia na świecie (Polonia worldwide) with section on Lithuania (Poles in Lithuania) Losy ludności polskiej na Litwie (Fate of Polish population in Lithuania) Jan Sienkiewicz, Przestrzeganie praw polskiej grupy etnicznej w Republice Litewskiej (Respecting the righs of the Polish minority in Lithuania) Polacy na Litwie w prawie (Lithuanian law on minorities)

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Statistics

Languages

Historical demographics

Education

History

In independent Lithuania

Surnames

Organizations

Prior to 1940

Today

See also

External links