Lithuanization
Encyclopedia
Lithuanization is a process of cultural assimilation
- adoption, either forced or voluntary, of Lithuania
n culture or language
, experienced by non-Lithuanian people or groups of people.
led to the gradual Lithuanization and subsequent assimilation of neighbouring Baltic tribes or their parts, including the Selonians
, Jotvingians, Nadruvians
and Curonians
who shared religious, cultural, and linguistic similarities with the Lithuanians.
The Lithuanian annexation of Ruthenia
n lands between the 13th and 15th centuries was accompanied by some Lithuanization. A large part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
remained Ruthenian, since due to a religious, linguistic and cultural dissimilarity there was less assimilation between the ruling nobility of the pagan Lithuanians and the conquered Orthodox Eastern Slavs. Moreover, following the military and diplomatic expansion of the Grand Duchy into the Ruthenian and Russian lands, local leaders retained a significant autonomy that limited the amalgamation of cultures. Even when some localities received the appointed Gediminid leaders, the Lithuanian higher nobility in the Ruthenian lands largely embraced the Slavic customs and Orthodox Christianity
and became indistinguishable from a larger Ruthenian
nobility resulting in the two cultures merging to the extent that much of the upper class of Ruthenians merged into Lithuanian nobility and began to call themselves Lithuanians gente Rutenus natione Lituanus(Litvin
y), yet spoke the Ruthenian language
In the effect of the processes, Lithuanian higher nobility became largely Ruthenian, while the nobility in the ethnic Lithuania and Samogitia
continued to use their native Lithuanian language. The adapted Old Church Slavonic
and later the Ruthenian language, acquired a status of a main chancery language in the local matters and relations with other Orthodox principalities as lingua franca
, and Latin was used in relations with the Western Europe. This notion however had been gradually reversed by the Polonization
of Lithuania occurring since 15th century and then the Russification
of the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
in the 19th century and early 20th century.
A notable example of Lithuanization was the 19th century replacement of Jews (many of them Lithuanian Jews
, but also Polish Jews), until then the largest ethnic group among the burghers in the major towns of Lithuania, with ethnic Lithuanians
migrating there from the countryside. As such, the process of Lithuanization was mostly demographic
and not institutionalized. It was not until Lithuania
became an independent state in the effect of the World War I
that the government of Lithuania turned it into a more institutionalized process.
It was also around that time that the re-established
Lithuanian state started aiming at cultural and linguistic assimilation of other large groups of non-Lithuanian citizens, mainly the Poles and Germans. At first Lithuanian government was democratic and protected cultural traditions of different ethnic groups. Already in 1917, the resolution adopted by Vilnius Conference
promised the national minorities freedom for their cultural needs. After World War I ended, the Council of Lithuania
, the legislative branch of the government, was expanded to include Jewish and Belarusian representatives. The first governments of Lithuania included Ministries for Jewish and Belarusian affairs; however after Vilnius region
was detached from Lithuania in a staged rebellion commanded by Lucjan Żeligowski
(see Republic of Central Lithuania
) largest communities of Belarusians, Jews, and Poles appeared to be outside Lithuania. Therefore the special ministries were closed. In 1920 the Jewish community
was granted national and cultural autonomy with the right to legislate binding ordinances; however partly due to internal fights between Hebrew and Yiddish groups, the project was terminated in 1924. Afterwards, the Jews were increasingly marginalized and alienated by the "Lithuania for Lithuanians" policy.
As Lithuania firmly established its independence and nationalistic attitudes strengthened, the state sought to increase the use of Lithuanian language
in the public life. Among the measures taken by the Lithuanian government was a forced Lithuanization of non-Lithuanian names. The largest minority school network was operated by Jewish community. In 1919 there were 49, in 1923 – 107, in 1928 – 144 Jewish grammar schools. In 1931, in part due to consolidations, the number of schools decreased to 115 and remained stable until 1940.
At the beginning of 1920 Lithuania had 20 Polish language
schools for Polish minority in Lithuania
. The number increased to 30 in 1923, but then fell down to 24 in 1926. The major reason for the decrease was policy of Lithuanian Christian Democrats
to transfer students whose parents had "Lithuania" as their nationality in the passport to Lithuanian schools. After the party lost control, the number of schools jumped to 91. Soon after the coup d'état in 1926, to power came nationalists led by Antanas Smetona
it was decided to forbade Lithuanians attend Polish schools. Children from mixed families should also attend Lithuanian schools. Many Poles in Lithuania in passports were signed as Lithuanians, therefore they also were forced to attend Lithuanian schools, since then the number of schools gradually decreased to 9 in 1940. In 1936 a new law was passed that allowed a student to attend Polish school only if both parents were Poles. The situation prompted to open unsanctioned schools that numbered more than 40 in 1935 and were largely sponsored by "Pochodnia." Similar situation was with German schools in the Klaipėda region
.
The Lithuanian attitudes towards ethnic Poles were in large part an effect of the notion to treat them as native Lithuanians, who got Polonized over the course of the last centuries and should have been brought to their true identity. Another major factor was tense relationship between Lithuania and Poland over the Vilnius region
and cultural or educational restrictions on Lithuanians there; for example, in 1927, chairman of "Rytas," Lithuanian minority in Poland
counterpart to "Pochodnia," and 15 teachers were temporary arrested and 47 schools closed.
While the constitution of the Republic of Lithuania guaranteed equal rights to all confesions, Orthodoxes were discriminated - Lithuanian state decided confiscate Orthodox
churches that were converted from Catholic churchesm, but into Catholic churches were converted 17 Orthodox churches that never belonged to Catholics prior, even former Eastern Catholic Churches were confiscated from Orthodoxes, like in Kruonis Orthodox church which became Orthodox prior 1775. 13 Orthodox churches were demolished. All these changes were followed with anger against Orthodoxes in press and meetings. Attempts to establish religious union were made.
Another target group for discrimination became Poles. Anti-polish attitudes appeared since Lithuanian National Revival
. While in many spheres movement was possitive, but became aggressive, intolerate against Poles and chauvinistic against everything was Polish . Such attitudes even became a mania . Nationalistic Lithuanian catholic priests, so-called Litwomans, were pushing Lithuanian language everywhere, instead of Polish which in many places was used for centuries in church service . Anti-polish propaganda was sponsored by the Lithuanian state. During interbellum lots of caricatures, proclamations were published scoring Poles and showing them as criminals or vagabonds.
, whose activities cause an occasional tension in Polish-Lithuanian relations.
The state imposes Lithuanian form of people's names and recently demands removal of Polish street signs.
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
- adoption, either forced or voluntary, of Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
n culture or language
Lithuanian language
Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 170,000 abroad. Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they...
, experienced by non-Lithuanian people or groups of people.
History
In the early Middle Ages the consolidation of Baltic lands by the Duchy of LithuaniaDuchy of Lithuania
Duchy of Lithuania was a state-territorial formation of ethnic Lithuanians, that existed from the 12th century until 1413. Most of the time it was a constituent part and a nucleus of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania...
led to the gradual Lithuanization and subsequent assimilation of neighbouring Baltic tribes or their parts, including the Selonians
Selonians
Selonians were a tribe of Baltic peoples. The Selonians lived until the 15th century in Selonia, located in southeastern Latvia and northeastern Lithuania. They merged with neighbouring tribes, contributing to the ethnogenesis of Latvians and Lithuanians....
, Jotvingians, Nadruvians
Nadruvians
The Nadruvians were one of the now-extinct Prussian clans. They lived in Nadruvia , a large territory in northernmost Prussia...
and Curonians
Curonians
The Curonians or Kurs were a Baltic tribe living on the shores of the Baltic sea in what are now the western parts of Latvia and Lithuania from the 5th to the 16th centuries, when they merged with other Baltic tribes. They gave their name to the region of Courland , and they spoke the Old...
who shared religious, cultural, and linguistic similarities with the Lithuanians.
The Lithuanian annexation of Ruthenia
Ruthenia
Ruthenia is the Latin word used onwards from the 13th century, describing lands of the Ancient Rus in European manuscripts. Its geographic and culturo-ethnic name at that time was applied to the parts of Eastern Europe. Essentially, the word is a false Latin rendering of the ancient place name Rus...
n lands between the 13th and 15th centuries was accompanied by some Lithuanization. A large part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
remained Ruthenian, since due to a religious, linguistic and cultural dissimilarity there was less assimilation between the ruling nobility of the pagan Lithuanians and the conquered Orthodox Eastern Slavs. Moreover, following the military and diplomatic expansion of the Grand Duchy into the Ruthenian and Russian lands, local leaders retained a significant autonomy that limited the amalgamation of cultures. Even when some localities received the appointed Gediminid leaders, the Lithuanian higher nobility in the Ruthenian lands largely embraced the Slavic customs and Orthodox Christianity
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
and became indistinguishable from a larger Ruthenian
Ruthenians
The name Ruthenian |Rus']]) is a culturally loaded term and has different meanings according to the context in which it is used. Initially, it was the ethnonym used for the East Slavic peoples who lived in Rus'. Later it was used predominantly for Ukrainians...
nobility resulting in the two cultures merging to the extent that much of the upper class of Ruthenians merged into Lithuanian nobility and began to call themselves Lithuanians gente Rutenus natione Lituanus(Litvin
Litvin
Litvin literally means Lithuanian person in several Slavic languages. The term may also refer to:* Litvins, in historical context, Slavic people who identified themselves with the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania...
y), yet spoke the Ruthenian language
Ruthenian language
Ruthenian, or Old Ruthenian , is a term used for the varieties of Eastern Slavonic spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth....
In the effect of the processes, Lithuanian higher nobility became largely Ruthenian, while the nobility in the ethnic Lithuania and Samogitia
Samogitia
Samogitia is one of the five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. It is located in northwestern Lithuania. Its largest city is Šiauliai/Šiaulē. The region has a long and distinct cultural history, reflected in the existence of the Samogitian dialect...
continued to use their native Lithuanian language. The adapted Old Church Slavonic
Old Church Slavonic
Old Church Slavonic or Old Church Slavic was the first literary Slavic language, first developed by the 9th century Byzantine Greek missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius who were credited with standardizing the language and using it for translating the Bible and other Ancient Greek...
and later the Ruthenian language, acquired a status of a main chancery language in the local matters and relations with other Orthodox principalities as lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
, and Latin was used in relations with the Western Europe. This notion however had been gradually reversed by the Polonization
Polonization
Polonization was the acquisition or imposition of elements of Polish culture, in particular, Polish language, as experienced in some historic periods by non-Polish populations of territories controlled or substantially influenced by Poland...
of Lithuania occurring since 15th century and then the Russification
Russification
Russification is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attributes by non-Russian communities...
of the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
in the 19th century and early 20th century.
A notable example of Lithuanization was the 19th century replacement of Jews (many of them Lithuanian Jews
Lithuanian Jews
Lithuanian Jews or Litvaks are Jews with roots in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania:...
, but also Polish Jews), until then the largest ethnic group among the burghers in the major towns of Lithuania, with ethnic Lithuanians
Lithuanians
Lithuanians are the Baltic ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number around 2,765,600 people. Another million or more make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in countries such as the United States, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Russia, United Kingdom and Ireland. Their native language...
migrating there from the countryside. As such, the process of Lithuanization was mostly demographic
Demography
Demography is the statistical study of human population. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic human population, that is, one that changes over time or space...
and not institutionalized. It was not until Lithuania
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
became an independent state in the effect of the World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
that the government of Lithuania turned it into a more institutionalized process.
It was also around that time that the re-established
Act of Independence of Lithuania
The Act of Independence of Lithuania or Act of February 16 was signed by the Council of Lithuania on February 16, 1918, proclaiming the restoration of an independent State of Lithuania, governed by democratic principles, with Vilnius as its capital. The Act was signed by all twenty...
Lithuanian state started aiming at cultural and linguistic assimilation of other large groups of non-Lithuanian citizens, mainly the Poles and Germans. At first Lithuanian government was democratic and protected cultural traditions of different ethnic groups. Already in 1917, the resolution adopted by Vilnius Conference
Vilnius Conference
The Vilnius Conference or Vilnius National Conference met between September 18, 1917 and September 22, 1917, and began the process of establishing a Lithuanian state based on ethnic identity and language that would be independent of the Russian Empire, Poland, and the German Empire...
promised the national minorities freedom for their cultural needs. After World War I ended, the Council of Lithuania
Council of Lithuania
The Council of Lithuania , after July 11, 1918 The State Council of Lithuania , was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between September 18 and 23, 1917. The council was granted the executive authority of the Lithuanian people and was entrusted to establish an independent...
, the legislative branch of the government, was expanded to include Jewish and Belarusian representatives. The first governments of Lithuania included Ministries for Jewish and Belarusian affairs; however after Vilnius region
Vilnius region
Vilnius Region , refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania, that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time,...
was detached from Lithuania in a staged rebellion commanded by Lucjan Żeligowski
Lucjan Zeligowski
Lucjan Żeligowski , was a Polish general, and veteran of World War I, the Polish-Soviet War and World War II. He is mostly remembered for his role in Żeligowski's Mutiny and as head of a short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania.-Biography:...
(see Republic of Central Lithuania
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania or Middle Lithuania , or simply Central Lithuania , was a short-lived political entity, which did not gain international recognition...
) largest communities of Belarusians, Jews, and Poles appeared to be outside Lithuania. Therefore the special ministries were closed. In 1920 the Jewish community
Lithuanian Jews
Lithuanian Jews or Litvaks are Jews with roots in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania:...
was granted national and cultural autonomy with the right to legislate binding ordinances; however partly due to internal fights between Hebrew and Yiddish groups, the project was terminated in 1924. Afterwards, the Jews were increasingly marginalized and alienated by the "Lithuania for Lithuanians" policy.
| Census of 1923 Lithuanian census of 1923 The Lithuanian census of 1923 was performed between September 17 and September 23, several years after Lithuania re-established its independence in 1918. It was mandated by the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania in 1922. The census counted the total population of 2,028,971... |
||
|---|---|---|
| Nationality | People | % |
| Lithuanians | 1,701,900 | 83.9 |
| Jews | 153,700 | 7.6 |
| Poles | 65,600 | 3.2 |
| Russians | 50,500 | 2.5 |
| Latvians | 14,900 | 0.7 |
| Belarusians | 4,400 | 0.2 |
| Others | 30,800 | 1.9 |
As Lithuania firmly established its independence and nationalistic attitudes strengthened, the state sought to increase the use of Lithuanian language
Lithuanian language
Lithuanian is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 170,000 abroad. Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they...
in the public life. Among the measures taken by the Lithuanian government was a forced Lithuanization of non-Lithuanian names. The largest minority school network was operated by Jewish community. In 1919 there were 49, in 1923 – 107, in 1928 – 144 Jewish grammar schools. In 1931, in part due to consolidations, the number of schools decreased to 115 and remained stable until 1940.
At the beginning of 1920 Lithuania had 20 Polish language
Polish language
Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
schools for Polish minority in Lithuania
Polish minority in Lithuania
The Polish minority in Lithuania numbered 234,989 persons, according to the Lithuanian census of 2001, or 6.74% of the total population of Lithuania. It is the largest ethnic minority in the country and the second largest Polish diaspora group among the post-Soviet states...
. The number increased to 30 in 1923, but then fell down to 24 in 1926. The major reason for the decrease was policy of Lithuanian Christian Democrats
Lithuanian Christian Democrats
The Lithuanian Christian Democrats or LKD was a Christian-democratic political party in Lithuania. Originally established in 1905, it was closely associated with the Roman Catholic Church...
to transfer students whose parents had "Lithuania" as their nationality in the passport to Lithuanian schools. After the party lost control, the number of schools jumped to 91. Soon after the coup d'état in 1926, to power came nationalists led by Antanas Smetona
Antanas Smetona
Antanas Smetona was one of the most important Lithuanian political figures between World War I and World War II. He served as the first President of Lithuania from April 4, 1919 to June 19, 1920. He again served as the last President of the country from December 19, 1926 to June 15, 1940, before...
it was decided to forbade Lithuanians attend Polish schools. Children from mixed families should also attend Lithuanian schools. Many Poles in Lithuania in passports were signed as Lithuanians, therefore they also were forced to attend Lithuanian schools, since then the number of schools gradually decreased to 9 in 1940. In 1936 a new law was passed that allowed a student to attend Polish school only if both parents were Poles. The situation prompted to open unsanctioned schools that numbered more than 40 in 1935 and were largely sponsored by "Pochodnia." Similar situation was with German schools in the Klaipėda region
Klaipeda Region
The Klaipėda Region or Memel Territory was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors...
.
Vilnius region
Vilnius Region , refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania, that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time,...
and cultural or educational restrictions on Lithuanians there; for example, in 1927, chairman of "Rytas," Lithuanian minority in Poland
Lithuanian minority in Poland
Lithuanian minority in Poland consists of 5,639 people living chiefly in the Podlaskie Voivodeship in the north-eastern part of Poland...
counterpart to "Pochodnia," and 15 teachers were temporary arrested and 47 schools closed.
While the constitution of the Republic of Lithuania guaranteed equal rights to all confesions, Orthodoxes were discriminated - Lithuanian state decided confiscate Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
churches that were converted from Catholic churchesm, but into Catholic churches were converted 17 Orthodox churches that never belonged to Catholics prior, even former Eastern Catholic Churches were confiscated from Orthodoxes, like in Kruonis Orthodox church which became Orthodox prior 1775. 13 Orthodox churches were demolished. All these changes were followed with anger against Orthodoxes in press and meetings. Attempts to establish religious union were made.
Another target group for discrimination became Poles. Anti-polish attitudes appeared since Lithuanian National Revival
Lithuanian National Revival
Lithuanian National Revival, alternatively Lithuanian National Awakening , was a period of the history of Lithuania in the 19th century at the time when a major part of Lithuanian inhabited areas belonged to the Russian Empire...
. While in many spheres movement was possitive, but became aggressive, intolerate against Poles and chauvinistic against everything was Polish . Such attitudes even became a mania . Nationalistic Lithuanian catholic priests, so-called Litwomans, were pushing Lithuanian language everywhere, instead of Polish which in many places was used for centuries in church service . Anti-polish propaganda was sponsored by the Lithuanian state. During interbellum lots of caricatures, proclamations were published scoring Poles and showing them as criminals or vagabonds.
Modern Lithuania
In modern Lithuania, independent since the fall of the Soviet Union, Lithuanization is not an official state policy, but is advocated by some fringe extremist groups like VilnijaVilnija
Vilnija is a Lithuanian political organization, considered to be extremist and nationalist.-History and policies:The organization was formed in 1988, in the LSSR, by Lithuanian nationalists and communists and its primary aim was the Lithuanization of ethnic Poles living in the Eastern part of...
, whose activities cause an occasional tension in Polish-Lithuanian relations.
The state imposes Lithuanian form of people's names and recently demands removal of Polish street signs.