Papyrus 46
Encyclopedia
Papyrus 46 designated by siglum 
46, is one of the oldest extant
New Testament
manuscript
s in Greek
, written on papyrus
, with its 'most probable date
' between 175-225. Some leaves are part of the Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri
, and others are in the University of Michigan Papyrus Collection
.
46 contains most of the Pauline epistles
, though with some folios missing. According to the website Bible Research, it contains (in order) "the last eight chapters of Romans
; all of Hebrews
; virtually all of 1–2 Corinthians
; all of Ephesians
, Galatians
, Philippians
, Colossians
; and two chapters of 1 Thessalonians
. All of the leaves have lost some lines at the bottom through deterioration
."
and possibly Philemon
, but not for the Pastoral epistles
. Kenyon
calculates that 2 Thessalonians would require two leaves, leaving only five remaining leaves (10 pages) for the remaining canonical
Pauline
literature — 1 Timothy
(estimated 8.25 pages), 2 Timothy
(6 pages), Titus
(3.5 pages) and Philemon (1.5 pages) — totaling ten required leaves (19.25 pages).
s) and are also found in portions of
45
, possibly evidence of reading in the community which held both codices.
46 uses an extensive and well-developed system of nomina sacra
. Griffin argued against Kim, in part, that such an extensive usage of the nomina sacra system nearly eliminates any possibility of the manuscript dating to the 1st century. He admitted, however, that Kim's dating cannot be ruled out on this basis alone, since the exact provenance of the nomina sacra system itself is not well-established.
. Kurt Aland
placed it in Category I.
In Romans 16:15 it has singular reading Βηρεα και Αουλιαν for Ιουλιαν, Νηρεα.
In 1 Corinthians 2:1 it reads μυστηριον along with א
, Α
, C
, 88
, 436
, ita,r, syrp, copbo. Other manuscripts read μαρτυριον or σωτηριον.
In 1 Corinthians 2:4 it reads πειθοις σοφιας (plausible wisdom) for πειθοις σοφιας λογοις (plausible words of wisdom), the reading is supported only by Codex Boernerianus
(Greek text).
In 1 Corinthians 7:5 it reads τη προσευχη (prayer) along with
11, א*, A, B
, C, D, F, G, P, Ψ, 6
, 33, 81
, 104
, 181
, 629, 630, 1739, 1877, 1881, 1962, it vg, cop, arm, eth. Other manuscripts read τη νηστεια και τη προσευχη (fasting and prayer) τη προσευχη και νηστεια (prayer and fasting).
In 1 Corinthians 12:9 it reads εν τω πνευματι for εν τω ενι πνευματι.
In 1 Corinthians 15:47 it has singular reading reads δευτερος ανθρωπος πνευματικος for δευτερος ανθρωπος (א*, B, C, D, F, G, 0243
, 33, 1739, it, vg, copbo eth); or δευτερος ανθρωπος ο κυριος (אc, A, Dc, K, P, Ψ, 81, 104, 181, 326, 330, 436, 451, 614, 629, 1241, 1739mg, 1877, 1881, 1984, 1985, 2127, 2492, 2495, Byz, Lect).
In 2 Corinthians 1:10 it reads τηλικουτων θανατων, along with 630, 1739c, itd,e, syrp,h, goth; majority reads τηλικουτου θανατου.
Galatians 6:2 — αναπληρωσατε ] αποπληρωσετε
Ephesians 4:16 — κατ ενεργειας ] και ενεργειας.
Ephesians 6:12 — αρχας προς τας εξουσιας ] μεθοδιας
of the papyrus is unknown, although it was probably originally discovered in the ruins
of an early Christian church
or monastery
. Following the discovery in Cairo
, the manuscript was broken up by the dealer
. Ten leaves were purchased by Chester Beatty
in 1930; the University of Michigan
acquired six in 1931 and 24 in 1933. Beatty purchased 46 more in 1935, and his acquisitions now form part of the Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri
, eleven codices of biblical material.
46 is uncertain. The first editor of parts of the papyrus, H. A. Sanders, proposed a date possibly as late as the second half of the 3rd century. F. G. Kenyon, a later editor, preferred a date in the first half of the 3rd century. The manuscript is now sometimes dated to about 200. Young Kyu Kim has argued for an exceptionally early date of c. 80
. Griffin critiqued and disputed Kim's dating, placing the 'most probable date' between 175-225, with a '95% confidence interval' for a date between 150-250.
Comfort and Barrett have claimed that
46 shares affinities with the following:
This, they conclude, points to a date during the middle of the 2nd century for
46.
46, is one of the oldest extantExtant literature
Extant literature refers to texts that have survived from the past to the present time. Extant literature can be divided into extant original manuscripts, copies of original manuscripts, quotations and paraphrases of passages of non-extant texts contained in other works, translations of non-extant...
New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
manuscript
Manuscript
A manuscript or handwrite is written information that has been manually created by someone or some people, such as a hand-written letter, as opposed to being printed or reproduced some other way...
s in Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
, written on papyrus
Papyrus
Papyrus is a thick paper-like material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt....
, with its 'most probable date
Terminus post quem
Terminus post quem and terminus ante quem specify approximate dates for events...
' between 175-225. Some leaves are part of the Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri
Chester Beatty Papyri
The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri or simply the Chester Beatty Papyri are a group of early papyrus manuscripts of biblical texts. The manuscripts are in Greek and are of Christian origin. There are eleven manuscripts in the group, seven consisting of portions of Old Testament books, three...
, and others are in the University of Michigan Papyrus Collection
University of Michigan Papyrus Collection
The Papyrology Collection of the University of Michigan Library is an internationally respected collection of ancient papyrus and a center for research on ancient culture, language, and history...
.
Papyrus contents
46 contains most of the Pauline epistlesPauline epistles
The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen New Testament books which have the name Paul as the first word, hence claiming authorship by Paul the Apostle. Among these letters are some of the earliest extant Christian documents...
, though with some folios missing. According to the website Bible Research, it contains (in order) "the last eight chapters of Romans
Epistle to the Romans
The Epistle of Paul to the Romans, often shortened to Romans, is the sixth book in the New Testament. Biblical scholars agree that it was composed by the Apostle Paul to explain that Salvation is offered through the Gospel of Jesus Christ...
; all of Hebrews
Epistle to the Hebrews
The Epistle to the Hebrews is one of the books in the New Testament. Its author is not known.The primary purpose of the Letter to the Hebrews is to exhort Christians to persevere in the face of persecution. The central thought of the entire Epistle is the doctrine of the Person of Christ and his...
; virtually all of 1–2 Corinthians
Epistles to the Corinthians
There are two Epistles to the Corinthians in the Bible:* First Epistle to the Corinthians* Second Epistle to the CorinthiansThere is also a Third Epistle to the Corinthians, once considered canonical by the Armenian Apostolic Church, but now almost universally believed to be pseudepigraphical....
; all of Ephesians
Epistle to the Ephesians
The Epistle of Paul to the Ephesians, often shortened to Ephesians, is the tenth book of the New Testament. Its authorship has traditionally been credited to Paul, but it is considered by some scholars to be "deutero-Pauline," that is, written in Paul's name by a later author strongly influenced by...
, Galatians
Epistle to the Galatians
The Epistle of Paul to the Galatians, often shortened to Galatians, is the ninth book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of Early Christian communities in the Roman province of Galatia in central Anatolia...
, Philippians
Epistle to the Philippians
The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, usually referred to simply as Philippians, is the eleventh book in the New Testament. Biblical scholars agree that it was written by St. Paul to the church of Philippi, an early center of Christianity in Greece around 62 A.D. Other scholars argue for an...
, Colossians
Epistle to the Colossians
The Epistle of Paul to the Colossians, usually referred to simply as Colossians, is the 12th book of the New Testament. It was written, according to the text, by Paul the Apostle to the Church in Colossae, a small Phrygian city near Laodicea and approximately 100 miles from Ephesus in Asia...
; and two chapters of 1 Thessalonians
First Epistle to the Thessalonians
The First Epistle to the Thessalonians, usually referred to simply as First Thessalonians and often written 1 Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible....
. All of the leaves have lost some lines at the bottom through deterioration
Wear
In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from its "derivative" and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of another surface....
."
| Folio | Contents | Location |
|---|---|---|
| 1-7 | Romans 1:1-5:17 | Missing |
| 8 | Rom 5:17-6:14 | CB |
| 9-10 | Rom 6:14-8:15 | Missing |
| 11-15 | Rom 8:15-11:35 | CB |
| 16-17 | Rom 11:35-14:8 | Mich. |
| 18 (fragment) | Rom 14:9-15:11 | CB |
| 19-28 | Rom 15:11-Hebrews 8:8 | Mich. |
| 29 | Heb 8:9-9:10 | CB |
| 30 | Heb 9:10-26 | Mich. |
| 31-39 | Heb 9:26-1 Corinthians 2:3 | CB |
| 40 | 1 Cor 2:3-3:5 | Mich. |
| 41-69 | 1 Cor 3:6-2 Corinthians 9:7 | CB |
| 70-85 | 2 Cor 9:7-end, Ephesians, Galatians 1:1-6:10 | Mich. |
| 86-94 | Gal 6:10-end, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians 1:1-2:3 | CB |
| 95-96 | 1 Thess 2:3-5:5 | Missing |
| 97 (fragment) | 1 Thess 5:5, 23-28 | CB |
| 98-104 | Thought to be 1 Thess 5:28-2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon (see below) | Missing |
Dimensions
Folio size is approximately 28x16 cm with a single column of text averaging 11.5 cm. There are between 26 and 32 lines (rows) of text per page, although both the width of the rows and the number of rows per page increase progressively. Rows of text at the bottom of each page are damaged (lacunose), with between 1-2 lines lacunose in the first quarter of the MS, 2-3 lines lacunose in the central half, and up to seven lines lacunose in the final quarter.Questionable contents
The seven leaves missing from the papyrus' beginning unquestionably contained the first half of Romans. However, the contents of the seven missing leaves from the papyrus' end is uncertain. There would be enough space for 2 ThessaloniansSecond Epistle to the Thessalonians
The Second Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians, often referred to as Second Thessalonians and written 2 Thessalonians, is a book from the New Testament of the Christian Bible...
and possibly Philemon
Epistle to Philemon
Paul's Epistle to Philemon, usually referred to simply as Philemon, is a prison letter to Philemon from Paul of Tarsus. Philemon was a leader in the Colossian church. This letter, which is one of the books of the New Testament, deals with forgiveness.Philemon was a wealthy Christian of the house...
, but not for the Pastoral epistles
Pastoral epistles
The three pastoral epistles are books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy the Second Epistle to Timothy , and the Epistle to Titus. They are presented as letters from Paul of Tarsus...
. Kenyon
Frederic G. Kenyon
Sir Frederic George Kenyon GBE KCB TD FBA FSA was a British paleographer and biblical and classical scholar. He occupied from 1889 to 1931 a series of posts at the British Museum...
calculates that 2 Thessalonians would require two leaves, leaving only five remaining leaves (10 pages) for the remaining canonical
Biblical canon
A biblical canon, or canon of scripture, is a list of books considered to be authoritative as scripture by a particular religious community. The term itself was first coined by Christians, but the idea is found in Jewish sources. The internal wording of the text can also be specified, for example...
Pauline
Paul of Tarsus
Paul the Apostle , also known as Saul of Tarsus, is described in the Christian New Testament as one of the most influential early Christian missionaries, with the writings ascribed to him by the church forming a considerable portion of the New Testament...
literature — 1 Timothy
First Epistle to Timothy
The First Epistle of Paul to Timothy, usually referred to simply as First Timothy and often written 1 Timothy, is one of three letters in the New Testament of the Bible often grouped together as the Pastoral Epistles, the others being Second Timothy and Titus...
(estimated 8.25 pages), 2 Timothy
Second Epistle to Timothy
The Second Epistle of Paul to Timothy, usually referred to simply as Second Timothy and often written 2 Timothy, is one of the three Pastoral Epistles traditionally attributed to Saint Paul, and is part of the New Testament...
(6 pages), Titus
Epistle to Titus
The Epistle of Paul to Titus, usually referred to simply as Titus, is one of the three Pastoral Epistles , traditionally attributed to Saint Paul, and is part of the New Testament...
(3.5 pages) and Philemon (1.5 pages) — totaling ten required leaves (19.25 pages).
Interpunction
Throughout Romans, Hebrews and the latter chapters of 1 Corinthians are found small and thick strokes or dots, usually agreed to be from the hand of a reader rather than the producer of the manuscript since the ink is always much paler than that of the text itself. They appear to mark sense divisions (similar to verse numbering found in bibleBible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
s) and are also found in portions of
45Papyrus 45
Papyrus 45 is an early New Testament manuscript which is a part of the Chester Beatty Papyri. It was probably created around 250 in Egypt. It contains the texts of Matthew 20-21 and 25-26; Mark 4-9 and 11-12; Luke 6-7 and 9-14; John 4-5 and 10-11; and Acts 4-17...
, possibly evidence of reading in the community which held both codices.
Nomina Sacra
46 uses an extensive and well-developed system of nomina sacraNomina sacra
Nomina sacra means "sacred names" in Latin, and can be used to refer to traditions of abbreviated writing of several frequently occurring divine names or titles in early Greek language Holy Scripture...
. Griffin argued against Kim, in part, that such an extensive usage of the nomina sacra system nearly eliminates any possibility of the manuscript dating to the 1st century. He admitted, however, that Kim's dating cannot be ruled out on this basis alone, since the exact provenance of the nomina sacra system itself is not well-established.
Text
The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-typeAlexandrian text-type
The Alexandrian text-type , associated with Alexandria, is one of several text-types used in New Testament textual criticism to describe and group the textual character of biblical manuscripts...
. Kurt Aland
Kurt Aland
Kurt Aland was a German Theologian and Professor of New Testament Research and Church History. He founded the Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung in Münster and served as its first director for many years...
placed it in Category I.
In Romans 16:15 it has singular reading Βηρεα και Αουλιαν for Ιουλιαν, Νηρεα.
In 1 Corinthians 2:1 it reads μυστηριον along with א
Codex Sinaiticus
Codex Sinaiticus is one of the four great uncial codices, an ancient, handwritten copy of the Greek Bible. It is an Alexandrian text-type manuscript written in the 4th century in uncial letters on parchment. Current scholarship considers the Codex Sinaiticus to be one of the best Greek texts of...
, Α
Codex Alexandrinus
The Codex Alexandrinus is a 5th century manuscript of the Greek Bible,The Greek Bible in this context refers to the Bible used by Greek-speaking Christians who lived in Egypt and elsewhere during the early history of Christianity...
, C
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus is an early 5th century Greek manuscript of the Bible, the last in the group of the four great uncial manuscripts...
, 88
Minuscule 88
Codex Regis , is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on parchment leaves. Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 12th century...
, 436
Minuscule 436
Minuscule 436 , α 172 , is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on parchment...
, ita,r, syrp, copbo. Other manuscripts read μαρτυριον or σωτηριον.
In 1 Corinthians 2:4 it reads πειθοις σοφιας (plausible wisdom) for πειθοις σοφιας λογοις (plausible words of wisdom), the reading is supported only by Codex Boernerianus
Codex Boernerianus
Codex Boernerianus, designated by Gp or 012 , α 1028 , is a small New Testament codex, measuring 25 x 18 cm, written in one column per page, 20 lines per page. Dated paleographically to the 9th century. The name of the codex derives from Boerner, to whom it once belonged...
(Greek text).
In 1 Corinthians 7:5 it reads τη προσευχη (prayer) along with
11, א*, A, BCodex Vaticanus
The Codex Vaticanus , is one of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Greek Bible , one of the four great uncial codices. The Codex is named for the residence in the Vatican Library, where it has been stored since at least the 15th century...
, C, D, F, G, P, Ψ, 6
Minuscule 6
Minuscule 6 , δ 356 . It is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on 235 parchment leaves , dated palaeographically to the 13th century. The manuscript has complex contents and full marginalia...
, 33, 81
Minuscule 81
Minuscule 81 , or α162 is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on a parchment. It is dated by a colophon to the year 1044. Formerly it was labelled by 61a and 61p . The manuscript is lacunose...
, 104
Minuscule 104
Minuscule 104 , α 103 , is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on parchment leaves. Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 12th century.Formerly it was labelled by 25a, 31p, and 7r....
, 181
Minuscule 181
Minuscule 181 , α 101 , is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament, on parchment. Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 11th century.Formerly it was labelled by 40a, 46p, and 12r.It has marginalia....
, 629, 630, 1739, 1877, 1881, 1962, it vg, cop, arm, eth. Other manuscripts read τη νηστεια και τη προσευχη (fasting and prayer) τη προσευχη και νηστεια (prayer and fasting).
In 1 Corinthians 12:9 it reads εν τω πνευματι for εν τω ενι πνευματι.
In 1 Corinthians 15:47 it has singular reading reads δευτερος ανθρωπος πνευματικος for δευτερος ανθρωπος (א*, B, C, D, F, G, 0243
Uncial 0243
Uncial 0243 , is a Greek uncial manuscript of the New Testament. Paleographically it has been assigned to the 10th century.- Description :...
, 33, 1739, it, vg, copbo eth); or δευτερος ανθρωπος ο κυριος (אc, A, Dc, K, P, Ψ, 81, 104, 181, 326, 330, 436, 451, 614, 629, 1241, 1739mg, 1877, 1881, 1984, 1985, 2127, 2492, 2495, Byz, Lect).
In 2 Corinthians 1:10 it reads τηλικουτων θανατων, along with 630, 1739c, itd,e, syrp,h, goth; majority reads τηλικουτου θανατου.
Galatians 6:2 — αναπληρωσατε ] αποπληρωσετε
Ephesians 4:16 — κατ ενεργειας ] και ενεργειας.
Ephesians 6:12 — αρχας προς τας εξουσιας ] μεθοδιας
Provenance
The provenanceProvenance
Provenance, from the French provenir, "to come from", refers to the chronology of the ownership or location of an historical object. The term was originally mostly used for works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including science and computing...
of the papyrus is unknown, although it was probably originally discovered in the ruins
Ruins
Ruins are the remains of human-made architecture: structures that were once complete, as time went by, have fallen into a state of partial or complete disrepair, due to lack of maintenance or deliberate acts of destruction...
of an early Christian church
Christian Church
The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. The Greek term ἐκκλησία that in its appearances in the New Testament is usually translated as "church" basically means "assembly"...
or monastery
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
. Following the discovery in Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
, the manuscript was broken up by the dealer
Merchant
A merchant is a businessperson who trades in commodities that were produced by others, in order to earn a profit.Merchants can be one of two types:# A wholesale merchant operates in the chain between producer and retail merchant...
. Ten leaves were purchased by Chester Beatty
Alfred Chester Beatty
Sir Alfred Chester Beatty Seanad 1985: "Chester Beatty died at the Princess Grace Clinic, Monte Carlo, on 19 January 1968, [...]" . was a mining magnate and millionaire, often called the "King of Copper". U.S.-born, he was naturalised British in 1933, and made an honorary citizen of Ireland in 1957...
in 1930; the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
acquired six in 1931 and 24 in 1933. Beatty purchased 46 more in 1935, and his acquisitions now form part of the Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri
Chester Beatty Papyri
The Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri or simply the Chester Beatty Papyri are a group of early papyrus manuscripts of biblical texts. The manuscripts are in Greek and are of Christian origin. There are eleven manuscripts in the group, seven consisting of portions of Old Testament books, three...
, eleven codices of biblical material.
Date
As with all manuscripts dated solely by paleography, the dating of46 is uncertain. The first editor of parts of the papyrus, H. A. Sanders, proposed a date possibly as late as the second half of the 3rd century. F. G. Kenyon, a later editor, preferred a date in the first half of the 3rd century. The manuscript is now sometimes dated to about 200. Young Kyu Kim has argued for an exceptionally early date of c. 8080
Year 80 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Augustus and Domitianus...
. Griffin critiqued and disputed Kim's dating, placing the 'most probable date' between 175-225, with a '95% confidence interval' for a date between 150-250.
Comfort and Barrett have claimed that
46 shares affinities with the following:
- P. Oxy. 8 (assigned late 1st or early 2nd century),
- P. Oxy. 841 (the second hand, which cannot be dated later than 125–150),
- P. Oxy. 1622 (dated with confidence to pre-148148Year 148 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Cornelius and Calpernius...
, probably during the reign of HadrianHadrianHadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
(117–138), because of the documentary text on the verso), - P. Oxy. 2337 (assigned to the late 1st century),
- P. Oxy. 3721 (assigned to the second half of the 2nd century),
- P. Rylands III 550 (assigned to the 2nd century), and
- P. Berol. 9810 (early 2nd century).
This, they conclude, points to a date during the middle of the 2nd century for
46.See also
- List of New Testament papyri
- Collections of papyri
- Chester Beatty PapyriChester Beatty PapyriThe Chester Beatty Biblical Papyri or simply the Chester Beatty Papyri are a group of early papyrus manuscripts of biblical texts. The manuscripts are in Greek and are of Christian origin. There are eleven manuscripts in the group, seven consisting of portions of Old Testament books, three...
- University of Michigan Papyrus CollectionUniversity of Michigan Papyrus CollectionThe Papyrology Collection of the University of Michigan Library is an internationally respected collection of ancient papyrus and a center for research on ancient culture, language, and history...
External links
- Official WWW of Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, concerning P46
- Robert B. Waltz. 'NT Manuscripts: Papyri, Papyri
46.' - Leaves of
46 at the University of Michigan (with images in TIFF) - Reading the Papyri:
46 from the University of Michigan Papyrus Collection - Transcription and 173 images of
46 - At Evangelical Textual Criticism
- Klaus Wachtel, Klaus Witte, Das Neue Testament auf Papyrus: Gal., Eph., Phil., Kol., 1. u. 2. Thess., 1. u. 2 Tim., Tit., Phlm., Hebr, Walter de Gruyter, 1994, pp. L-LII.