Lucius Artorius Castus
Encyclopedia
Lucius Artorius Castus was a Roman
military commander. A member of the gens
Artoria
(possibly of Messapic
or Etruscan
origin), he has been suggested as a potential historical basis for King Arthur
.
, and a memorial plaque, found in Podstrana
, on the Dalmatia
n coast in Croatia
. Although the inscriptions cannot be precisely dated, Lucius Artorius Castus probably served in the Roman army sometime between the mid-late 2nd century AD or early-to-mid 3rd century AD.
Croatia
, reads (note that "7" is a rendering of the symbol used by scribes to represent the word centurio
):
D...............................M
L ARTORI[.........]STVS 7 LEG
III GALLICAE ITEM [....]G VI FERRA
TAE ITEM 7 LEG II ADI[....]TEM LEG V M
C ITEM P P EIVSDEM [...] PRAEPOSITO
CLASSIS MISENATIVM [..]AEFF LEG VI
VICTRICIS DVCI LEGG [...]M BRITAN{I}CI
MIARVM ADVERSVS ARM[....]S PROC CENTE
NARIO PROVINCIAE LI[....] GLADI VI
VVS IPSE SIBI ET SVIS [....]ST[...]
Manfred Clauss of the Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (EDCS), following the readings and expansions provided in CIL 03, 01919; CIL 03, 08513; CIL 03, 12813; Dessau 2770; IDRE-02, 303, expands the text as:
Hans-Georg Pflaum offered a slightly different expansion:
Anthony Birley translates this as:
* Note that the double -ff- in PRAEFF should be indicative of the plural (often dual), though it might be a scribal error here.
** Birley follows Pflaum's expansion of the text where [duaru]m "of two" is reinstated before Britanicimiarum. Previous editors have preferred to restore the word as alarum "to/for the alae", which may make better sense if duci legg is to be understood as the title dux legionum.
*** Birley does not translate the final phrase, [...ex te]st(amento), which (if correct) should be rendered "...according to the terms of (his) will"
As of 2009, the two stone fragments bearing this inscription have been removed from the wall of the Church of St. Martin for scientific analysis and restoration; they have since been replaced by a copy.
L ARTORIVS
CASTVS P P
LEG V MA[.] PR
AEFEC[.]VS LEG
VI VICTRIC
[.....]
Which Clauss (following CIL 03, 12791 (p 2258, 2328,120); CIL 03, 14224; IDRE-02, 304), expands:
L(ucius) Artorius | Castus p(rimus) p(ilus) | leg(ionis) V Ma[c(edonicae)] pr|aefec[t]us leg(ionis) | VI Victric(is)|[...]
Translated:
Lucius Artorius Castus, Primus Pilus of the legion V Macedonica, Prefect of the Legion VI Victrix [....]
Heinrich Dressel,“Signacula Aenea”), #8090, p. 1002.] reads:
• LVCI •
• ARTORI
• CASTI •
Without further information on the inscription, we cannot say whether or not it refers to our Lucius Artorius Castus, or simply another man of the same name.
- for most of the 2nd and 3rd centuries the unit was stationed in Syria
. Artorius held the rank of centurion
in this legion - most Roman soldiers only achieved the rank of centurion after about 15–20 years of service, but it was not unknown for some politically connected civilians of the equestrian class to be directly commissioned as centurions upon entering the Army, though these equestrian centurions (known as "ex equite Romano") were in the minority. We cannot tell whether or not Artorius had a lengthy career as a legionary
soldier before attaining the centurionate, or whether he was directly commissioned at this rank, as the vast majority of career centurion's inscriptions do not mention any ranks that they might have held below the centurionate. Successful officers often omitted the record of any ranks lower than primus pilus, as Artorius did on his memorial plaque.
was stationed in Judea
.
were based at Aquincum
(modern Budapest
) and took part in several notable campaigns against the Parthians, Marcomanni
, Quadi
and, in the mid-3rd century, the Sassanid empire.
was based in Roman Dacia
throughout the 2nd century and through most of the 3rd - the unit took part in battles against the Marcomanni
, Sarmatians
and Quadi
; it was while serving in this unit that Artorius achieved the rank of primus pilus
.
in Italy
. This title (generally given to Equites) indicated a special command over a body of troops, but somewhat limited in action and subject to the Emperor's control.
was based in Britain
from c. 122 AD onward, though their history during the 3rd c. AD is rather hazy. Throughout the 2nd century AD and into the 3rd, the headquarters of the VI Victrix was at Eboracum (modern York
). The unit was removed briefly to Lugdunum (Lyons) in 196 AD by Clodius Albinus
, during his doomed revolt against the emperor Severus
, but returned to York after the revolt was quelled - and the unit suffered a significant defeat - in 197 AD.
Artorius' position in the Legio VI Victrix, Prefect of the Legion (Praefectus Legionis), was equivalent to that of the Praefectus Castrorum
. Men who had achieved this title were normally 50–60 years old and had been in the army most of their lives, working their way up through the lower ranks and the centurionate until they reached Primus Pilus
(the rank seems to have been held exclusively by primipilares
). They acted as third-in-command to the legionary commander, the Legatus Legionis
, and senior tribune
and could assume command in their absence. Their day-to-day duties included maintenance of the fortress and management of the food supplies, sanitation, munitions, equipment, etc. For most who had attained this rank, it would be their last before retirement. During battles, the Praefectus Castrorum normally remained at the unit's home base with the reserve troops, so, given his administrative position and (probably) advanced age, it is unlikely that Artorius actually fought in any battles while serving in Britain.
Artorius could have overseen vexillations of troops guarding Hadrian's Wall
, but his inscriptions do not provide us with any precise information on where he might have served while in Britain. It has been suggested by the author Linda Malcor that he was stationed at Bremetennacum
with a contingent of Sarmatians
(originally sent to Britain in 175 AD) by emperor Marcus Aurelius, but there is no evidence to support such a conjecture. Given his duties as Praefectus Legionis, it is reasonable to assume that he spent some - if not all - of his time in Britain at the VI Victrix's headquarters in York.
It is interesting that the title is spelled (P)RAEFF on Artorius' sarcophagus - doubled letters at the end of abbreviated words on Latin inscriptions usually indicated the plural (often dual) and some legions are known to have had multiple praefecti castrorum. The title is given in the singular on the memorial plaque, though, so we might have a scribal error on the sarcophagus. If not, then Artorius was probably one of two prefects of this legion.
, a temporary title accorded to officers who were acting in a capacity above their rank, either in command of a collection of troops (generally combined vexillations drawn from legions) in transit from one station to another or in command of a complete unit (the former seems to be the case with Artorius, since the units are spoken of in the genitive plural).
For many years it has been believed that Artorius' expedition was against the Armoricans (based on the reading ADVERSUS ARM[....]S, reconstructed as "adversus *Armorcianos" - "against the Armoricans" - by Theodor Mommsen
in the CIL and followed by most subsequent editors of the inscription), but the earliest published reading of the inscription, made by the Croatian archaeologist Francesco Carrara in 1850, was ADVERSUS ARME[....], with a ligatured ME (no longer visible on the stone, possibly due to weathering, since the stone has been exposed to the elements for centuries and was reused as part of a roadside wall next to the church of St. Martin in Podstrana; the mutilated word falls along the broken right-hand edge of the first fragment of the inscription). If Carrara's reading is correct, the phrase is most likely to be reconstructed as "adversus *Armenios", i.e. "against the Armenians", since no other national or tribal name beginning with the letters *Arme- is known from this time period.
It should be noted that the regional names Armoricani
or Armorici are not attested in any other Latin inscriptions, whereas the country Armenia and derivatives such as the ethnic name Armenii and personal name Armeniacus are attested in numerous Latin inscriptions. Furthermore, no classical sources mention any military action taken against the Armorici/Armoricani (which was in origin a regional name that encompassed a number of different tribes) in the 2nd or 3rd centuries. While there are literary references to (and a small amount of archaeological evidence for) minor unrest in northwestern Gaul during this time period - often referred to as, or associated with, the rebellion of the Bagaudae
, there is no evidence that the Bagaudae were connected with the Armorici/Armoricani, or any other particular tribe or region for that matter, making the possible reference to the Armorici/Armoricani somewhat strange (especially since Armorica was otherwise experience a period of prosperity in the late 2nd century AD (when Malcor, et al. believe that Artorius' expedition took place). Armenia, on the other hand, was the location of several conflicts involving the Romans during the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
The alternate, "Armenian" translation was put forward as early as 1881 by the epigrapher and classical scholar Emil Hübner
and most recently taken up again by the historian and epigrapher Xavier Loriot, who (based on the contextual and epigraphic evidence) suggests a floruit for Artorius in the early-mid 3rd century AD (Loriot's analysis of the inscription has recently been adopted by the Roman historians Anthony Birley
and Marie-Henriette Quet).
The name of the units that Artorius led in this expedition, "Britanicimiae", seems to be corrupt - it might be reconstructed as *Britanniciniae or *Britannicianiae. If so, they were probably units similar in nature to the ala and cohors I Britannica (also known as the I Flavia Britannica or Britanniciana, among other titles), which were stationed in Britain in the mid-1st century AD, but removed to Vindobona
in Pannonia
by the late 80's AD (they would later take part in Trajan's Parthian War of 114-117 AD and Trebonianus Gallus'
Persian war of 252 AD). Though the name of the unit was derived from its early service in Britain, the unit was not generally composed of ethnic Britons. No units of this name are believed to have been active in Britain during the late 2nd century. In an inscription from Sirmium
in Pannonia
dating to the reign of the emperor Gallienus
(CIL 3, 3228), we have mention of vexillatio
ns of legions *Britan(n)icin([i?]ae) ("militum vexill(ationum) legg(ionum) ]G]ermaniciana[r(um)] [e]t Brittan(n)icin(arum)") - another form that is very similar to the *Britan(n)ici{m}iae from Artorius' inscription.
, which Artorius indeed managed to accomplish after retiring from the army. He became procurator centenarius (governor) of Liburnia
, a part of Roman Dalmatia
, today's Croatia
. (centenarius indicates that he received a salary of 100,000 sesterces per year). Nothing further is known of him. Other Artorii are attested in the area, but it is unknown if Lucius Artorius Castus started this branch of the family in Dalmatia, or whether the family had already been settled there prior to his birth (if the latter, Artorius might have received the Liburnian procuratorship because he was a native of the region).
in medieval European literature was first suggested by Kemp Malone
in 1924 and has recently been championed by authors C. Scott Littleton
and Linda Malcor (who was a research consultant for the 2004 movie King Arthur and on whose hypotheses regarding Artorius the screenplay was based). Although Artorius was not contemporaneous with the Saxon invasions of Britain in the 5th century, it is possible, albeit remotely (given the differences between Artorius' career and that traditionally assigned to King Arthur), that he was remembered in local tales and legends that grew in the retelling. As it stands today, there is no definitive proof that Lucius Artorius Castus was the "real" King Arthur.
.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
military commander. A member of the gens
Gens
In ancient Rome, a gens , plural gentes, referred to a family, consisting of all those individuals who shared the same nomen and claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens was called a stirps . The gens was an important social structure at Rome and throughout Italy during the...
Artoria
Artorius
Artorius was the family name of a Roman gens of obscure and contested etymology.Several Italian scholars consider the name to be of Messapic origin, connecting it with the Messapic gens name Artorres, likely a derivative of the Messapic name Artas , of uncertain meaning.An alternate etymology...
(possibly of Messapic
Messapian language
Messapian is an extinct Indo-European language of South-eastern Italy, once spoken in the region of Apulia. It was spoken by the three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Dauni and the Peucetii....
or Etruscan
Etruscan language
The Etruscan language was spoken and written by the Etruscan civilization, in what is present-day Italy, in the ancient region of Etruria and in parts of Lombardy, Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna...
origin), he has been suggested as a potential historical basis for King Arthur
Historical basis for King Arthur
The historical basis of King Arthur is a source of considerable debate among historians. The first datable mention of King Arthur in a historical context comes from a Latin text of the 9th century - more than three centuries after his supposed floruit in 5th to early 6th century Sub-Roman Britain...
.
Military career according to sources
What is known of Artorius comes from inscriptions on fragments of a sarcophagusSarcophagus
A sarcophagus is a funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved or cut from stone. The word "sarcophagus" comes from the Greek σαρξ sarx meaning "flesh", and φαγειν phagein meaning "to eat", hence sarkophagus means "flesh-eating"; from the phrase lithos sarkophagos...
, and a memorial plaque, found in Podstrana
Podstrana
Podstrana is a municipality and settlement in Croatia in the Split-Dalmatia County. It has a population of 7,341 , 97% which are Croats.In the Second World War, the town suffered 131 casualties....
, on the Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
n coast in Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
. Although the inscriptions cannot be precisely dated, Lucius Artorius Castus probably served in the Roman army sometime between the mid-late 2nd century AD or early-to-mid 3rd century AD.
The first inscription
The sarcophagus inscription, which was broken into two pieces at some point prior to the 19th century and set into the wall of the Church of St Martin in PodstranaPodstrana
Podstrana is a municipality and settlement in Croatia in the Split-Dalmatia County. It has a population of 7,341 , 97% which are Croats.In the Second World War, the town suffered 131 casualties....
Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
, reads (note that "7" is a rendering of the symbol used by scribes to represent the word centurio
Centurion
A centurion was a professional officer of the Roman army .Centurion may also refer to:-Military:* Centurion tank, British battle tank* HMS Centurion, name of several ships and a shore base of the British Royal Navy...
):
D...............................M
L ARTORI[.........]STVS 7 LEG
III GALLICAE ITEM [....]G VI FERRA
TAE ITEM 7 LEG II ADI[....]TEM LEG V M
C ITEM P P EIVSDEM [...] PRAEPOSITO
CLASSIS MISENATIVM [..]AEFF LEG VI
VICTRICIS DVCI LEGG [...]M BRITAN{I}CI
MIARVM ADVERSVS ARM[....]S PROC CENTE
NARIO PROVINCIAE LI[....] GLADI VI
VVS IPSE SIBI ET SVIS [....]ST[...]
Manfred Clauss of the Epigraphik-Datenbank Clauss-Slaby (EDCS), following the readings and expansions provided in CIL 03, 01919; CIL 03, 08513; CIL 03, 12813; Dessau 2770; IDRE-02, 303, expands the text as:
- D(is) [M(anibus)] | L(ucius) Artori[us Ca]stus |(centurio) leg(ionis) | III Gallicae item [|(centurio) le]g(ionis) VI Ferratae item |(centurio) leg(ionis) II Adi[utr(icis) i]tem |(centurio) leg(ionis) V M[a]c(edonicae) item p(rimus) p(ilus) eiusdem praeposito classis Misenatium [pr]aef(ectus) leg(ionis) VI Victricis duci legg(ionum) [triu]m Britan(n)ic{i}{mi}arum adversus Arme[nio]s proc(urator) centenario(!) provinciae Li[burniae iure] gladi(i) vivus ipse sibi et suis [...ex te]st(amento)
Hans-Georg Pflaum offered a slightly different expansion:
- D(is) M(anibus) L(ucius) Artori[us Ca]stus (centurio) leg(ionis) III Gallicae item [(centurio) le]g(ionis) VI Ferratae item (centurio) leg(ionis) II Adi[utricis i]tem (centurio) V M(acedonicae) C(onstantis) item p(rimi) p(ilus) eiusdem [legionis], praeposito classis Misenatium, [item pr]aeff(ecto) leg(ionis) VI Victricis, duci legg(ionum) [duaru]m Britanicimiarum adversus Arm[oricano]s, proc[uratori) centenario provinciae Lib[urn(iae) iure] gladi vivus ipse et suis [….ex te]st(amento)
Anthony Birley translates this as:
- “To the divine shades, Lucius Artorius Castus, centurionCenturionA centurion was a professional officer of the Roman army .Centurion may also refer to:-Military:* Centurion tank, British battle tank* HMS Centurion, name of several ships and a shore base of the British Royal Navy...
of the Third Legion GallicaLegio III GallicaLegio tertia Gallica was a Roman legion levied by Julius Caesar around 49 BC, for his civil war against the conservative republicans led by Pompey. The cognomen Gallica suggests that recruits were originally from the Gallic Roman provinces. The legion was still active in Egypt in the early 4th...
, also centurion of the Sixth Legion FerrataLegio VI FerrataLegio sexta Ferrata , was a Roman Legion formed in 65 BC, and in existence up to at least 3rd century. A Legio VI fought in the Roman Republican civil wars of the 40s and 30s BC...
, also centurion of the Second Legion AdiutrixLegio II AdiutrixLegio secunda Adiutrix , was a Roman legion levied by emperor Vespasian in 70, from Roman navy marines of the classis Ravennatis. There are still records of II Adiutrix in the Rhine border in the beginning of the 4th century...
, also centurion of the Fifth Legion MacedonicaLegio V MacedonicaLegio quinta Macedonica was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Octavian in 43 BC, and it was stationed in Moesia at least until 5th century. Its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well...
, also chief centurionPrimus PilusThe Primus pilus was the senior centurion of a Roman legion.-Historical role:In the late Roman republic, the cohort , became the basic tactical unit of the legions. The cohort was composed of five to eight centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write...
of the same legion, in charge of (Praepositus) the Misenum fleetClassis MisenensisThe classis Misenensis , later awarded the honorifics praetoria and Pia Vindex, was the senior fleet of the imperial Roman Navy.- History :...
, prefect* of the Sixth Legion VictrixLegio VI VictrixLegio sexta Victrix was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. It was the twin legion of VI Ferrata and perhaps held veterans of that legion, and some soldiers kept to the traditions of the Caesarian legion....
, commanderDuxDux is Latin for leader and later for Duke and its variant forms ....
of two** British legions against the Armenians, centenary procuratorProcurator (Roman)A procurator was the title of various officials of the Roman Empire, posts mostly filled by equites . A procurator Augusti was the governor of the smaller imperial provinces...
of LiburniaLiburniaLiburnia in ancient geography was the land of the Liburnians, a region along the northeastern Adriatic coast in Europe, in modern Croatia, whose borders shifted according to the extent of Liburnian dominance at a given time between 11th and 1st century BC...
with the power of the sword. He himself (set this up) for himself and his family in his lifetime.***”
As of 2009, the two stone fragments bearing this inscription have been removed from the wall of the Church of St. Martin for scientific analysis and restoration; they have since been replaced by a copy.
The second inscription
The memorial plaque, which was discovered not far away from the first inscription and was also broken at some point prior to the 19th century, reads:L ARTORIVS
CASTVS P P
LEG V MA[.] PR
AEFEC[.]VS LEG
VI VICTRIC
[.....]
Which Clauss (following CIL 03, 12791 (p 2258, 2328,120); CIL 03, 14224; IDRE-02, 304), expands:
L(ucius) Artorius | Castus p(rimus) p(ilus) | leg(ionis) V Ma[c(edonicae)] pr|aefec[t]us leg(ionis) | VI Victric(is)|[...]
Translated:
Lucius Artorius Castus, Primus Pilus of the legion V Macedonica, Prefect of the Legion VI Victrix [....]
A third inscription?
An undated, unprovenanced inscription, supposedly discovered in Rome but recorded as being in Paris in the 19th century [CIL XV (Inscriptiones urbis Romae Latinae: instrumentum domesticum,Heinrich Dressel,“Signacula Aenea”), #8090, p. 1002.] reads:
• LVCI •
• ARTORI
• CASTI •
Without further information on the inscription, we cannot say whether or not it refers to our Lucius Artorius Castus, or simply another man of the same name.
Centurio of Legio III Gallica
The first unit mentioned on Artorius' inscription is the legio III GallicaLegio III Gallica
Legio tertia Gallica was a Roman legion levied by Julius Caesar around 49 BC, for his civil war against the conservative republicans led by Pompey. The cognomen Gallica suggests that recruits were originally from the Gallic Roman provinces. The legion was still active in Egypt in the early 4th...
- for most of the 2nd and 3rd centuries the unit was stationed in Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
. Artorius held the rank of centurion
Centurion
A centurion was a professional officer of the Roman army .Centurion may also refer to:-Military:* Centurion tank, British battle tank* HMS Centurion, name of several ships and a shore base of the British Royal Navy...
in this legion - most Roman soldiers only achieved the rank of centurion after about 15–20 years of service, but it was not unknown for some politically connected civilians of the equestrian class to be directly commissioned as centurions upon entering the Army, though these equestrian centurions (known as "ex equite Romano") were in the minority. We cannot tell whether or not Artorius had a lengthy career as a legionary
Legionary
The Roman legionary was a professional soldier of the Roman army after the Marian reforms of 107 BC. Legionaries had to be Roman citizens under the age of 45. They enlisted in a legion for twenty-five years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign...
soldier before attaining the centurionate, or whether he was directly commissioned at this rank, as the vast majority of career centurion's inscriptions do not mention any ranks that they might have held below the centurionate. Successful officers often omitted the record of any ranks lower than primus pilus, as Artorius did on his memorial plaque.
Centurio of Legio VI Ferrata
From the middle of the 2nd century until at least the early 3rd century the legio VI FerrataLegio VI Ferrata
Legio sexta Ferrata , was a Roman Legion formed in 65 BC, and in existence up to at least 3rd century. A Legio VI fought in the Roman Republican civil wars of the 40s and 30s BC...
was stationed in Judea
Judea
Judea or Judæa was the name of the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century CE, when Roman Judea was renamed Syria Palaestina following the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt.-Etymology:The...
.
Centurio of Legio II Adiutrix
From the early 2nd century onward the legio II AdiutrixLegio II Adiutrix
Legio secunda Adiutrix , was a Roman legion levied by emperor Vespasian in 70, from Roman navy marines of the classis Ravennatis. There are still records of II Adiutrix in the Rhine border in the beginning of the 4th century...
were based at Aquincum
Aquincum
The ancient city of Aquincum was situated on the North-Eastern borders of the Pannonia province within the Roman Empire. The ruins of the city can be found today in Budapest, the capital city of Hungary...
(modern Budapest
Budapest
Budapest is the capital of Hungary. As the largest city of Hungary, it is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre. In 2011, Budapest had 1,733,685 inhabitants, down from its 1989 peak of 2,113,645 due to suburbanization. The Budapest Commuter...
) and took part in several notable campaigns against the Parthians, Marcomanni
Marcomanni
The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi.-Origin:Scholars believe their name derives possibly from Proto-Germanic forms of "march" and "men"....
, Quadi
Quadi
The Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little is definitively known. We only know the Germanic tribe the Romans called the 'Quadi' through reports of the Romans themselves...
and, in the mid-3rd century, the Sassanid empire.
Centurio and Primus Pilus of Legio V Macedonica
The legio V MacedonicaLegio V Macedonica
Legio quinta Macedonica was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Octavian in 43 BC, and it was stationed in Moesia at least until 5th century. Its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well...
was based in Roman Dacia
Roman Dacia
The Roman province of Dacia on the Balkans included the modern Romanian regions of Transylvania, Banat and Oltenia, and temporarily Muntenia and southern Moldova, but not the nearby regions of Moesia...
throughout the 2nd century and through most of the 3rd - the unit took part in battles against the Marcomanni
Marcomanni
The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi.-Origin:Scholars believe their name derives possibly from Proto-Germanic forms of "march" and "men"....
, Sarmatians
Sarmatians
The Iron Age Sarmatians were an Iranian people in Classical Antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD....
and Quadi
Quadi
The Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little is definitively known. We only know the Germanic tribe the Romans called the 'Quadi' through reports of the Romans themselves...
; it was while serving in this unit that Artorius achieved the rank of primus pilus
Primus Pilus
The Primus pilus was the senior centurion of a Roman legion.-Historical role:In the late Roman republic, the cohort , became the basic tactical unit of the legions. The cohort was composed of five to eight centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write...
.
Praepositus of the Misenum fleet
Artorius next acted as Provost (Praepositus) of the Misenum fleetClassis Misenensis
The classis Misenensis , later awarded the honorifics praetoria and Pia Vindex, was the senior fleet of the imperial Roman Navy.- History :...
in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
. This title (generally given to Equites) indicated a special command over a body of troops, but somewhat limited in action and subject to the Emperor's control.
Praefectus of Legio VI Victrix
The Legio VI VictrixLegio VI Victrix
Legio sexta Victrix was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. It was the twin legion of VI Ferrata and perhaps held veterans of that legion, and some soldiers kept to the traditions of the Caesarian legion....
was based in Britain
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire from AD 43 until ca. AD 410.The Romans referred to the imperial province as Britannia, which eventually comprised all of the island of Great Britain south of the fluid frontier with Caledonia...
from c. 122 AD onward, though their history during the 3rd c. AD is rather hazy. Throughout the 2nd century AD and into the 3rd, the headquarters of the VI Victrix was at Eboracum (modern York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
). The unit was removed briefly to Lugdunum (Lyons) in 196 AD by Clodius Albinus
Clodius Albinus
Clodius Albinus was a Roman usurper proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain and Hispania upon the murder of Pertinax in 193.-Life:...
, during his doomed revolt against the emperor Severus
Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus , also known as Severus, was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of...
, but returned to York after the revolt was quelled - and the unit suffered a significant defeat - in 197 AD.
Artorius' position in the Legio VI Victrix, Prefect of the Legion (Praefectus Legionis), was equivalent to that of the Praefectus Castrorum
Praefectus Castrorum
The praefectus castrorum was, in the Roman army of the early Empire, the third-most senior commander of the Roman legion, after the legate and the senior military tribune . His responsibility was looking after equipment and building works but could command the legion when his seniors were absent...
. Men who had achieved this title were normally 50–60 years old and had been in the army most of their lives, working their way up through the lower ranks and the centurionate until they reached Primus Pilus
Primus Pilus
The Primus pilus was the senior centurion of a Roman legion.-Historical role:In the late Roman republic, the cohort , became the basic tactical unit of the legions. The cohort was composed of five to eight centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write...
(the rank seems to have been held exclusively by primipilares
Primus Pilus
The Primus pilus was the senior centurion of a Roman legion.-Historical role:In the late Roman republic, the cohort , became the basic tactical unit of the legions. The cohort was composed of five to eight centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio, a soldier who could read and write...
). They acted as third-in-command to the legionary commander, the Legatus Legionis
Legatus
A legatus was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer. Being of senatorial rank, his immediate superior was the dux, and he outranked all military tribunes...
, and senior tribune
Tribune
Tribune was a title shared by elected officials in the Roman Republic. Tribunes had the power to convene the Plebeian Council and to act as its president, which also gave them the right to propose legislation before it. They were sacrosanct, in the sense that any assault on their person was...
and could assume command in their absence. Their day-to-day duties included maintenance of the fortress and management of the food supplies, sanitation, munitions, equipment, etc. For most who had attained this rank, it would be their last before retirement. During battles, the Praefectus Castrorum normally remained at the unit's home base with the reserve troops, so, given his administrative position and (probably) advanced age, it is unlikely that Artorius actually fought in any battles while serving in Britain.
Artorius could have overseen vexillations of troops guarding Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall was a defensive fortification in Roman Britain. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall, lesser known of the two because its physical remains are less evident today.The...
, but his inscriptions do not provide us with any precise information on where he might have served while in Britain. It has been suggested by the author Linda Malcor that he was stationed at Bremetennacum
Bremetennacum
Bremetennacum was a Roman fort which is now the village of Ribchester in Lancashire . The site is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The first Roman activity on the site was the establishment of a timber fort believed to have been constructed during the campaigns of Petillius Cerialis around AD 72/3...
with a contingent of Sarmatians
Sarmatians
The Iron Age Sarmatians were an Iranian people in Classical Antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD....
(originally sent to Britain in 175 AD) by emperor Marcus Aurelius, but there is no evidence to support such a conjecture. Given his duties as Praefectus Legionis, it is reasonable to assume that he spent some - if not all - of his time in Britain at the VI Victrix's headquarters in York.
It is interesting that the title is spelled (P)RAEFF on Artorius' sarcophagus - doubled letters at the end of abbreviated words on Latin inscriptions usually indicated the plural (often dual) and some legions are known to have had multiple praefecti castrorum. The title is given in the singular on the memorial plaque, though, so we might have a scribal error on the sarcophagus. If not, then Artorius was probably one of two prefects of this legion.
Dux Legionum of the Alae(?) "Britanicimiae"
Before finishing his military career, Artorius lead an expedition of some note as a Dux LegionumDux
Dux is Latin for leader and later for Duke and its variant forms ....
, a temporary title accorded to officers who were acting in a capacity above their rank, either in command of a collection of troops (generally combined vexillations drawn from legions) in transit from one station to another or in command of a complete unit (the former seems to be the case with Artorius, since the units are spoken of in the genitive plural).
Adversus *Arm[oric(an)o]s or Adversus *Arme[nio]s?
For many years it has been believed that Artorius' expedition was against the Armoricans (based on the reading ADVERSUS ARM[....]S, reconstructed as "adversus *Armorcianos" - "against the Armoricans" - by Theodor Mommsen
Theodor Mommsen
Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, archaeologist, and writer generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the 19th century. His work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research...
in the CIL and followed by most subsequent editors of the inscription), but the earliest published reading of the inscription, made by the Croatian archaeologist Francesco Carrara in 1850, was ADVERSUS ARME[....], with a ligatured ME (no longer visible on the stone, possibly due to weathering, since the stone has been exposed to the elements for centuries and was reused as part of a roadside wall next to the church of St. Martin in Podstrana; the mutilated word falls along the broken right-hand edge of the first fragment of the inscription). If Carrara's reading is correct, the phrase is most likely to be reconstructed as "adversus *Armenios", i.e. "against the Armenians", since no other national or tribal name beginning with the letters *Arme- is known from this time period.
It should be noted that the regional names Armoricani
Armoricani
The Armoricani were a tribe living in the area now called Brittany and all along the coast up to Dieppe in Normandy. They inhabited the area in the Iron Age, though there is plenty of evidence of earlier settlement in that part of Gaul. Strabo and Poseidonius describe the Armoricani as belonging...
or Armorici are not attested in any other Latin inscriptions, whereas the country Armenia and derivatives such as the ethnic name Armenii and personal name Armeniacus are attested in numerous Latin inscriptions. Furthermore, no classical sources mention any military action taken against the Armorici/Armoricani (which was in origin a regional name that encompassed a number of different tribes) in the 2nd or 3rd centuries. While there are literary references to (and a small amount of archaeological evidence for) minor unrest in northwestern Gaul during this time period - often referred to as, or associated with, the rebellion of the Bagaudae
Bagaudae
In the time of the later Roman Empire bagaudae were groups of peasant insurgents who emerged during the "Crisis of the Third Century", and persisted particularly in the less-Romanised areas of Gallia and Hispania, where they were "exposed to the depredations of the late Roman state, and the great...
, there is no evidence that the Bagaudae were connected with the Armorici/Armoricani, or any other particular tribe or region for that matter, making the possible reference to the Armorici/Armoricani somewhat strange (especially since Armorica was otherwise experience a period of prosperity in the late 2nd century AD (when Malcor, et al. believe that Artorius' expedition took place). Armenia, on the other hand, was the location of several conflicts involving the Romans during the 2nd and 3rd centuries.
The alternate, "Armenian" translation was put forward as early as 1881 by the epigrapher and classical scholar Emil Hübner
Emil Hübner
Emil Hübner was a German classical scholar.He was born at Düsseldorf, the son of the historical painter Julius Hübner ,...
and most recently taken up again by the historian and epigrapher Xavier Loriot, who (based on the contextual and epigraphic evidence) suggests a floruit for Artorius in the early-mid 3rd century AD (Loriot's analysis of the inscription has recently been adopted by the Roman historians Anthony Birley
Anthony Birley
Anthony Richard Birley was the Professor of Ancient History at University of Manchester and at University of Düsseldorf . He is the son of the archaeologist Eric Birley, who bought the house next to Vindolanda where Anthony and his brother Robin began to excavate the site...
and Marie-Henriette Quet).
Britanicimiae
The name of the units that Artorius led in this expedition, "Britanicimiae", seems to be corrupt - it might be reconstructed as *Britanniciniae or *Britannicianiae. If so, they were probably units similar in nature to the ala and cohors I Britannica (also known as the I Flavia Britannica or Britanniciana, among other titles), which were stationed in Britain in the mid-1st century AD, but removed to Vindobona
Vindobona
Vindobona was originally a Celtic settlement, and later a Roman military camp on the site of the modern city of Vienna in Austria. Around 15 BC, the kingdom of Noricum was included in the Roman Empire...
in Pannonia
Pannonia
Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....
by the late 80's AD (they would later take part in Trajan's Parthian War of 114-117 AD and Trebonianus Gallus'
Trebonianus Gallus
Trebonianus Gallus , also known as Gallus, was Roman Emperor from 251 to 253, in a joint rule with his son Volusianus.-Early life:Gallus was born in Italy, in a family with respected ancestry of Etruscan senatorial background. He had two children in his marriage with Afinia Gemina Baebiana: Gaius...
Persian war of 252 AD). Though the name of the unit was derived from its early service in Britain, the unit was not generally composed of ethnic Britons. No units of this name are believed to have been active in Britain during the late 2nd century. In an inscription from Sirmium
Sirmium
Sirmium was a city in ancient Roman Pannonia. Firstly mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts, it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Lower Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was...
in Pannonia
Pannonia
Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia....
dating to the reign of the emperor Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
(CIL 3, 3228), we have mention of vexillatio
Vexillatio
A vexillatio was a detachment of a Roman legion formed as a temporary task force created by the Roman Army of the Principate. It was named from the standards carried by legionary detachments, vexillum , which bore the emblem and name of the parent legion...
ns of legions *Britan(n)icin([i?]ae) ("militum vexill(ationum) legg(ionum) ]G]ermaniciana[r(um)] [e]t Brittan(n)icin(arum)") - another form that is very similar to the *Britan(n)ici{m}iae from Artorius' inscription.
Procurator Centenarius of Liburnia
Exceptionally talented, experienced and/or connected Praefects Castrorum/Legionis could sometimes move on to higher civilian positions such as ProcuratorProcurator (Roman)
A procurator was the title of various officials of the Roman Empire, posts mostly filled by equites . A procurator Augusti was the governor of the smaller imperial provinces...
, which Artorius indeed managed to accomplish after retiring from the army. He became procurator centenarius (governor) of Liburnia
Liburnia
Liburnia in ancient geography was the land of the Liburnians, a region along the northeastern Adriatic coast in Europe, in modern Croatia, whose borders shifted according to the extent of Liburnian dominance at a given time between 11th and 1st century BC...
, a part of Roman Dalmatia
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
, today's Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
. (centenarius indicates that he received a salary of 100,000 sesterces per year). Nothing further is known of him. Other Artorii are attested in the area, but it is unknown if Lucius Artorius Castus started this branch of the family in Dalmatia, or whether the family had already been settled there prior to his birth (if the latter, Artorius might have received the Liburnian procuratorship because he was a native of the region).
Identification with King Arthur
The possibility that Lucius Artorius Castus was the inspiration for the figure of ArthurKing Arthur
King Arthur is a legendary British leader of the late 5th and early 6th centuries, who, according to Medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and...
in medieval European literature was first suggested by Kemp Malone
Kemp Malone
Kemp Malone was a prolific medievalist, etymologist, philologist, and specialist in Chaucer who was lecturer and then professor of English Literature at Johns Hopkins University from 1924 to 1956....
in 1924 and has recently been championed by authors C. Scott Littleton
C. Scott Littleton
Covington Scott Littleton was an American anthropologist and academic.Born in Los Angeles, he served in the Army during the Korean War. Littleton obtained his B.A. , M.A. , and Ph.D...
and Linda Malcor (who was a research consultant for the 2004 movie King Arthur and on whose hypotheses regarding Artorius the screenplay was based). Although Artorius was not contemporaneous with the Saxon invasions of Britain in the 5th century, it is possible, albeit remotely (given the differences between Artorius' career and that traditionally assigned to King Arthur), that he was remembered in local tales and legends that grew in the retelling. As it stands today, there is no definitive proof that Lucius Artorius Castus was the "real" King Arthur.
| Lucius Artorius Castus | King Arthur | |
|---|---|---|
| Floruit | Unknown; probably late 2nd-early 3rd century AD. | Traditionally assigned to the late 5th-early 6th century AD. |
| Name | Artorius = LAC's family name, his nomen gentile Roman naming conventions By the Republican era and throughout the Imperial era, a name in ancient Rome for a male citizen consisted of three parts : praenomen , nomen and cognomen... . |
Arthur is potentially derived from Latin Artorius, but a Celtic origin is also possible. Treated as a native Welsh first name in medieval Latin texts (where it is always rendered as Art[h]ur[i]us and never as Artorius). |
| Ethnicity | The Artorii family have roots in Italy, potentially of Messapic or Etruscan origin; LAC might have been born to a branch of the family that settled in Dalmatia Dalmatia Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south.... . |
Traditionally linked in Welsh literature and genealogies to the British nobility of Cornwall. |
| Religion | Unknown; dedications to the Di Manes Manes In ancient Roman religion, the Manes or Di Manes are chthonic deities sometimes thought to represent the souls of deceased loved ones. They were associated with the Lares, Genii, and Di Penates as deities that pertained to domestic, local, and personal cult... , as found on LAC's tomb, are found in both pagan and Christian inscriptions in the 3rd century AD. |
At the very least, nominally Christian - according to the Historia Brittonum he bore an image of the Blessed Virgin Mary in one of his battles; though later texts depict him as antagonistic towards clergymen. |
| Military Status | High-ranking, career officer in the Roman army, late in his career (likely as an older man) he served as Camp Prefect in Britain and finally as Dux Legionum ("Leader of Legions") in a single military campaign. | In the medieval Latin of the Historia Brittonum, Arthur is called a miles, "knight, mounted warrior, armed horseman" Knight A knight was a member of a class of lower nobility in the High Middle Ages.By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior.... (a shift in meaning of miles from ancient Classical Latin, in which the word meant "professional soldier, common soldier, private, low-ranking foot soldier"). Also, in the Historia Brittonum, Arthur is called dux belli (alternately dux bellorum in some MSS), "leader of the battle(s)" (specifically, the 12 battles that he fought with the aid of the British kings against the Saxons), but this is a conventional Latin phrase and does not indicate that Arthur held the military title of Dux in a Post-Roman British army (in fact, non-Roman war leaders are sometimes called dux belli/bellorum in ancient Latin texts, including the biblical hero Joshua, in the Latin Vulgate Bible). In later medieval Welsh sources he is called both "emperor" and "king" (the latter title preferred in medieval Arthurian Romance King Arthur King Arthur is a legendary British leader of the late 5th and early 6th centuries, who, according to Medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and... ). |
| British Battles | During battle, Camp Prefects normally remained at their unit's base with the reserve troops, so it is unlikely that LAC fought while in Britain. LAC later oversaw an expedition of troops with some sort of British connection, either to Gaul or Armenia. | In the 9th century Historia Brittonum, Arthur, along with the British kings, fought 12 battles in Britain against the invading Saxons and Arthur allegedly slew many hundreds of Saxons by his own hand (the exact number differs in the various manuscripts). In later texts (such as the 11th century Life of St. Goeznovius and the 12th century Historia Regum Britanniae Historia Regum Britanniae The Historia Regum Britanniae is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written c. 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. It chronicles the lives of the kings of the Britons in a chronological narrative spanning a time of two thousand years, beginning with the Trojans founding the British nation... ), Arthur is stated to have fought battles in Gaul as well as in Britannia. |
| Death | Unknown date and circumstances; probably died at an advanced age, potentially during his procuratorship of Liburnia Liburnia Liburnia in ancient geography was the land of the Liburnians, a region along the northeastern Adriatic coast in Europe, in modern Croatia, whose borders shifted according to the extent of Liburnian dominance at a given time between 11th and 1st century BC... (where he was buried). |
In Welsh literature, traditionally stated to have died during the Battle of Camlann Battle of Camlann The Battle of Camlann is best known as the final battle of King Arthur, where he either died in battle, or was fatally wounded fighting his enemy Mordred.-Historicity:... (of unknown location in Britain); his burial site was unknown to medieval Welsh. |
Lucius Artorius Castus as King Arthur in modern entertainment
In the film King Arthur Artorius is partially identified with King Arthur (it is stated in the film that Arthur's Roman name was "Artorius Castus" and that Artorius was an ancestral name derived from that of a famous leader), but his floruit is pushed several centuries later so that he is made a contemporary of the invading Saxons in the 5th century AD (in agreement with native Welsh tradition regarding Arthur, though his activities are placed many decades earlier than the medieval sources assign to him). Lucius Artorius Castus is also the given name of the character Askeladd in the manga Vinland SagaVinland Saga
-Bonus tracks:Limited Edition# "Heal" – 3:58# "For Amelie" - 3:37-Production:*Produced, Engineered, Mixed & Mastered By Alexander Krull at Mastersound Studios...
.
External links
- Linda A. MalcorLinda A. MalcorLinda Ann Malcor Ph.D is an American scholar of Arthurian legend. She is one of the proponents of the theory that states that the historical basis for King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were a 2nd-century Roman officer named Lucius Artorius Castus and Sarmatian auxiliary horsemen,...
's 1999 article about Lucius Artorius Castus in The Heroic Age, part 1 and 2 - Photograph of the first sarcophagus fragment from Podstrana
- Photograph of the second sarcophagus fragment from Podstrana
- Photograph of the Church of St. Martin in Podstrana, with the first sarcopahgus fragment in the wall, to the left
- The Lucius Artorius Castus Inscriptions: A Sourcebook
