Korean literature
Encyclopedia
Korean literature is the body of literature
produced in Korea
or by Korean writers. For much of its 3,000 years of literature history, it was written both in Hanja
and in Korean
, first using the transcription systems idu and gugyeol
, and finally using the Korean script Hangul
. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type, world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script
.
: as a lingua franca
for the region. It helped cultural exchanges extensively.
Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with movable type
, often imperial encyclopedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era
from printing wood-blocks; and in the Goryeo
era the world's first metal type, and books printed by metal type, most probably of copper
, were produced. Fully two hundred years before the work of Johann Gutenberg or William Caxton
who, to most Westerners, "invented" the first printing presses.
Scriptoria have existed since the beginning of the culture, and rose to great importance in Buddhist and later Confucianist schools with circulation of texts, inter-lineal glosses, and commentaries from those religions. Most Buddhist literature was recited aloud, had limited repeated vocabulary, and was used for deeply impressing religious states, or for memory training or mnemonics.
Genres are similar to Chinese, and even western ones. There are epics, poetry, religious texts and exegetical commentaries on Buddhist and Confucianist learning; translations of foreign works; plays and court rituals; comedies, tragedies, mixed genres; and various kinds of novels. Radioplays and screenplays are extensive, few have been translated, many are archived but not available to the public. And no research work has been done in this area. Translation work of the most famous Korean literature has been slow, during the colonial period, creative writing in Korean was forbidden and there are few works of literature published at home from 1910-1945. Works by exiles in Shanghai
, and other regions, are little known. The overseas Korean writers, expatriates, have had limited success other than in travel literature which is widely read.
Korean epic is best represented by works such as Yi Gyu-bo's King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo, which derives much of its influence from narrative histories done by writers such as Yi Je-hyeon (hangul
: 이제현, hanja
: 李齊賢), and before that Yi Il-lo (hangul
: 이인로, hanja
: 李仁老), Yi Gyu-bo (hangul
: 이규보, hanja
: 李奎報), and Choi Chu for battlefield histories and stories.
To some extent 20th century literature under Western influence has moved to separate integrated art forms such as calligraphy
to the standardization of printed books. The 21st century though has revived integrated art forms of literature in Korean animated blogs, and over-designed, visually dense homepages and websites. Manhwa
, or illustrated novels, are very popular.
Contemporary Korean literature is robust as Korea is a nation of readers. Book prices are low, and writers are respected, with many having academic positions as well as being well known on television.
. There are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); pyolgok ("special songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and kasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th centuries, and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (1445-47; Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle compiled in praise of the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language.
One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (箜篌引) by Yeo-ok (여옥,麗玉) during Gojoseon
.
: 향가, hanja
: 鄕歌) was written in Korean using modified hanja
in a system that is called idu
(hangul
: 이두, hanja
: 吏讀), literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal". Idu was a system using hanja characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some hanja characters for their intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but after using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters consistently standing for Korean words.
Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk Yusa
contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of biographies of prominent monks, contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Unified Silla
, in the subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the poems in the Samguk Yusa
appear to be based on no-longer-extant records actually from the Silla period.
Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks. And Buddhist themes predominate the poems. Another dominant theme was "death". Many of the poems are eulogies
to monks, to warriors, and to family members.
period was marked by a growing use of hanja characters. Hyangga largely disappeared as a form of Korean literature, and "Goryeo gayo" (hangul
: 고려가요, literally "Goryeo songs") became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and many survived into the Joseon
period, when some of them were written down using hangul
.
The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as pyolgok or changga (hangul
: 별곡). It flourished during the middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by a refrain either in the middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of discrete parts with differing contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and torments of which are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical accompaniments chiefly by women entertainers, known as kisaeng.There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche (단련체)and yeonjanche (연잔체). The former is a shorter form in which the entire poem was put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life.
himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.
Sijo
(literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty
is common. Sijo are characterized by a structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people.
Gasa is a form of verse
, although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay
. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman.
The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history, biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to be outside of the realm of officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and records), but they provided the yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were composed make these writings an essential part of Korean prose.
The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa (金鰲新話 금오신화 New stories from Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-seup
(김시습). It was written in Chinese characters. From the 17th century onwards, fiction became increasingly popular and more readily available through book rental schemes.
Pansori
-based fiction was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and early 18th century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori (Chunhyangga
, Simcheongga
, Heungbuga
, Jeokbyeokga
and Sugungga
). Although based on older traditional songs, it was composed in its present form in the 1870s by the pansori writer , and characterized by human stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.
In the mid-Joseon period, parable
-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were commonplace.
In spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as "intangible national treasures" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.
Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records. These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe.
The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are the sandae kuk genre of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded. The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively watching it. The organization of the mask plays--through repetition and variety--achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic literature)
Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; "Old Pak's Play") and Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the plays. No theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters--Pak Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji--dance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes. (see also puppetry)
The final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang ("titles"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from the legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from one performer to another.
(hangul
: 용비어천가, hanja
: 龍飛御天歌) literally means "Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven". It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official recognition of the Joseon dynasty
and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon, the Golden Age
of Korea. The Songs were composed through the efforts of a committee of Confucian philologists and literati
in the form of 125 cantos.
This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul
, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty
which are of significant importance to understanding the events that provoked the creation of these poems: linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis
of virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of the Goryeo Dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection to Buddhism
. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire
.
's fall. This first period of modern Korean literature is often called "enlightenment". This period was to a large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo
, gasa
, or even serial novels and led to the emergence of professional writer
s. Sinchesi (hangul
: 신체시, literally "new poetry") was established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry which is called Jayusi (hangul
: 자유시). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor
found in classical Korean poetry, influenced by the French
vers libre.
Many biographical
works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character was often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism
and national consciousness.
's Pilgrim's Progress (in Korean 천로역정) in the translation of James Scarth Gale
(1893).
Christian
thought found its way into Korea, culminating in the first complete edition of the Bible in Korean
published in 1910. However, it was mostly artistic styles that influenced Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok, were increasingly perceived as separate realms.
Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul
, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol
, for instance, are novels written in hangul.
(1910–1945), speech and the press were restricted, affecting the Korean literature of the time. Many expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were no longer possible. Ernest Bethel
's Taehan Maeil Shinbo (大韓每日申報) provided a brief loophole, from July 1904 till May 1909, for Korean writers, but after control of the paper was seized by the Government-General all uncensored Korean publishing became impossible.
With the Samil Movement in 1919 a new form of Korean literature was established. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers.
In 1919 Kim Tong-in
(김동인) and Kim Hyok founded a literary magazine, Changjo (창조 Creation) marking the starting point of modern Korean literature. The magazine was followed in 1920 by Kaebyok (개벽), and Pyeho (폐허 廢墟 The Ruins, Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop); in 1921 Changmichon (장미촌); in 1922 Paekcho (백조 White Tide, Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon Chin-gon); and in 1923 Kumsong (금성 Gold Star, of Yi Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The literary magazines which appeared during the 1920s and 1930s laid the basis for the future development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of their aggressive war to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s was to work out ways of introducing foreign elements into literary works dealing with the reality of colonial rule in Korea.
Many novels of the 1920s centered around the themes of the suffering of intellectuals who drift through reality. The lives of farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological
coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time experimented with new literary styles and techniques.
Poets included: Han Yong-un (한용운), Buddhist reformer and poet: Nim-ui chimmuk (The Silence of My Beloved, 1925), Chang Man-yong
, Chu Yo-han
, Hwang Sok-woo (황석우), Kim Myeong-sun
, Kim Sowol
(김소월), Kim Yun-sik, Pak Tu-jin
, Yi Sang
, Yi Sang-hwa (이상화, 李相和), Yu Chi-hwan
, Yun Dong-ju, and Yi Yuk-sa (이육사, 李陸史, 1904–1944) tortured to death by the Japanese military police.
and South
. The Korean War
led to the development of literature centered around the wounds and chaos of war
and tragedy
.
North Korea (DPRK)
South Korea (ROK)
Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time. In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry.
In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental escapism. While some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of farmers.
At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundan soseol) became more popular. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress.
s has improved.* Flowers of Fire (1974) was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in German, Spanish and French. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean mass market literature, particularly in Japan and China.
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
produced in Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
or by Korean writers. For much of its 3,000 years of literature history, it was written both in Hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
and in Korean
Korean language
Korean is the official language of the country Korea, in both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in People's Republic of China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers worldwide. In the 15th century, a national writing...
, first using the transcription systems idu and gugyeol
Gugyeol
Gugyeol is a system for rendering texts written in Classical Chinese into understandable Korean. It was chiefly used during the Joseon Dynasty, when readings of the Chinese classics were of paramount social importance...
, and finally using the Korean script Hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type, world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script
Featural alphabet
A featural alphabet is an alphabet wherein the shapes of the letters are not arbitrary, but encode phonological features of the phonemes they represent. The term featural was introduced by Geoffrey Sampson to describe Hangul and Pitman Shorthand...
.
General overview
In general, the written arts have a tradition in epigraphic inscriptions on stones, in early tombs, and on rarely found bamboo pieces that formed early books. Repeated invasions and sacking of the east and west capitals, as well as the difficulty in preserving written texts on bamboo, make works before 1000 rare. Those works were entirely written in Chinese characters, the language of scholars, but of course incorporated Korean words and mindset. Medieval scholars in Korea learned written Chinese as western schoolmen learned LatinLatin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: as a lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
for the region. It helped cultural exchanges extensively.
Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with movable type
Movable type
Movable type is the system of printing and typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document ....
, often imperial encyclopedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era
Three Kingdoms of Korea
The Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...
from printing wood-blocks; and in the Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
era the world's first metal type, and books printed by metal type, most probably of copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
, were produced. Fully two hundred years before the work of Johann Gutenberg or William Caxton
William Caxton
William Caxton was an English merchant, diplomat, writer and printer. As far as is known, he was the first English person to work as a printer and the first to introduce a printing press into England...
who, to most Westerners, "invented" the first printing presses.
Scriptoria have existed since the beginning of the culture, and rose to great importance in Buddhist and later Confucianist schools with circulation of texts, inter-lineal glosses, and commentaries from those religions. Most Buddhist literature was recited aloud, had limited repeated vocabulary, and was used for deeply impressing religious states, or for memory training or mnemonics.
Genres are similar to Chinese, and even western ones. There are epics, poetry, religious texts and exegetical commentaries on Buddhist and Confucianist learning; translations of foreign works; plays and court rituals; comedies, tragedies, mixed genres; and various kinds of novels. Radioplays and screenplays are extensive, few have been translated, many are archived but not available to the public. And no research work has been done in this area. Translation work of the most famous Korean literature has been slow, during the colonial period, creative writing in Korean was forbidden and there are few works of literature published at home from 1910-1945. Works by exiles in Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010...
, and other regions, are little known. The overseas Korean writers, expatriates, have had limited success other than in travel literature which is widely read.
Korean epic is best represented by works such as Yi Gyu-bo's King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo, which derives much of its influence from narrative histories done by writers such as Yi Je-hyeon (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 이제현, hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 李齊賢), and before that Yi Il-lo (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 이인로, hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 李仁老), Yi Gyu-bo (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 이규보, hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 李奎報), and Choi Chu for battlefield histories and stories.
To some extent 20th century literature under Western influence has moved to separate integrated art forms such as calligraphy
Calligraphy
Calligraphy is a type of visual art. It is often called the art of fancy lettering . A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious and skillful manner"...
to the standardization of printed books. The 21st century though has revived integrated art forms of literature in Korean animated blogs, and over-designed, visually dense homepages and websites. Manhwa
Manhwa
Manhwa is the general Korean term for comics and print cartoons . Outside of Korea, the term usually refers specifically to South Korean comics. The term, along with manga, is a cognate of the Chinese manhua...
, or illustrated novels, are very popular.
Contemporary Korean literature is robust as Korea is a nation of readers. Book prices are low, and writers are respected, with many having academic positions as well as being well known on television.
Classical Poetry
Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the Korean peninsulaKorean Peninsula
The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 684 miles from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water.Until the end of...
. There are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); pyolgok ("special songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and kasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th centuries, and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (1445-47; Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle compiled in praise of the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language.
One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (箜篌引) by Yeo-ok (여옥,麗玉) during Gojoseon
Gojoseon
Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom. Go , meaning "ancient," distinguishes it from the later Joseon Dynasty; Joseon, as it is called in contemporaneous writings, is also romanized as Chosŏn....
.
Hyangga
Hyangga (hangulHangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 향가, hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 鄕歌) was written in Korean using modified hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
in a system that is called idu
Idu
Idu is an archaic writing system that represents the Korean language using hanja. The term "idu" is used in two senses. It may refer to various systems of representing Korean phonology through Chinese characters called hanja, which were used from the early Three Kingdoms to Joseon periods...
(hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 이두, hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 吏讀), literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal". Idu was a system using hanja characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some hanja characters for their intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but after using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters consistently standing for Korean words.
Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of biographies of prominent monks, contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Unified Silla
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
, in the subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the poems in the Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa
Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
appear to be based on no-longer-extant records actually from the Silla period.
Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks. And Buddhist themes predominate the poems. Another dominant theme was "death". Many of the poems are eulogies
Eulogy
A eulogy is a speech or writing in praise of a person or thing, especially one recently deceased or retired. Eulogies may be given as part of funeral services. However, some denominations either discourage or do not permit eulogies at services to maintain respect for traditions...
to monks, to warriors, and to family members.
Goryeo songs
The GoryeoGoryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
period was marked by a growing use of hanja characters. Hyangga largely disappeared as a form of Korean literature, and "Goryeo gayo" (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 고려가요, literally "Goryeo songs") became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and many survived into the Joseon
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
period, when some of them were written down using hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
.
The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as pyolgok or changga (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 별곡). It flourished during the middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by a refrain either in the middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of discrete parts with differing contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and torments of which are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical accompaniments chiefly by women entertainers, known as kisaeng.There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche (단련체)and yeonjanche (연잔체). The former is a shorter form in which the entire poem was put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life.
Sijo and Gasa
Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As hangul was created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean script. King SejongSejong the Great of Joseon
Sejong the Great was the fourth king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. During his regency, he reinforced Korean Confucian policies and executed major legal amendments . He also used the creation of Hangul and the advancement of technology to expand his territory...
himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.
Sijo
Sijo
Sijo is a Korean poetic form. Bucolic, metaphysical and cosmological themes are often explored. The three lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46: theme ; elaboration ; counter-theme and completion [Ibid., Rutt, pp. 10 ff]...
(literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty
Loyalty
Loyalty is faithfulness or a devotion to a person, country, group, or cause There are many aspects to...
is common. Sijo are characterized by a structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people.
Gasa is a form of verse
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
, although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay
Essay
An essay is a piece of writing which is often written from an author's personal point of view. Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos, learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. The definition...
. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman.
Prose
Korean prose literature can be divided into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany. Narratives include myths, legends, and folktales found in the written records. The principal sources of these narratives are the two great historical records compiled during the Koryo dynasty: Samguk sagi (1146; "Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms") and Samguk yusa (1285; "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most important myths are those concerning the Sun and the Moon, the founding of Korea by Tangun, and the lives of the ancient kings. The legends touch on place and personal names and natural phenomena. The folktales include stories about animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness rewarded and evil punished; and cleverness and stupidity. Because the compiler of the Samguk yusa was a Zen master, his collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints; the origin of monasteries, stupas, and bells; accounts of miracles performed by Buddhas and bodhisattvas; and other tales rich in shamanist and Buddhist elements. The compilations made in the Koryo period preserved the stories of prehistoric times, of the Three Kingdoms, and of the Silla dynasty and have remained the basic sources for such material. Later compilations made during the Yi dynasty served as a major source of materials for later Yi dynasty fiction.Fiction
Korean fiction can be classified in various ways. First, there is fiction written in Chinese and that written in Korean. Second, there are the short works of one volume, "medium" works of about 10 volumes, and long works of more than 10 volumes. Third, there are works of yangban writers and those of common writers. In respect to the last classification, however, there is also a group of fictional works in which the viewpoints of the yangban and the commoner are combined. Most of this fiction was based on the narratives mentioned above, the author adding incidents and characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign definite dates or authors to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing correct moral conduct, and almost always have happy endings. Another general characteristic is that the narratives written by yangban authors are set in China, whereas those written by commoners are set in Korea.The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history, biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to be outside of the realm of officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and records), but they provided the yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were composed make these writings an essential part of Korean prose.
The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa (金鰲新話 금오신화 New stories from Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-seup
Kim Si-seup
Kim Si-seup was a Korean scholar and author.-Background:Kim Si-seup's ancestors originally came from Gangneung, Gangwon-do, but Kim himself was born in Seoul....
(김시습). It was written in Chinese characters. From the 17th century onwards, fiction became increasingly popular and more readily available through book rental schemes.
Pansori
Pansori
Pansori is a genre of Korean traditional music. It is a vocal and percussional music performed by one sorikkun and one gosu . The term pansori is derived from pan , and sori .- Overview :...
-based fiction was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and early 18th century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori (Chunhyangga
Chunhyangga
The Chunhyangga is the most famous Pansori in Korea. The Chunhyangga has delighted all Korean for a century. The Chunhyangga is the best Pansori as musically, literary, and a well-made play....
, Simcheongga
Simcheongga
Simcheongga is one of the five surviving stories of the Korean pansori storytelling tradition. The other stories are Chunhyangga, Heungbuga, Jeokbyeokga, and Sugungga.History=...
, Heungbuga
Heungbuga
Heungbuga is one of the five surviving stories of the Korean pansori storytelling tradition. It is also called Baktaryeong . The other stories are Simcheongga, Chunhyangga, Jeokbyeokga and Sugungga. It is about a story of Heungbu who was a poor but good man with many children.Heungbuga depicted...
, Jeokbyeokga
Jeokbyeokga
Jeokbyeokga is one of the five surviving stories of the Korean pansori storytelling tradition. The other stories are Simcheongga, Heungbuga, Chunhyangga and Sugungga.This story is a retelling of the Chinese historical legend of the Battle of Red Cliffs....
and Sugungga
Sugungga
Sugungga is one of the five surviving stories of the Korean pansori storytelling tradition. The other stories are Simcheongga, Heungbuga, Jeokbyeokga, and Chunhyangga....
). Although based on older traditional songs, it was composed in its present form in the 1870s by the pansori writer , and characterized by human stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.
In the mid-Joseon period, parable
Parable
A parable is a succinct story, in prose or verse, which illustrates one or more instructive principles, or lessons, or a normative principle. It differs from a fable in that fables use animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as characters, while parables generally feature human...
-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were commonplace.
- Kim ManjungKim ManjungKim Man-jung was Korean novelist and politician of the mid-Joseon period. A member of the yangban class, Kim passed the state civil service examination and rose through the official ranks to become a royal academic counselor and minister during the reign of King Sukjeong...
(金萬重, 김만중) (1637–1692) wrote the Dream of Nine Clouds (구운몽). - Tale of Hong Gildong (홍길동전)
- ChunhyangjeonChunhyangjeonThe Chunhyangjeon is one of the best known love stories and folk tales of Korea. It is based on the pansori Chunhyangga.Date of composition and author are unknown, and the present form took shape 1694~1834 from the most famous of the five surviving pansori tales, the Song of Chun Hyang.-Main...
(춘향전, 春香傳) is a kodae sosol (고대 소설) novel based on the pansori ChunhyanggaChunhyanggaThe Chunhyangga is the most famous Pansori in Korea. The Chunhyangga has delighted all Korean for a century. The Chunhyangga is the best Pansori as musically, literary, and a well-made play....
. - Several lives of the poet Choe ChiwonChoe ChiwonChoe Chiwon was a noted Korean Confucian official, philosopher, and poet of the late Unified Silla period . He studied for many years in Tang China, passed the Tang imperial examination, and rose to high office there before returning to Silla, where he made ultimately futile attempts to reform the...
최치원(崔致遠) have come down: In hanmun the Choegounjeon (최고운전) Choemunhonjeon (최문헌전), in hangulHangulHangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
the Choechungjeon (최충전 崔忠傳), The Story of Faithful Choe.
Oral literature
Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation until the invention of Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori ("story singing") texts.In spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as "intangible national treasures" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.
Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records. These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe.
The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are the sandae kuk genre of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded. The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively watching it. The organization of the mask plays--through repetition and variety--achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic literature)
Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; "Old Pak's Play") and Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the plays. No theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters--Pak Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tongji--dance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes. (see also puppetry)
The final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang ("titles"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from the legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from one performer to another.
The early Joseon period
Yongbi eocheongaYongbi eocheonga
Yongbieocheonga literally means Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven and was the first work written in hangul. It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official recognition of the Joseon dynasty and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon...
(hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 용비어천가, hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 龍飛御天歌) literally means "Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven". It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official recognition of the Joseon dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon, the Golden Age
Golden Age
The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology and legend and refers to the first in a sequence of four or five Ages of Man, in which the Golden Age is first, followed in sequence, by the Silver, Bronze, and Iron Ages, and then the present, a period of decline...
of Korea. The Songs were composed through the efforts of a committee of Confucian philologists and literati
Scholar-bureaucrats
Scholar-officials or Scholar-bureaucrats were civil servants appointed by the emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, China's last imperial dynasty. These officials mostly came from the well-educated men known as the...
in the form of 125 cantos.
This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
which are of significant importance to understanding the events that provoked the creation of these poems: linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis
Apotheosis
Apotheosis is the glorification of a subject to divine level. The term has meanings in theology, where it refers to a belief, and in art, where it refers to a genre.In theology, the term apotheosis refers to the idea that an individual has been raised to godlike stature...
of virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of the Goryeo Dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection to Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
.
The late Joseon period
Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon DynastyJoseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
's fall. This first period of modern Korean literature is often called "enlightenment". This period was to a large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo
Sijo
Sijo is a Korean poetic form. Bucolic, metaphysical and cosmological themes are often explored. The three lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46: theme ; elaboration ; counter-theme and completion [Ibid., Rutt, pp. 10 ff]...
, gasa
Gasa
Gasa may refer to:* Gasa District, Bhutan and the district capital town of Gasa, Bhutan* Gasa Medina, Misamis Oriental, Philippines* Gasa Lakewood, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines*Gasa , a form of Korean classical poetry...
, or even serial novels and led to the emergence of professional writer
Writer
A writer is a person who produces literature, such as novels, short stories, plays, screenplays, poetry, or other literary art. Skilled writers are able to use language to portray ideas and images....
s. Sinchesi (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 신체시, literally "new poetry") was established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry which is called Jayusi (hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 자유시). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor
Metaphor
A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that uses an image, story or tangible thing to represent a less tangible thing or some intangible quality or idea; e.g., "Her eyes were glistening jewels." Metaphor may also be used for any rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via...
found in classical Korean poetry, influenced by the French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
vers libre.
Many biographical
Biography
A biography is a detailed description or account of someone's life. More than a list of basic facts , biography also portrays the subject's experience of those events...
works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character was often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism
Patriotism
Patriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...
and national consciousness.
Modern literature
Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts based on trade and economic development. The first printed work of fiction in Korean was John BunyanJohn Bunyan
John Bunyan was an English Christian writer and preacher, famous for writing The Pilgrim's Progress. Though he was a Reformed Baptist, in the Church of England he is remembered with a Lesser Festival on 30 August, and on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church on 29 August.-Life:In 1628,...
's Pilgrim's Progress (in Korean 천로역정) in the translation of James Scarth Gale
James Scarth Gale
James S. Gale was a Canadian Presbyterian missionary, educator and Bible translator in Korea.-Life:James Scarth Gale was born 31 January 1863 in Alma, Ontario, Canada. He married twice:...
(1893).
Christian
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
thought found its way into Korea, culminating in the first complete edition of the Bible in Korean
Bible translations by language
Bible translations have been made into 2,572+ languages, one of the two Testaments in 1,668 languages, and the full Protestant Canon of the Bible in 457 languages as of May 2011....
published in 1910. However, it was mostly artistic styles that influenced Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok, were increasingly perceived as separate realms.
Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol
Sinsoseol
Sinsoseol , literally "new novel" or "new fiction," was a type of Korean novel which began and grew during the Korean Empire, in the late 19th and early 20th century. It was sometimes referred to as gaehwagisoseol , or "enlightenment fiction."-Occurrence:The enlightenment changed Korean people's...
, for instance, are novels written in hangul.
Colonial period
During Colonial KoreaKorea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
(1910–1945), speech and the press were restricted, affecting the Korean literature of the time. Many expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were no longer possible. Ernest Bethel
Ernest Bethel
Ernest Thomas Bethell , who is also known by his Korean name Bae Seol , was a British journalist working in Asia as a correspondent for the Daily Chronicle....
's Taehan Maeil Shinbo (大韓每日申報) provided a brief loophole, from July 1904 till May 1909, for Korean writers, but after control of the paper was seized by the Government-General all uncensored Korean publishing became impossible.
With the Samil Movement in 1919 a new form of Korean literature was established. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers.
In 1919 Kim Tong-in
Kim Tong-in
Kim Tong-In was one of the first novelists in Korea.He started the magazine Changjo in 1919.-See also:*Korean literature*Korean poetry*List of Korean language poets...
(김동인) and Kim Hyok founded a literary magazine, Changjo (창조 Creation) marking the starting point of modern Korean literature. The magazine was followed in 1920 by Kaebyok (개벽), and Pyeho (폐허 廢墟 The Ruins, Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop); in 1921 Changmichon (장미촌); in 1922 Paekcho (백조 White Tide, Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon Chin-gon); and in 1923 Kumsong (금성 Gold Star, of Yi Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The literary magazines which appeared during the 1920s and 1930s laid the basis for the future development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of their aggressive war to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s was to work out ways of introducing foreign elements into literary works dealing with the reality of colonial rule in Korea.
Many novels of the 1920s centered around the themes of the suffering of intellectuals who drift through reality. The lives of farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological
Ideology
An ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...
coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time experimented with new literary styles and techniques.
- Kang Kyeong-aeKang Kyeong-aeKang Gyeong-ae was a South Korean writer.-Life:Kang Gyeong-ae was born in Songhwa, Hwanghae-do, and had an unhappy childhood...
(1907–1944): From Wonso Pond - Kim Tong-inKim Tong-inKim Tong-In was one of the first novelists in Korea.He started the magazine Changjo in 1919.-See also:*Korean literature*Korean poetry*List of Korean language poets...
(김동인, 金東仁, 1900–1951): Pulgun San (붉은 산 Red Mountain) - Shim HunShim HunShim Dae-Seop , more commonly known by his pen name Shim Hun, was a Korean novelist, poet, playwright and patriot.-Biography:...
(심훈, 沈熏, 1901∼1936): Sangnoksu (상록수 Evergreen Tree, 1943 posthumously) - Ri Ki-yong (리기영, 李箕永 1895-1984): Kohyang (The Home Village, 1932), later a North Korean authorNorth Korean literatureThe partition of Korea following the Second World War led to a considerable cross-border movement, which included writers moving from North to South or from South to North.North Korea's subsequent literary tradition was shaped and controlled by the State...
- Hong Myong-huiHong Myong-huiHong Myong-hui was a Korean novelist during the colonial period, and then a North Korean novelist.He was born in Dongbu-ri, Goesan county, Chungcheongbuk-do where he took part in the 3.1 Movement in 1919. For a while in the 1920s, he served as an editor of the Donga Ilbo...
(홍명희, 洪命熹 1880—1968): Im Kkok-chong (Story of the bandit Im Kkok-chong) - Choe So-hae (최서해, 崔曙海, 1901–1932): Hongyom (홍염)
- Yom Sang-sop (염상섭, 廉想涉, 1897–1963): Sam dae (Three Generations, 1932) Mansejon (만세전)
- Chae Man-shikChae Man-shikChae Man-shik was a Korean novelist known for his satirical bent. He was born in Okgu, in present-day Gunsan, Jeollabuk-do, to a family of the Pyeonggang Chae clan...
(채만식, 蔡萬植, 1902–1950): Thaepyongchun (태평천하 Peaceful Spring on Earth, 1937) and Tangryu (Muddy Stream, 1941)
Poets included: Han Yong-un (한용운), Buddhist reformer and poet: Nim-ui chimmuk (The Silence of My Beloved, 1925), Chang Man-yong
Chang Man-yong
Chang Man-yong was a Korean poet and journalist associated with the modernist movement of the 1930s. He was born in Yŏnbaek in Hwanghae province, under Japanese rule; he attended Gyeongseong High School in Seoul and later the Mijakki English School in Tokyo.Considered a major representative of...
, Chu Yo-han
Chu Yo-han
Chu Yo-han was a twentieth-century Korean poet. He was born in Pyongyang, under what was then the Joseon Dynasty. He attended elementary school in Pyongyang, and then middle school at the Meiji Academy in Japan. He graduated from Hogang College in Shanghai in 1925.Chu began publishing his poems...
, Hwang Sok-woo (황석우), Kim Myeong-sun
Kim Myeong-sun
Kim Myeong-sun was a female Korean novelist and poet of the early 20th century. She made her debut in 1917, in a magazine edited by Choe Nam-seon called Youth , with a novella titled Uimun-ui sonyeo, or "Dubious girl." She became known for her keen psychological portraits, with her 1921...
, Kim Sowol
Kim Sowol
Kim Sowol is most famous for his contributions to early modern Korean poetry. Throughout his life he wrote his beautifully poignant poetry in a style reminiscent of traditional Korean folk songs. "Azaleas" is one of his most famous poems...
(김소월), Kim Yun-sik, Pak Tu-jin
Pak Tu-jin
Pak Tu-jin was a Korean poet, born in Anseong 40 miles from Seoul in modern-day South Korea. His family was too poor to give him any formal education. His first publications were two poems that came out in 1939....
, Yi Sang
Yi Sang
Yi Sang is considered one of the most innovative writers in modern Korean literature. Crossing and blurring the boundaries between poetry, fiction and essay, his experiments in literary form and language, as well the psychological complexity of his inquiry into passion, eroticism and the...
, Yi Sang-hwa (이상화, 李相和), Yu Chi-hwan
Yu Chi-hwan
Yu Chi-hwan , also known by his pen name Cheongma, was a leading twentieth-century Korean poet. He was born in South Gyeongsang Province...
, Yun Dong-ju, and Yi Yuk-sa (이육사, 李陸史, 1904–1944) tortured to death by the Japanese military police.
National division
After 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into NorthNorth Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
and South
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
. The Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
led to the development of literature centered around the wounds and chaos of war
War
War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political...
and tragedy
Tragedy
Tragedy is a form of art based on human suffering that offers its audience pleasure. While most cultures have developed forms that provoke this paradoxical response, tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of...
.
North Korea (DPRK)
South Korea (ROK)
Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time. In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry.
In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental escapism. While some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of farmers.
At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundan soseol) became more popular. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress.
Korean literature abroad
Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely unknown outside of the peninsula. The kind of works translated has become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translationTranslation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of...
s has improved.* Flowers of Fire (1974) was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in German, Spanish and French. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean mass market literature, particularly in Japan and China.
External links
- Asianifo
- Kyujanggak Archive(big pdfs of many Korean classics)
- KTLIT Korean Modern Literature
See also
- Korean poetryKorean poetryKorean poetry is poetry performed or written in the Korean language or by Korean people. Traditional Korean poetry is often sung in performance. Until the 20th century, much of Korean poetry was written in Hanja and later Hangul.- History :...
- Culture of KoreaCulture of KoreaThe current political separation of North and South Korea has resulted in divergence in modern Korean cultures; nevertheless, the traditional culture of Korea is historically shared by both states.-Dance:...
- List of Korean language poets
- List of Korea-related topics
- List of Korean novelists
- Korea Literature Translation Institute (LTI Korea)Korea Literature Translation Institute (LTI Korea)Korea Literature Translation Institute was founded by the Korean government with the aim of promoting Korean literature and culture overseas in order to contribute to the global culture....