is a medical text translated into Japanese

Japanese language

is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...

 during the Edo period

Edo period

The , or , is a division of Japanese history which was ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family, running from 1603 to 1868. The political entity of this period was the Tokugawa shogunate....

. It is based on the Dutch-language

Dutch language

Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...

 translation Ontleedkundige Tafelen, often known in Japan as , of Kulmus’ German

German language

German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....

 Anatomische Tabellen. As a full-blown translation from a Western

Western culture

Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization or European civilization, refers to cultures of European origin and is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and...

 language

Language

Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...

, it was the first of its kind in Japan

Japan

Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...

. It was written by Sugita Genpaku

Sugita Genpaku

was a Japanese scholar who was known for his translation of Kaitai Shinsho .Besides Kaitai Shinsho, he also authored Rangaku Kotohajime ....

, and was published by Suharaya Ichibee in 1774, the third year of An'ei. The body comprises four volumes, the illustrations, one. The contents are written kanbun

Kanbun

The Japanese word originally meant "Classical Chinese writings, Chinese classic texts, Classical Chinese literature". This evolved into a Japanese method of reading annotated Classical Chinese in translation . Much Japanese literature was written in literary Chinese using this annotated style...

-style.

Background

On 4 March 1771, the eighth year of Meiwa

Meiwa

was a after Hōreki and before An'ei. This period spanned the years from June 1764 through November 1772. The reigning empress and emperor were and .-Change of era:...

, the students of Rangaku

Rangaku

Rangaku is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners, 1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate’s policy of national...

 medicine Sugita Genpaku

Sugita Genpaku

was a Japanese scholar who was known for his translation of Kaitai Shinsho .Besides Kaitai Shinsho, he also authored Rangaku Kotohajime ....

, Maeno Ryōtaku, Nakagawa Jun'an

Nakagawa Jun'an

was a Japanese doctor, botanist, and scholar of rangaku . He was a junior colleague of Sugita Genpaku, with whom he studied and worked in Obama Domain, Wakasa Province, a center for Western medicine in Edo period Japan...

, et al., by studying performing autopsies on criminals executed at the Kozukappara execution grounds

Kozukappara execution grounds

The were one of the three sites in the vicinity of Edo where the Tokugawa shogunate executed criminals in the Edo period. Alternate romanized spellings are Kozukahara and Kotsukappara....

 (now, there is a possibility that Katsuragawa Hoshū

Katsuragawa Hoshu

was a Japanese physician and scholar of rangaku . He served the Tokugawa shogunate as a physician and as a translator of Dutch. He was the older brother of author and rangaku scholar Morishima Chūryō....

 was at this facility as well, but from the description in , it seems more likely that he was not). Both Sugita and Maeno had the book Ontleedkundige Tafelen, imported from Holland. Sugita, marveling at the accuracy of the work while comparing it by eye with his autopsies, proposed to Maeno that it be translated. For some time, Sugita had a desire to translate something from Dutch; now he would get approval for this. He met with Maeno the very next day (5 March) and began translation. The one who recommended Kaitai Shinsho to the Shogun

Shogun

A was one of the hereditary military dictators of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents , were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor...

 was Katsuragawa Hosan.

At first, Sugita and Nakagawa could not actually read Dutch

Dutch language

Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...

; even with Maeno who could, their Dutch vocabulary was inadequate. It would have been difficult for them to consult with the Dutch

Dutch language

Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...

 translations and translators (Tsūji

Tsuji

is a Japanese surname meaning 'crossroad':* Ayano Tsuji is a pop singer* Chie Tsuji , Japanese volleyball player* Hatsuhiko Tsuji was a professional baseball* Hitonari Tsuji is a Japanese writer and composer...

) in Nagasaki, and naturally there were no dictionaries at the time. A translation from any other Western language would have been out of the question, as the government of the time did not allow contact with any other Western nation. Therefore, in a process comparable to cryptanalysis

Cryptanalysis

Cryptanalysis is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information, without access to the secret information that is normally required to do so. Typically, this involves knowing how the system works and finding a secret key...

, they progressed with translation work. In his later years, Sugita would detail the process in Rangaku Koto Hajime.

In the second year of An'ei (1773), as they arrived at a translation goal, in order to ascertain society’s response, they released the , a five-page flyer.

In 1774, Kaitai Shinsho was published.

Influences

Maeno Ryōtaku was at the center of the translation work, but there isn’t a name as to the author of the Kaitai Shinsho. By one account, Maeno was on the way to study at Nagasaki; when he prayed at a Tenman-gū

Tenman-gu

is a shinto shrine which enshrines Sugawara no Michizane as Tenjin. There are about 14 thousand Tenman-gū in Japan. Famous Tenman-gū are as follows.*Dazaifu Tenman-gū -- One of the Sōhonsha of Tenman-gū....

 for the fulfillment of his studies, he vowed not to study in order to raise his own name, so he abstained from submitting it. By another account, since he knew that the completed works were not completely perfect, the academic Maeno could not submit his name in good conscience.

Sugita Genpaku

Sugita Genpaku

was a Japanese scholar who was known for his translation of Kaitai Shinsho .Besides Kaitai Shinsho, he also authored Rangaku Kotohajime ....

 said, “I am sickly and numbered in years as well. I do not know when I will die.“ While he knew the translation was imperfect in places, he rushed to publish. The publication of ”Anatomic Illustrations” was also Sugita’s design; in regard to this, Maeno is said to have had shown dislike for it. However, the man would actually go on to live an extremely long life for the time (he lived to the age of eighty-five). Unsure of when he would die and unsure of whether the government would approve the distribution of the Western ideas, it could be said this was a risky but important move.

Nakagawa Jun'an

Nakagawa Jun'an

was a Japanese doctor, botanist, and scholar of rangaku . He was a junior colleague of Sugita Genpaku, with whom he studied and worked in Obama Domain, Wakasa Province, a center for Western medicine in Edo period Japan...

, after Kaitai Shinsho’s publication, also continued his study of Dutch

Dutch language

Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...

, along with Katsuragawa Hoshū

Katsuragawa Hoshu

was a Japanese physician and scholar of rangaku . He served the Tokugawa shogunate as a physician and as a translator of Dutch. He was the older brother of author and rangaku scholar Morishima Chūryō....

, and took on the natural history

Natural history

Natural history is the scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the natural sciences, natural history is the systematic study...

 of Sweden

Sweden

Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....

 according to Thunberg

Carl Peter Thunberg

Carl Peter Thunberg aka Carl Pehr Thunberg aka Carl Per Thunberg was a Swedish naturalist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus. He has been called "the father of South African botany" and the "Japanese Linnaeus"....

.

Katsuragawa Hosan was a same-generation friend of Sugita’s. With his status as a hōgen, he served as a court physician to the Shogun

Shogun

A was one of the hereditary military dictators of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents , were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor...

. He was not a direct influence on the translation work itself, though his son Hoshū did participate. Also, he provided for the supplementary materials that amounted to three volumes of Dutch medical texts. Upon the publishing of Kaitai Shinsho, since there was a possibility that it encroached on the Bakufu’s taboos, Katsuragawa was the one who ran it by the Ōoku

Ooku

The refers to the harem of Edo Castle, the section where the women connected to the reigning Shōgun resided. Similar areas in the castles of powerful Daimyō were also referred to by this term.This included the shōgun's mother, wife, and concubines...

.

Katsuragawa Hoshū

Katsuragawa Hoshu

was a Japanese physician and scholar of rangaku . He served the Tokugawa shogunate as a physician and as a translator of Dutch. He was the older brother of author and rangaku scholar Morishima Chūryō....

 was the son of the hōgen Katsuragawa Hosan, and would become a hōgen himself later on. He is said to have been involved with the translation work from early on. Afterwards, he would serve to develop rangaku

Rangaku

Rangaku is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners, 1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate’s policy of national...

 along with Ōtsuki Gentaku.

There are others that had to do with the translation work, like Ishikawa Genjō, whose name appears in the opening pages, Toriyama Shōen, Kiriyama Shōtetsu, and Mine Shuntai (among others) whose names appear in Rangaku Koto Hajime.

Yoshio Kogyū (posthumously Yoshio Nagaaki) was a Dutch

Dutch language

Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...

 tsūji

Tsuji

is a Japanese surname meaning 'crossroad':* Ayano Tsuji is a pop singer* Chie Tsuji , Japanese volleyball player* Hatsuhiko Tsuji was a professional baseball* Hitonari Tsuji is a Japanese writer and composer...

. He wrote the preface to Kaitai Shinsho, and admired what he felt to be Sugita and Maeno’s masterpiece.

Hiraga Gennai

Hiraga Gennai

was an Edo period Japanese pharmacologist, student of Rangaku, physician, author, painter and inventor who is well known for his Erekiteru , Kandankei and Kakanpu...

, on Shōgatsu

Japanese New Year

The is one of the most important annual festivals, with its own unique customs, and has been celebrated for centuries. Due to the importance of the holiday and the preparations required, the preceding days are quite busy, particularly the day before, known as Ōmisoka.The Japanese New Year has been...

 of the third year of An'ei, visited the home of Sugita Genpaku. The translation of Kaitai Shinsho’s text was nearly complete, and he was informed that they were looking for an artist for the dissection figures.

Odano Naotake was a bushi from Kakunodate in the Akita Domain, and the artist. By Hiraga Gennai

Hiraga Gennai

was an Edo period Japanese pharmacologist, student of Rangaku, physician, author, painter and inventor who is well known for his Erekiteru , Kandankei and Kakanpu...

’s referral, he got to drawing Kaitai Shinsho’s figures off the original pictures. Until Kaitai Shinsho’s first edition, it took the short time of half a year. It was his first time working in Edo, and yet it was historical record-setting work for Japanese science.

Content

Kaitai Shinsho is generally said to be a translation of Ontleedkundige Tafelen. However, other than the work itself, Bartholini’s, Blankaart’s, Schamberger

Caspar Schamberger

Caspar Schamberger was a German surgeon. His name represents the first school of Western medicine in Japan and the beginning of Dutch Studies ....

’s, Koyter

Volcher Coiter

Volcher Coiter was a Dutch anatomist who established the study of comparative osteology and first described cerebrospinal meningitis.Coiter was born in Groningen...

’s, Veslingius

Johann Vesling

Johann Vesling was a German anatomist and botanist from Minden, Westphalia.In his youth he came to Vienna together with his father, where he later studied medicine. In 1628 he was applied as an "Incisor" at the medical college in Venice...

’, Palfijn

Jan Palfijn

Jan Palfijn was a Flemish surgeon and obstetrician who was a native of Kortrijk, Flanders...

’s, and others’ works were also consulted; the cover is based on Valuerda’s. Of course, Asian sources and opinions also had an influence.

The book is not a mere translation; the translation was done mostly by doctors like Sugita, who had to decipher and reconstruct the contents. There are notes in various places left by Sugita, as leftovers from the work.

The contents are split into four volumes:

• Volume I

General remarks; forms and name

Name

A name is a word or term used for identification. Names can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. A personal name identifies a specific unique and identifiable individual person, and may or may not include a middle name...

s; parts of the body

Body plan

A body plan is the blueprint for the way the body of an organism is laid out. An organism's symmetry, its number of body segments and number of limbs are all aspects of its body plan...

; skeletal structure

Skeleton

The skeleton is the body part that forms the supporting structure of an organism. There are two different skeletal types: the exoskeleton, which is the stable outer shell of an organism, and the endoskeleton, which forms the support structure inside the body.In a figurative sense, skeleton can...

: general remarks about joint

Joint

A joint is the location at which two or more bones make contact. They are constructed to allow movement and provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally.-Classification:...

s; skeletal structure: detailed exposition about joints.

• Volume II

The head

Head

In anatomy, the head of an animal is the rostral part that usually comprises the brain, eyes, ears, nose and mouth . Some very simple animals may not have a head, but many bilaterally symmetric forms do....

; the mouth

Mouth

The mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food andsaliva. The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane epithelium lining the inside of the mouth....

; the brain

Brain

The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...

 and nerve

Nerve

A peripheral nerve, or simply nerve, is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of peripheral axons . A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons. Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system...

s; the eye

Eye

Eyes are organs that detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. The simplest photoreceptors in conscious vision connect light to movement...

s; the ear

Ear

The ear is the organ that detects sound. It not only receives sound, but also aids in balance and body position. The ear is part of the auditory system....

s; the nose

Human nose

The visible part of the human nose is the protruding part of the face that bears the nostrils. The shape of the nose is determined by the ethmoid bone and the nasal septum, which consists mostly of cartilage and which separates the nostrils...

; the tongue

Tongue

The tongue is a muscular hydrostat on the floors of the mouths of most vertebrates which manipulates food for mastication. It is the primary organ of taste , as much of the upper surface of the tongue is covered in papillae and taste buds. It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva, and is richly...

.

• Volume III

The chest

Chest

The chest is a part of the anatomy of humans and various other animals. It is sometimes referred to as the thorax or the bosom.-Chest anatomy - Humans and other hominids:...

 and the diaphragm

Thoracic diaphragm

In the anatomy of mammals, the thoracic diaphragm, or simply the diaphragm , is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle that extends across the bottom of the rib cage. The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity and performs an important function in respiration...

; the lung

Lung

The lung is the essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart...

s; the heart

Heart

The heart is a myogenic muscular organ found in all animals with a circulatory system , that is responsible for pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions...

; arteries

Artery

Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. This blood is normally oxygenated, exceptions made for the pulmonary and umbilical arteries....

; vein

Vein

In the circulatory system, veins are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood to the heart...

s; the portal vein

Hepatic portal vein

The hepatic portal vein is not a true vein, because it does not conduct blood directly to the heart. It is a vessel in the abdominal cavity that drains blood from the gastrointestinal tract and spleen to capillary beds in the liver...

; the abdomen

Abdomen

In vertebrates such as mammals the abdomen constitutes the part of the body between the thorax and pelvis. The region enclosed by the abdomen is termed the abdominal cavity...

; the bowels

Intestine

In human anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine...

 and stomach

Stomach

The stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal which functions as an important organ of the digestive tract in some animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects , and molluscs. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication .The stomach is...

; the mesentery

Mesentery

In anatomy, the mesentery is the double layer of peritoneum that suspends the jejunum and ileum from the posterior wall of the abdomen. Its meaning, however, is frequently extended to include double layers of peritoneum connecting various components of the abdominal cavity.-Mesentery :The...

 and lacteal

Lacteal

A lacteal is a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine.Triglycerides are emulsified by bile and hydrolyzed by the enzyme lipase, resulting in a mixture of fatty acids and monoglycerides. These then pass from the intestinal lumen into the enterocyte, where...

s; the pancreas

Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist...

.

• Volume IV

The spleen

Spleen

The spleen is an organ found in virtually all vertebrate animals with important roles in regard to red blood cells and the immune system. In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock...

; the liver

Liver

The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion...

 and gall bladder; the kidney

Kidney

The kidneys, organs with several functions, serve essential regulatory roles in most animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are essential in the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid–base balance, and...

s and the bladder

Urinary bladder

The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys before disposal by urination. A hollow muscular, and distensible organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor...

; the genitalia; pregnancy

Pregnancy

Pregnancy refers to the fertilization and development of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, in a woman's uterus. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets...

; the muscles.

The illustrations only comprise one volume.

Effect afterwards

After the publication of the Kaitai Shinsho, there was, of course, development in medical science, but Dutch language comprehension progressed, and it is important to note that Japan, even under its extreme isolationist policies, still had some foundation to understand the products of Western culture. It also helped give a chance for promotion to such talents as Ōtsuki Gentaku.

In translation, some words had to be coined (that is, there were no Japanese words that existed for them prior to the work). Some of them, such as the terms for , , and are still used to this day as a result.

The fact that this was a first translation means that minor misunderstandings were practically unavoidable. There are many mistranslations in the Kaitai Shinsho; later on, Ōtsuki Gentaku retranslated it and released the in the ninth year of Bunsei

Bunsei

was a after Bunka and before Tenpō. This period spanned the years from April 1818 through December 1830. The reigning emperor was .-Change of era:...

 (1826).

In his last years, Sugita Genpaku would write about the work on Kaitai Shinsho in .

See also

• Anatomische Tabellen
• Sugita Genpaku
  Sugita Genpaku
  was a Japanese scholar who was known for his translation of Kaitai Shinsho .Besides Kaitai Shinsho, he also authored Rangaku Kotohajime ....
  
  
• Maeno Ryōtaku
• Nakagawa Jun'an
  Nakagawa Jun'an
  was a Japanese doctor, botanist, and scholar of rangaku . He was a junior colleague of Sugita Genpaku, with whom he studied and worked in Obama Domain, Wakasa Province, a center for Western medicine in Edo period Japan...
  
  
• Odano Naotake
• Satake Shozan
  Satake Shozan
  was a Japanese feudal lord of Akita and founder of the Akita ranga school of Western-style painting. He is more commonly known by his pen name, '...
  
  
• Hiraga Gennai
  Hiraga Gennai
  was an Edo period Japanese pharmacologist, student of Rangaku, physician, author, painter and inventor who is well known for his Erekiteru , Kandankei and Kakanpu...
  
  
• Kaitai-Shin Show
  Kaitai-Shin Show
  is a Japanese TV program broadcast on NHK General TV which had been broadcast since 2007 until 2009.- Introduction :This program is about the human body....
  
   (an educational program on NHK
  NHK
  NHK is Japan's national public broadcasting organization. NHK, which has always identified itself to its audiences by the English pronunciation of its initials, is a publicly owned corporation funded by viewers' payments of a television license fee....
  
  )

External links

• Johann Adam Kulmus. Kaitai shinsho. Illustrations from the original text. Historical Anatomies on the Web, National Library of Medicine. Kaitai Shinsho