History of Zambia
Encyclopedia
This article deals with the history of the country now called Zambia
from prehistoric
times to the present.
technology. Mainly they gathered fruits and nuts, but they also hunted antelope
.
The bushmen were the only inhabitants of the region until the 4th century, when Bantu or Tonga people started to migrate from the north. They had far more developed technology - they were farmers and had iron and copper
tools and weapons, as well as knowledge about pottery
They were sedentary and lived in small self-sufficient villages with a few houses, growing sorghum
and beans, as well as keeping cattle
and goats.
Since the early farmers practised slash and burn
agriculture, they had to constantly move further south when the soil
was exhausted. The indigenous
bushmen were either assimilated
into the new culture or pushed aside into areas not suitable for agriculture.
With the introduction of agriculture the population grew, and more and more land became cultivated. By the 11th and 12th centuries a more advanced society was beginning to emerge. Even though most villages still were self-sufficient, long distance trade
was developing. Copper mining was intensified, and copper crosses were probably used as a currency
. Ivory
carvings and cotton
textiles were other export commodities. One of the most famous archaeological
sites for this period is Ing-ombe Ilede. The increase in trade resulted in larger political units and more complex social structures.
kingdoms
as well as widespread immigration. Four kingdoms were established in this period - among the Kazembe-Lunda
in the north centered around the lower Luapula River
, the Bemba
in the north east, the Chewa in the east and the Lozi
in the west centered around the upper Zambezi River.
The territory of the present Zambia, being far inland, did not have direct contact with non-Africans until relatively recently in its history. Arab
and Portuguese traders were visiting by the 18th Century. The first recorded visits by Europeans to Zambia were the Portuguese Manuel Caetano Pereira (a trader of mixed Goa
nese and Portuguese
descent) in 1796 and Francisco de Lacerda
(an explorer) in 1798. Both came via Tete
in Mozambique
to Mwata Kazembe's capital to try to get the chief's agreement to a Portuguese trade route between their territories of Mozambique and Angola
. Lacerda died within a few weeks of arriving at Kazembe’s but left a valuable journal which was carried back to Tete by his priest and which was later translated into English by the explorer Sir Richard Burton.
However, it is believed the Portuguese first settled in Zumbo
, Mozambique, in 1720, which is just across the Luangwa River
from Zambia, at the confluence with the Zambezi River. Around 1820 they had settled on the Zambian side at Feira (now Luangwa)
. So it is very likely they were visiting Zambian territory between 1720 and 1820.
The first Briton
to set his foot on Zambian soil was David Livingstone
. In 1851 he started his famous exploration of the upper Zambezi River, and in 1855 he became the first European to see Mosi-oa-Tunya
, the waterfalls on the Zambezi River, which he named after Queen Victoria
, and the Zambian town near the falls is named after him. Livingstone later died in Zambia
in 1873.
When the first Europeans arrived, the most powerful states in precolonial Zambia were the kingdom of Barotseland
in the upper Zambezi, and the kingdom of Mwata Kazembe on the Luapula.
The Lozi people
of Barotseland had prevented access to their land by Arab and Portuguese traders. When the kingdom was first established is uncertain, but it was certainly in existence by the 18th century, the Lozi calling themselves Aluya and their country Ngulu. Its ruler was called the Litunga
, and had two capitals: in the dry season
he stayed at Lealui
, while in the rainy season he moved to Limulunga
, a move that is still celebrated in the Kuomboka
annual festival
.
The first certain historical fact concerning Barotseland is in the early 19th century the trek of the Makololo
, a clan of the South-African
Basotho
or Tswana people. Utterly defeated by Shaka
's new Zulu Kingdom
in the 1820s, the Makololo under the guide of Sebetwane
were forced to march north until they conquered the Lozi and became the aristocracy of Barotseland, with Sebitwane as new Litunga.
Sebetwane proved an able leader, and is spoken of with warm respect by David Livingstone
, who met him in 1851 shortly before his death. He was succeeded by his daughter Mamochisane
, who early stepped down in favour of her half-brother Sekeletu
. With him the Makololo empire appears to have started to fall to pieces, especially after his death in 1863: a year later internal dissension in the ruling class brought to a revolt by the Lozi that is said to have exterminated the Makololo aristocracy and forced the survivors to migrate to present-day Malawi
.
In 1888, Cecil Rhodes, spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa
, obtained a mineral rights concession from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and Southern Rhodesia
, now Zambia
and Zimbabwe
, were proclaimed a British sphere of influence
. To start with the territory was administered by Rhodes' British South Africa Company
(BSAC), which showed little interest for the province and used it mainly as a supplier of cheap labour.
The most important factor in the colony's economy was copper. The discovery of copper is owed partly to an American scout, Frederick Russell Burnham
, who in 1895 lead and oversaw the massive Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition which established for the Western world that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa. Along the Kafue River
in then Northern Rhodesia, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered natives wearing copper bracelets. Later, the BSAC built railroad to transport the copper through Mozambique.
In 1923 the British government decided not to renew the company's charter
; as a result, Southern Rhodesia
was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923. After negotiations the administration of Northern Rhodesia
was transferred to the British Colonial Office
in 1924 as a protectorate
, with Livingstone
as capital. It was later transferred to Lusaka
in 1935. A Legislative Council
was established, of which five members were elected by the small European minority (only 4,000 people), but none by the African population.
In 1928 important discoveries were made in the region from then on called Copperbelt - enormous copper
deposits were found, transforming Northern Rhodesia from a prospective land of colonization for white farmers to a copper exporter. Already in 1938 it produced 13% of world's copper extracted. The sector was immediately monopolized by the Anglo American Corporation (AAC, North-American
) and the Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST, South African), who would control the sector till independence.
The bad security conditions and increased taxes helped to trigger a strike
of African mineworkers in 1935, known as the Copperbelt strike
. The strike was crushed by the authorities that killed 13 miners in the repression.
During the Second World War white miners came out on strike in 1940. Realising the importance of their products for the war, they demanded higher salaries. This strike was followed by another by African mineworkers.
Even before the war, there had been talks about merging the two Rhodesias, but the process had been halted by the British authorities, and brought to an absolute stop by the war. Finally, in 1953, both Rhodesias were joined with Nyasaland
(now Malawi
) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
. Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crisis that characterized the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.
A two-stage election
held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new national assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On 31 December 1963, the federation was dissolved, and Northern Rhodesia
became the Republic of Zambia on 24 October 1964
.
At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government, and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. Abroad many of Zambia's neighbouring countries were still colonies
or under white minority rule.
The United National Independence Party
(UNIP) won the pre-independence elections
, gaining 55 of the 75 seats. The Zambian African National Congress
won 10 seats, and the National Progressive Party won all the 10 seats reserved for whites. Kenneth Kaunda
was elected Prime Minister, and later the same year president, as the country adopted a presidential system.
Kaunda adopted an ideology
of African socialism
, close to that of Julius Nyerere
in Tanzania
. Economical policies focused on central planning and nationalisation, and a system of one party rule was put in place.
, running unopposed. During the following years Zambia adopted a one party system. In 1972 all political parties except UNIP were banned, and this was formalised in a new constitution that was adopted in 1973. The constitution framed a system called "one-party participatory democracy", which in practise meant that UNIP became the sole political factor in the country. It provided for a strong president and a unicameral National Assembly
. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of UNIP. The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In legislative elections, only candidates running for UNIP was allowed to participate. Even though inter-party competition was out of question, the contest for seats within UNIP was energetic. In the presidential elections, the only candidate allowed to run was the one elected as president of UNIP at the party's general conference. In this way Kaunda was re-elected unopposed with a yes or no vote in 1973
, 1978
, 1983
and 1988
.
. At first the plan worked out and the economy grew steadily, but in the mid 1970s the economy started to decline drastically. During the period between 1975 and 1990 Zambia's economy dropped by approximately 30%.
The reason for this was that the Zambian economy was heavily dependent on the copper industry, which had previously been nationalised. During the 1970s the price of copper sank drastically, resulting in a large deficit
for the state owned enterprise. Another reason for the drop was Zambia's involvement in the neighbouring countries politics, and the transportation problems that resulted.
To deal with the crisis Zambia took big loans from the International Monetary Fund
and the Worldbank, hoping that copper prices would rise again soon, instead of issuing structural reforms.
, the Zimbabwe African People's Union
(ZAPU) in Southern Rhodesia
, the African National Congress
(ANC) in their struggle against apartheid in South Africa, and the South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) in their struggle for independence for Namibia
. Zambia also hosted some of the movements. For instance, the ANC exile head quarters were in Lusaka, and ZAPU had a military base in Zambia. This resulted in security problems, as the South Africa and South Rhodesia raided targets inside Zambia on several occasions.
Conflicts with Rhodesia resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the Kariba
hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity. TAZARA, a railroad to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam
, built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on railroad lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly war ravaged Angola.
Civil strife in neighbouring Mozambique
and Angola created large amounts of refugees, large numbers of whom fled to Zambia.
Internationally, Zambia was an active member of the Non-Aligned Movement
(NAM), and hosted a summit in Lusaka in 1970 and Kenneth Kaunda served as the movements chairman 1970-1973. Among the NAM countries Zambia was especially close to Yugoslavia
. Outside the NAM Zambia also had close relations with the Peoples Republic of China.
One party rule and the declining economy created disappointment among the people. Several strike
s hit the country in 1981. The government responded by arresting several union
leaders, among them Frederick Chiluba
. In 1986 and 1987 protests arose again in Lusaka
and the Copperbelt. These were followed by riots over rising food prices in 1991, in which at least 30 people were killed. The same year the state owned radio claimed that Kaunda had been removed from office by the army. This was not true, and the coup attempt failed.
These extensive protests made Kaunda realise the need for reform
. He promised a referendum
on multiparty democracy, and lifted the ban on political parties. This resulted in the quick formation of eleven new parties. Among these Movement for Multiparty Democracy
(MMD), led by former union leader Frederick Chiluba, was the most important. After pressure for the new parties the referendum was canceled in favour for direct multiparty election.
had been drafted, elections
were held in 1991. They were generally regarded to have been free and fair, and Chiluba won 76% of the presidential vote, and the MMD 125 of the 150 seats in the National Assembly
, with the UNIP taking the remaining 25.
Economically Chiluba, despite being a former union leader, stood to the right of Kaunda. With support from the International Monetary Fund
and World Bank
, to which Zambia was heavily indebted, he liberalised the economy by restricting government interference, privatising state owned enterprise, such as the important copper mining industry, and removing subsidies on different commodities, most notably on corn meal.
When one party rule was first abolished in 1991, many expected a more democratic future for Zambia. These expectations were however clouded by the MMD's treatment of the opposition. Questionable amendments of the constitution and detentions of political opponents caused major criticism, and some donor countries, i.e., the United Kingdom and Denmark, withdrew their aid
.
and putting 26 people into detention. Of these seven, including Kenneth Kaunda's son Wezi Kaunda were charged with offences against the security of the state. The rest were released.
Prior to the 1996 elections
, the UNIP formed an alliance with six other opposition parties. Kenneth Kaunda had earlier retired from politics, but after internal turbulence in the party, due to the "Zero Operation Plan" scandal, he returned, replacing his own successor Kebby Musokotwane
. Chiluba's government then amended the constitution, banning people whose parents were not both Zambian citizens from becoming president. This was directly aimed at Kaunda, whose parents were both from Malawi
. In protest the UNIP and its allies boycotted the elections, which were then easily won by Chiluba and the MMD.
In 1997 matters escalated. On 28 October a coup d'état
took place, as a group of army commanders took control over the national radio station, broadcasting a message stating that Chiluba was no longer president. The coup was brought to an end by regular forces, after Chiluba had again declared a state of emergency. One person was killed during the operation. After the failed coup the police arrested at least 84 people accused of involvement. Among these were Kenneth Kaunda and Dean Mungomba, leader of the opposition party the Zambia Democratic Congress. The arrests were condemned and criticised as illegal inside as well as outside Zambia, and accusations of torture
were made as well. Kaunda was released in June the following year, but 44 of the soldiers who took part in the coup were sentenced to death in 2003.
Chiluba tried to change the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. He was forced to step back on this point after protest from within the party as well as from the Zambian public.
Migration history of the Zambian people
Early history
}
Independence
Multiparty democracy
Zambia
Zambia , officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. The neighbouring countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west....
from prehistoric
Prehistory
Prehistory is the span of time before recorded history. Prehistory can refer to the period of human existence before the availability of those written records with which recorded history begins. More broadly, it refers to all the time preceding human existence and the invention of writing...
times to the present.
Early history
The original inhabitants of modern day Zambia, were called San), who were hunters and gatherers who lived a nomadic life, with stone ageStone Age
The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period, lasting about 2.5 million years , during which humans and their predecessor species in the genus Homo, as well as the earlier partly contemporary genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus, widely used exclusively stone as their hard material in the...
technology. Mainly they gathered fruits and nuts, but they also hunted antelope
Antelope
Antelope is a term referring to many even-toed ungulate species indigenous to various regions in Africa and Eurasia. Antelopes comprise a miscellaneous group within the family Bovidae, encompassing those old-world species that are neither cattle, sheep, buffalo, bison, nor goats...
.
The bushmen were the only inhabitants of the region until the 4th century, when Bantu or Tonga people started to migrate from the north. They had far more developed technology - they were farmers and had iron and copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
tools and weapons, as well as knowledge about pottery
Pottery
Pottery is the material from which the potteryware is made, of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made is also called a pottery . Pottery also refers to the art or craft of the potter or the manufacture of pottery...
They were sedentary and lived in small self-sufficient villages with a few houses, growing sorghum
Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, one of which is raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
and beans, as well as keeping cattle
Cattle
Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
and goats.
Since the early farmers practised slash and burn
Slash and burn
Slash-and-burn is an agricultural technique which involves cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields. It is subsistence agriculture that typically uses little technology or other tools. It is typically part of shifting cultivation agriculture, and of transhumance livestock...
agriculture, they had to constantly move further south when the soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
was exhausted. The indigenous
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
bushmen were either assimilated
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
into the new culture or pushed aside into areas not suitable for agriculture.
With the introduction of agriculture the population grew, and more and more land became cultivated. By the 11th and 12th centuries a more advanced society was beginning to emerge. Even though most villages still were self-sufficient, long distance trade
Trade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
was developing. Copper mining was intensified, and copper crosses were probably used as a currency
Currency
In economics, currency refers to a generally accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and banknotes of a particular government, which comprise the physical aspects of a nation's money supply...
. Ivory
Ivory
Ivory is a term for dentine, which constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals, when used as a material for art or manufacturing. Ivory has been important since ancient times for making a range of items, from ivory carvings to false teeth, fans, dominoes, joint tubes, piano keys and...
carvings and cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
textiles were other export commodities. One of the most famous archaeological
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
sites for this period is Ing-ombe Ilede. The increase in trade resulted in larger political units and more complex social structures.
From 1500 to 1900
The period between the 16th and the 19th centuries saw the emergence of organised Iron AgeIron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
kingdoms
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
as well as widespread immigration. Four kingdoms were established in this period - among the Kazembe-Lunda
Eastern Lunda
The Lunda people of the Luapula River valley in Zambia and DR Congo are called by others the Eastern Lunda to distinguish them from the 'western' Lunda people who remained in the heartland of the former Lunda Kingdom, but they themselves would use Kazembe-Lunda or Luunda with an elongated 'u' to...
in the north centered around the lower Luapula River
Luapula River
The Luapula River is a section of Africa's second-longest river, the Congo. It is a transnational river forming for nearly all its length part of the border between Zambia and the DR Congo...
, the Bemba
Bemba people
The Bemba belong to a large group of peoples mainly in the Northern, Luapula and Copperbelt Provinces of Zambia who trace their origins to the Luba and Lunda states of the upper Congo basin, in what became Katanga Province in southern Congo-Kinshasa...
in the north east, the Chewa in the east and the Lozi
Lozi
Lozi may refer to:*The Lozi language*The Lozi people*Lozi in South West Africa...
in the west centered around the upper Zambezi River.
The territory of the present Zambia, being far inland, did not have direct contact with non-Africans until relatively recently in its history. Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
and Portuguese traders were visiting by the 18th Century. The first recorded visits by Europeans to Zambia were the Portuguese Manuel Caetano Pereira (a trader of mixed Goa
Goa
Goa , a former Portuguese colony, is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its...
nese and Portuguese
Portuguese people
The Portuguese are a nation and ethnic group native to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian peninsula of south-west Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion....
descent) in 1796 and Francisco de Lacerda
Francisco de Lacerda
Dr Francisco José Maria de Lacerda was a Portuguese explorer in the 18th century. He led an expedition to the Kazembe region of Zambia in 1798. After his death on this mission, the group was led by Francisco Pinto.-External links:*...
(an explorer) in 1798. Both came via Tete
Tete
-External links:* *...
in Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
to Mwata Kazembe's capital to try to get the chief's agreement to a Portuguese trade route between their territories of Mozambique and Angola
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
. Lacerda died within a few weeks of arriving at Kazembe’s but left a valuable journal which was carried back to Tete by his priest and which was later translated into English by the explorer Sir Richard Burton.
However, it is believed the Portuguese first settled in Zumbo
Zumbo
Zumbo is the most western town in Mozambique, on the Zambezi River. Lying on the north-east bank of the Zambezi-Luangwa River confluence, it is a border town, with Zambia across the Luangwa River and Zimbabwe diagonally across the Zambezi and 2 km upstream...
, Mozambique, in 1720, which is just across the Luangwa River
Luangwa River
The Luangwa River is one of the major tributaries of the Zambezi River, and one of the four biggest rivers of Zambia. The river generally floods in the rainy season and then falls considerably in the dry season...
from Zambia, at the confluence with the Zambezi River. Around 1820 they had settled on the Zambian side at Feira (now Luangwa)
Luangwa, Zambia
Luangwa is a town in Zambia, at the confluence of the Luangwa and Zambezi Rivers, which was previously called Feira. It is headquarters of a district of the same name in Lusaka Province....
. So it is very likely they were visiting Zambian territory between 1720 and 1820.
The first Briton
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
to set his foot on Zambian soil was David Livingstone
David Livingstone
David Livingstone was a Scottish Congregationalist pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and an explorer in Africa. His meeting with H. M. Stanley gave rise to the popular quotation, "Dr...
. In 1851 he started his famous exploration of the upper Zambezi River, and in 1855 he became the first European to see Mosi-oa-Tunya
Victoria Falls
The Victoria Falls or Mosi-oa-Tunya is a waterfall located in southern Africa on the Zambezi River between the countries of Zambia and Zimbabwe.-Introduction:...
, the waterfalls on the Zambezi River, which he named after Queen Victoria
Victoria of the United Kingdom
Victoria was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India....
, and the Zambian town near the falls is named after him. Livingstone later died in Zambia
Livingstone Memorial
The Livingstone Memorial built in 1902 marks the spot where missionary explorer David Livingstone died on 1 or 4 May 1873 in Chief Chitambo's village at Ilala near the edge of the Bangweulu Swamps in Zambia. His heart was buried there under a mpundu tree by his loyal attendants Chuma, Suza...
in 1873.
When the first Europeans arrived, the most powerful states in precolonial Zambia were the kingdom of Barotseland
Barotseland
Barotseland is a region in the western part of Zambia, and is the homeland of the Lozi people or Barotse who were previously known as Luyi or Aluyi. Its heartland is the Barotse Floodplain on the upper Zambezi River, also known as Bulozi or Lyondo, but it includes the surrounding higher ground of...
in the upper Zambezi, and the kingdom of Mwata Kazembe on the Luapula.
The Lozi people
Lozi people
The Lozi people are an ethnic group primarily of western Zambia, inhabiting the region of Barotseland. Lozi are also found in Namibia , Angola and Botswana.-Name:...
of Barotseland had prevented access to their land by Arab and Portuguese traders. When the kingdom was first established is uncertain, but it was certainly in existence by the 18th century, the Lozi calling themselves Aluya and their country Ngulu. Its ruler was called the Litunga
Litunga
The Litunga of Barotseland is the king or paramount chief of the Lozi people. The Litunga resides near the Zambezi River and the town of Mongu, at Lealui on the floodplain in the dry season, and on higher ground at Limulunga on the edge of the floodplain in the wet season...
, and had two capitals: in the dry season
Dry season
The dry season is a term commonly used when describing the weather in the tropics. The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt, which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year...
he stayed at Lealui
Lealui
Lealui is the dry season residence on the Barotse Floodplain of the Litunga, king Troverman of the Lozi people of western Zambia, located about 14 km west of the town of Mongu and about 10 km east of the river's main channel...
, while in the rainy season he moved to Limulunga
Limulunga
Limulunga is one of the two compounds of the Litunga, king of the Lozi people of western Zambia. It lies on high ground at the edge of the Barotse Floodplain of the Zambezi river, about 15 km north of the town of Mongu and 21 km east of the main channel of the river...
, a move that is still celebrated in the Kuomboka
Kuomboka
Kuomboka is a word in the Lozi language; it literally means ‘to get out of water’. In today's Zambia it is applied to a traditional ceremony that takes place at the end of the rain season, when the upper Zambezi River floods the plains of the Western Province....
annual festival
Festival
A festival or gala is an event, usually and ordinarily staged by a local community, which centers on and celebrates some unique aspect of that community and the Festival....
.
The first certain historical fact concerning Barotseland is in the early 19th century the trek of the Makololo
Makololo
The Makololo are a people of Southern Africa, closely related to the Basotho, from which they separated themselves in the early 19th century. Originally residing in what is now South Africa, they were displaced by the Zulu expansion under Shaka and migrated north through Botswana to Barotseland in...
, a clan of the South-African
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
Basotho
Basotho
The ancestors of the Sotho people have lived in southern Africa since around the fifth century. The Sotho nation emerged from the accomplished diplomacy of Moshoeshoe I who gathered together disparate clans of Sotho–Tswana origin that had dispersed across southern Africa in the early 19th century...
or Tswana people. Utterly defeated by Shaka
Shaka
Shaka kaSenzangakhona , also known as Shaka Zulu , was the most influential leader of the Zulu Kingdom....
's new Zulu Kingdom
Zulu Kingdom
The Zulu Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Zulu Empire or, rather imprecisely, Zululand, was a monarchy in Southern Africa that extended along the coast of the Indian Ocean from the Tugela River in the south to Pongola River in the north....
in the 1820s, the Makololo under the guide of Sebetwane
Sebetwane
Sebetwane was a Southern African king, Basotho chief. He established the large and powerful Makololo nation in what is now southwestern Zambia after an arduous migration from his original home - Free State Province....
were forced to march north until they conquered the Lozi and became the aristocracy of Barotseland, with Sebitwane as new Litunga.
Sebetwane proved an able leader, and is spoken of with warm respect by David Livingstone
David Livingstone
David Livingstone was a Scottish Congregationalist pioneer medical missionary with the London Missionary Society and an explorer in Africa. His meeting with H. M. Stanley gave rise to the popular quotation, "Dr...
, who met him in 1851 shortly before his death. He was succeeded by his daughter Mamochisane
Mamochisane
Mamochisane was a Makololo Queen who ruled over many people, but especially the Lozi in Barotseland, today's Western Zambia, and was a wife of King Sipopa Lutangu.Her uncle was the king Mbololo.- Biography :...
, who early stepped down in favour of her half-brother Sekeletu
Sekeletu
Sekeletu was the Makololo King of Barotseland in western Zambia from about 1851 to his death in 1863.- Biography :Sekeletu was a son of the King Sebetwane and Queen Setlutlu. He succeeded his half-sister Mamochisane, who had decided to step down from the throne...
. With him the Makololo empire appears to have started to fall to pieces, especially after his death in 1863: a year later internal dissension in the ruling class brought to a revolt by the Lozi that is said to have exterminated the Makololo aristocracy and forced the survivors to migrate to present-day Malawi
Malawi
The Republic of Malawi is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique on the east, south and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi. Its size...
.
Colonial Period
In 1888, Cecil Rhodes, spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa
Central Africa
Central Africa is a core region of the African continent which includes Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Rwanda....
, obtained a mineral rights concession from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and Southern Rhodesia
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
, now Zambia
Zambia
Zambia , officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. The neighbouring countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west....
and Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
, were proclaimed a British sphere of influence
Sphere of influence
In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence is a spatial region or conceptual division over which a state or organization has significant cultural, economic, military or political influence....
. To start with the territory was administered by Rhodes' British South Africa Company
British South Africa Company
The British South Africa Company was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company Ltd., receiving a royal charter in 1889...
(BSAC), which showed little interest for the province and used it mainly as a supplier of cheap labour.
The most important factor in the colony's economy was copper. The discovery of copper is owed partly to an American scout, Frederick Russell Burnham
Frederick Russell Burnham
Frederick Russell Burnham, DSO was an American scout and world traveling adventurer known for his service to the British Army in colonial Africa and for teaching woodcraft to Robert Baden-Powell, thus becoming one of the inspirations for the founding of the international Scouting Movement.Burnham...
, who in 1895 lead and oversaw the massive Northern Territories (BSA) Exploration Co. expedition which established for the Western world that major copper deposits existed in Central Africa. Along the Kafue River
Kafue River
The Kafue River sustains one of the world's great wildlife environments. It is a major tributary of the Zambezi, and of Zambia's principal rivers, it is the most central and the most urban, and the longest and largest lying wholly within Zambia....
in then Northern Rhodesia, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered natives wearing copper bracelets. Later, the BSAC built railroad to transport the copper through Mozambique.
In 1923 the British government decided not to renew the company's charter
Charter
A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified...
; as a result, Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia was the name of the British colony situated north of the Limpopo River and the Union of South Africa. From its independence in 1965 until its extinction in 1980, it was known as Rhodesia...
was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923. After negotiations the administration of Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia was a territory in south central Africa, formed in 1911. It became independent in 1964 as Zambia.It was initially administered under charter by the British South Africa Company and formed by it in 1911 by amalgamating North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia...
was transferred to the British Colonial Office
Colonial Office
Colonial Office is the government agency which serves to oversee and supervise their colony* Colonial Office - The British Government department* Office of Insular Affairs - the American government agency* Reichskolonialamt - the German Colonial Office...
in 1924 as a protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
, with Livingstone
Livingstone, Zambia
Livingstone or Maramba is a historic colonial city and present capital of the Southern Province of Zambia, a tourism centre for the Victoria Falls lying north of the Zambezi River, and a border town with road and rail connections to Zimbabwe on the other side of the Falls...
as capital. It was later transferred to Lusaka
Lusaka
Lusaka is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is located in the southern part of the central plateau, at an elevation of about 1,300 metres . It has a population of about 1.7 million . It is a commercial centre as well as the centre of government, and the four main highways of Zambia head...
in 1935. A Legislative Council
Legislative Council
A Legislative Council is the name given to the legislatures, or one of the chambers of the legislature of many nations and colonies.A Member of the Legislative Council is commonly referred to as an MLC.- Unicameral legislatures :...
was established, of which five members were elected by the small European minority (only 4,000 people), but none by the African population.
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
deposits were found, transforming Northern Rhodesia from a prospective land of colonization for white farmers to a copper exporter. Already in 1938 it produced 13% of world's copper extracted. The sector was immediately monopolized by the Anglo American Corporation (AAC, North-American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
) and the Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST, South African), who would control the sector till independence.
The bad security conditions and increased taxes helped to trigger a strike
Strike action
Strike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
of African mineworkers in 1935, known as the Copperbelt strike
Copperbelt strike (1935)
The Copperbelt strike in May 1935 was a great strike action which was performed by African mineworkers in the Copperbelt to protest against unfair taxes imposed by the British colonial authorities. The strike involved three of the four great copper mines of the province, namely those of Mufulira,...
. The strike was crushed by the authorities that killed 13 miners in the repression.
During the Second World War white miners came out on strike in 1940. Realising the importance of their products for the war, they demanded higher salaries. This strike was followed by another by African mineworkers.
Even before the war, there had been talks about merging the two Rhodesias, but the process had been halted by the British authorities, and brought to an absolute stop by the war. Finally, in 1953, both Rhodesias were joined with Nyasaland
Nyasaland
Nyasaland or the Nyasaland Protectorate, was a British protectorate located in Africa, which was established in 1907 when the former British Central Africa Protectorate changed its name. Since 1964, it has been known as Malawi....
(now Malawi
Malawi
The Republic of Malawi is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique on the east, south and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi. Its size...
) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also known as the Central African Federation , was a semi-independent state in southern Africa that existed from 1953 to the end of 1963, comprising the former self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia and the British protectorates of Northern Rhodesia,...
. Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crisis that characterized the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.
A two-stage election
Northern Rhodesian general election, 1962
General elections were held in Northern Rhodesia in two stages in October and December 1962. The results saw the white United Federal Party win sixteen seats, the United National Independence Party 14 seats, and the African National Congress seven seats...
held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new national assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On 31 December 1963, the federation was dissolved, and Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia was a territory in south central Africa, formed in 1911. It became independent in 1964 as Zambia.It was initially administered under charter by the British South Africa Company and formed by it in 1911 by amalgamating North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia...
became the Republic of Zambia on 24 October 1964
Zambia Independence Act 1964
The Zambia Independence Act 1964 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which granted independence to Zambia with effect from 24 October 1964...
.
Independence and Cold War
Colony
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception....
or under white minority rule.
The United National Independence Party
United National Independence Party
The United National Independence Party is a political party in Zambia. It governed that country from 1964 to 1991 under the presidency of Kenneth Kaunda....
(UNIP) won the pre-independence elections
Northern Rhodesian general election, 1964
General elections were held in Northern Rhodesia on 20 and 21 January 1964. There were two voter rolls for the Legislative Council, a main roll that elected 65 seats, and a reserved roll that elected 10. Blacks elected the main roll, whilst whites elected the reserve roll. Other ethnicities were...
, gaining 55 of the 75 seats. The Zambian African National Congress
Zambian African National Congress
The Zambian African National Congress was a political organisation dedicated to promoting the rights of black people in Zambia. ZANC was formed in 1958, following a split from the Northern Rhodesian African National Congress. The president of ZANC was Kenneth Kaunda. In 1959 the party was banned...
won 10 seats, and the National Progressive Party won all the 10 seats reserved for whites. Kenneth Kaunda
Kenneth Kaunda
Kenneth David Kaunda, known as KK, served as the first President of Zambia, from 1964 to 1991.-Early life:Kaunda was the youngest of eight children. He was born at Lubwa Mission in Chinsali, Northern Province of Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia...
was elected Prime Minister, and later the same year president, as the country adopted a presidential system.
Kaunda adopted an ideology
Ideology
An ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...
of African socialism
African socialism
African socialism is a belief in sharing economic resources in a "traditional" African way, as distinct from classical socialism. Many African politicians of the 1950s and 1960s professed their support for African socialism, although definitions and interpretations of this term varied...
, close to that of Julius Nyerere
Julius Nyerere
Julius Kambarage Nyerere was a Tanzanian politician who served as the first President of Tanzania and previously Tanganyika, from the country's founding in 1961 until his retirement in 1985....
in Tanzania
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
. Economical policies focused on central planning and nationalisation, and a system of one party rule was put in place.
Towards one party rule
In 1968 Kaunda was re-elected as presidentZambian general election, 1968
General elections were held in Zambia on 19 December 1968 to elect the National Assembly and President. The first post-independence polls saw incumbent Kenneth Kaunda retain his post as president, whilst his United National Independence Party, the only party to field candidates in all 105...
, running unopposed. During the following years Zambia adopted a one party system. In 1972 all political parties except UNIP were banned, and this was formalised in a new constitution that was adopted in 1973. The constitution framed a system called "one-party participatory democracy", which in practise meant that UNIP became the sole political factor in the country. It provided for a strong president and a unicameral National Assembly
National Assembly of Zambia
The unicameral National Assembly of Zambia is the country's legislative body.The current National Assembly, formed following elections held on 20 September 2011, has a total of 156 members . 150 members are directly elected in single-member constituencies using the simple majority system...
. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of UNIP. The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In legislative elections, only candidates running for UNIP was allowed to participate. Even though inter-party competition was out of question, the contest for seats within UNIP was energetic. In the presidential elections, the only candidate allowed to run was the one elected as president of UNIP at the party's general conference. In this way Kaunda was re-elected unopposed with a yes or no vote in 1973
Zambian general election, 1973
General elections were held in Zambia on 5 December 1973. These followed the 1972 decision to make the country a single-party state, and as such, the United National Independence Party was the sole contestant in the elections. Its candidate Kenneth Kaunda was re-elected as President with 88.8% of...
, 1978
Zambian general election, 1978
General elections were held in Zambia on 12 December 1978. At the time, the country was a single-party state, and as such, the United National Independence Party was the sole contestant in the elections. Its candidate Kenneth Kaunda was re-elected as President with 80.7% of the vote, whilst UNIP...
, 1983
Zambian general election, 1983
General elections were held in Zambia on 27 October 1983. At the time, the country was a single-party state, and as such, the United National Independence Party was the sole contestant in the elections. Its candidate Kenneth Kaunda was re-elected as President with over 90% of the vote, whilst UNIP...
and 1988
Zambian general election, 1988
General elections were held in Zambia on 26 October 1988. At the time, the country was a single-party state, and as such, the United National Independence Party was the sole contestant in the elections. Its candidate Kenneth Kaunda was re-elected as President with 95.5% of the vote, whilst UNIP won...
.
The economy and the copper crisis
After independence Zambia adopted a left-wing economic policy. The economy was to some extent run by central planning, under five year plans, private companies were nationalised and incorporated into large state-owned conglomerates. The government's goal was to be self-sufficient, which it sought to achieve through import substitutionImport substitution
Import substitution industrialization or "Import-substituting Industrialization" is a trade and economic policy that advocates replacing imports with domestic production. It is based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production of...
. At first the plan worked out and the economy grew steadily, but in the mid 1970s the economy started to decline drastically. During the period between 1975 and 1990 Zambia's economy dropped by approximately 30%.
The reason for this was that the Zambian economy was heavily dependent on the copper industry, which had previously been nationalised. During the 1970s the price of copper sank drastically, resulting in a large deficit
Deficit spending
Deficit spending is the amount by which a government, private company, or individual's spending exceeds income over a particular period of time, also called simply "deficit," or "budget deficit," the opposite of budget surplus....
for the state owned enterprise. Another reason for the drop was Zambia's involvement in the neighbouring countries politics, and the transportation problems that resulted.
To deal with the crisis Zambia took big loans from the International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
and the Worldbank, hoping that copper prices would rise again soon, instead of issuing structural reforms.
Foreign policy
Internationally, Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule. During the next decade, it actively supported movements such as the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) under the independence war and under the subsequent civil warAngolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War was a major civil conflict in the Southern African state of Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. Prior to this, a decolonisation conflict had taken...
, the Zimbabwe African People's Union
Zimbabwe African People's Union
The Zimbabwe African People's Union was a militant organization and political party that fought for the national liberation of Zimbabwe from its founding in 1961 until it merged with the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front in December 1987....
(ZAPU) in Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia was the name of the British colony situated north of the Limpopo River and the Union of South Africa. From its independence in 1965 until its extinction in 1980, it was known as Rhodesia...
, the African National Congress
African National Congress
The African National Congress is South Africa's governing Africanist political party, supported by its tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions and the South African Communist Party , since the establishment of non-racial democracy in April 1994. It defines itself as a...
(ANC) in their struggle against apartheid in South Africa, and the South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) in their struggle for independence for Namibia
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...
. Zambia also hosted some of the movements. For instance, the ANC exile head quarters were in Lusaka, and ZAPU had a military base in Zambia. This resulted in security problems, as the South Africa and South Rhodesia raided targets inside Zambia on several occasions.
Conflicts with Rhodesia resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the Kariba
Kariba Dam
The Kariba Dam is a hydroelectric dam in the Kariba Gorge of the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is one of the largest dams in the world, standing tall and long.- Construction :...
hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity. TAZARA, a railroad to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam
Dar es Salaam
Dar es Salaam , formerly Mzizima, is the largest city in Tanzania. It is also the country's richest city and a regionally important economic centre. Dar es Salaam is actually an administrative province within Tanzania, and consists of three local government areas or administrative districts: ...
, built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on railroad lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly war ravaged Angola.
Civil strife in neighbouring Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
and Angola created large amounts of refugees, large numbers of whom fled to Zambia.
Internationally, Zambia was an active member of the Non-Aligned Movement
Non-Aligned Movement
The Non-Aligned Movement is a group of states considering themselves not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. As of 2011, the movement had 120 members and 17 observer countries...
(NAM), and hosted a summit in Lusaka in 1970 and Kenneth Kaunda served as the movements chairman 1970-1973. Among the NAM countries Zambia was especially close to Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
. Outside the NAM Zambia also had close relations with the Peoples Republic of China.
The end of one party rule
Strike action
Strike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
s hit the country in 1981. The government responded by arresting several union
Trade union
A trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...
leaders, among them Frederick Chiluba
Frederick Chiluba
Frederick Jacob Titus Chiluba was a Zambian politician who was the second President of Zambia from 1991 to 2002. Chiluba, a trade union leader, won the country's multi-party presidential election in 1991 as the candidate of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy , defeating long-time President...
. In 1986 and 1987 protests arose again in Lusaka
Lusaka
Lusaka is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is located in the southern part of the central plateau, at an elevation of about 1,300 metres . It has a population of about 1.7 million . It is a commercial centre as well as the centre of government, and the four main highways of Zambia head...
and the Copperbelt. These were followed by riots over rising food prices in 1991, in which at least 30 people were killed. The same year the state owned radio claimed that Kaunda had been removed from office by the army. This was not true, and the coup attempt failed.
These extensive protests made Kaunda realise the need for reform
Reform movement
A reform movement is a kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes...
. He promised a referendum
Referendum
A referendum is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This may result in the adoption of a new constitution, a constitutional amendment, a law, the recall of an elected official or simply a specific government policy. It is a form of...
on multiparty democracy, and lifted the ban on political parties. This resulted in the quick formation of eleven new parties. Among these Movement for Multiparty Democracy
Movement for Multiparty Democracy
The Movement for Multi-party Democracy is a political party in Zambia. Originally formed to oust the previous government, MMD controlled an absolute majority in parliament between 1991 and 2001, when its past leader, Frederick Chiluba was president of the country...
(MMD), led by former union leader Frederick Chiluba, was the most important. After pressure for the new parties the referendum was canceled in favour for direct multiparty election.
Frederick Chiluba and the MMD
After a new constitutionConstitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
had been drafted, elections
Zambian general election, 1991
General elections were held in Zambia on 31 October 1991 to elect a President and National Assembly. They were the first multi-party elections since 1968, and saw the ruling United National Independence Party comprehensively beaten by the Movement for Multiparty Democracy, whose candidate,...
were held in 1991. They were generally regarded to have been free and fair, and Chiluba won 76% of the presidential vote, and the MMD 125 of the 150 seats in the National Assembly
National Assembly of Zambia
The unicameral National Assembly of Zambia is the country's legislative body.The current National Assembly, formed following elections held on 20 September 2011, has a total of 156 members . 150 members are directly elected in single-member constituencies using the simple majority system...
, with the UNIP taking the remaining 25.
Economically Chiluba, despite being a former union leader, stood to the right of Kaunda. With support from the International Monetary Fund
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
and World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
, to which Zambia was heavily indebted, he liberalised the economy by restricting government interference, privatising state owned enterprise, such as the important copper mining industry, and removing subsidies on different commodities, most notably on corn meal.
When one party rule was first abolished in 1991, many expected a more democratic future for Zambia. These expectations were however clouded by the MMD's treatment of the opposition. Questionable amendments of the constitution and detentions of political opponents caused major criticism, and some donor countries, i.e., the United Kingdom and Denmark, withdrew their aid
Aid
In international relations, aid is a voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another, given at least partly with the objective of benefiting the recipient country....
.
Coups and emergencies
In 1993 the government owned newspaper The Times of Zambia reported a story about a secret UNIP plan to take control of government by unconstitutional means, called the "Zero Operation Plan". The plan included industrial unrest, promotion of violence and organisations of mass protests. The UNIP did not deny the existence of such a plan, but underlined that it was not a part of their official policy, but the views of extremists within the party. The government responded by declaring a state of emergencyState of emergency
A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend some normal functions of the executive, legislative and judicial powers, alert citizens to change their normal behaviours, or order government agencies to implement emergency preparedness plans. It can also be used as a rationale...
and putting 26 people into detention. Of these seven, including Kenneth Kaunda's son Wezi Kaunda were charged with offences against the security of the state. The rest were released.
Prior to the 1996 elections
Zambian general election, 1996
General elections were held in Zambia on 18 November 1996 to elect a President and National Assembly. They were boycotted by the main opposition party, the United National Independence Party, together with five other allied parties, following changes to the constitution which they failed to have...
, the UNIP formed an alliance with six other opposition parties. Kenneth Kaunda had earlier retired from politics, but after internal turbulence in the party, due to the "Zero Operation Plan" scandal, he returned, replacing his own successor Kebby Musokotwane
Kebby Musokotwane
Kebby Musokotwane was a politician from Zambia. He was a member of the United National Independence Party and one of the closest allies of former President Kenneth Kaunda. Musokotwane served as Prime Minister of Zambia from 24 April 1985 until 15 March 1989. He then became secretary-general of the...
. Chiluba's government then amended the constitution, banning people whose parents were not both Zambian citizens from becoming president. This was directly aimed at Kaunda, whose parents were both from Malawi
Malawi
The Republic of Malawi is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique on the east, south and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi. Its size...
. In protest the UNIP and its allies boycotted the elections, which were then easily won by Chiluba and the MMD.
In 1997 matters escalated. On 28 October a coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
took place, as a group of army commanders took control over the national radio station, broadcasting a message stating that Chiluba was no longer president. The coup was brought to an end by regular forces, after Chiluba had again declared a state of emergency. One person was killed during the operation. After the failed coup the police arrested at least 84 people accused of involvement. Among these were Kenneth Kaunda and Dean Mungomba, leader of the opposition party the Zambia Democratic Congress. The arrests were condemned and criticised as illegal inside as well as outside Zambia, and accusations of torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
were made as well. Kaunda was released in June the following year, but 44 of the soldiers who took part in the coup were sentenced to death in 2003.
2001 elections
Prior to the elections in 2001Zambian general election, 2001
General elections were held in Zambia on 27 December 2001 to elect a President and National Assembly. The result was a victory for the ruling Movement for Multi-Party Democracy, which won 69 of the 150 National Assembly seats and whose candidate, Levy Mwanawasa, won the presidential vote.The...
Chiluba tried to change the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. He was forced to step back on this point after protest from within the party as well as from the Zambian public.
See also
- Heads of Government of Zambia
- History of AfricaHistory of AfricaThe history of Africa begins with the prehistory of Africa and the emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, continuing into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. Agriculture began about 10,000 BCE and metallurgy in about 4000 BCE. The history of early...
- History of Southern Africa
- Kazembe
- Kenneth KaundaKenneth KaundaKenneth David Kaunda, known as KK, served as the first President of Zambia, from 1964 to 1991.-Early life:Kaunda was the youngest of eight children. He was born at Lubwa Mission in Chinsali, Northern Province of Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia...
- List of Presidents of Zambia
- Monuments and Historic Sites of ZambiaMonuments and Historic Sites of ZambiaThis page gives lists of the National Monuments and other historic sites of Zambia, with a one- or two-line description providing links to details given on other pages.- National Heritage Conservation Commission :...
- Politics of ZambiaPolitics of ZambiaPolitics of Zambia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Zambia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the...
External links
Migration history of the Zambian people
Early history
}
Independence
Multiparty democracy