Heqin
Encyclopedia
Heqin was a term used in ancient China
for an alliance by marriage
. It usually referred to the Chinese Emperor
marrying off a "princess
" (usually a pseudo-princess or concubine whom he had never met before) to an aggressive "barbarian
" chieftain or ruler. The theory was that in exchange for the marriage, the chieftain would cease all aggressive actions toward China. The best-known example of heqin involved the beauty Wang Zhaojun
. The first known instance of this type of marriage occurred in 200 BC, when a pseudo-princess was offered to a Xiongnu
Chanyu
as suggested by Lou Jin (later given the surname Liu
by the Imperial Court).
Heqin was engaged in by most dynasties in Chinese history to some extent. By contrast to their contemporaries, such as the Liao
, Jin
, Western Xia
, Yuan
and the Northern Yuan dynasties, the Song
and Ming
dynasties did not practice such alliances.
They were used to best effect by the Han Dynasty
, Tang Dynasty
, and the Manchu
-led Qing Dynasty
(to Mongols, etc.).
period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han Dynasty
in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms
period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.
During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of Heqin marriage.
in 581 A.D., China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.
There were a total of seven instances of Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.
: The Tuyuhun Kingdom, Tibet
, the Khitans
, Orkhon Uyghur, and the Kingdom of Nanzhao. Unlike during some preceding dynasties, most heqin princesses during the Tang Dynasty were actual princesses (or at least noblewomen of recent imperial descent).
There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:
There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty
.
During the Ming Dynasty, according to the indigenous people of Malacca
, Malaysia and descendants of Chinese immigrants there, Princess Hang Li Poh (汉丽宝公主) was given in marriage to the Malay Sultan together with 500 lady servants. Although this story is not found in Ming dynasty historical records, it was written in the Malay Annals. And Malacca people generally believed the story to be true, and some Chinese there claim to be descendants of the Princess. The Chinese graves dating to the Ming dynasty in Bukit Cina
and other folklores and related relics there also provide strong supporting evidence. This marriage arrangement was not likely to result in practicable military alliance, however, since the Malacca Sultanate
was too far away from China. Nevertheless, the Malacca Sultanate did pay tributes to China, and Chinese influence helped deterred attack from Siam
.
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
for an alliance by marriage
Marriage
Marriage is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged in a variety of ways, depending on the culture or subculture in which it is found...
. It usually referred to the Chinese Emperor
Chinese sovereign
Chinese sovereign is the ruler of a particular period in ancient China. Several titles and naming schemes have been used throughout history.-Emperor Title:...
marrying off a "princess
Princess
Princess is the feminine form of prince . Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince, or his daughters....
" (usually a pseudo-princess or concubine whom he had never met before) to an aggressive "barbarian
Barbarian
Barbarian and savage are terms used to refer to a person who is perceived to be uncivilized. The word is often used either in a general reference to a member of a nation or ethnos, typically a tribal society as seen by an urban civilization either viewed as inferior, or admired as a noble savage...
" chieftain or ruler. The theory was that in exchange for the marriage, the chieftain would cease all aggressive actions toward China. The best-known example of heqin involved the beauty Wang Zhaojun
Wang Zhaojun
Wang Qiang , more commonly known by her style name Wang Zhaojun was the consort of the Xiongnu chanyu Huhanye...
. The first known instance of this type of marriage occurred in 200 BC, when a pseudo-princess was offered to a Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
Chanyu
Chanyu
Chanyu , was the title used by the nomadic supreme rulers of Middle and Central Asia for 8 centuries, starting...
as suggested by Lou Jin (later given the surname Liu
Liu
劉 is a common Chinese family name. The transliteration Liu can represent several different surnames written in different Chinese characters:*劉 / 刘, pinyin: Liú...
by the Imperial Court).
Heqin was engaged in by most dynasties in Chinese history to some extent. By contrast to their contemporaries, such as the Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
, Jin
Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234
The Jīn Dynasty ; Khitan language: Nik, Niku; ; 1115–1234), also known as the Jurchen Dynasty, was founded by the Wanyan clan of the Jurchens, the ancestors of the Manchus who established the Qing Dynasty some 500 years later...
, Western Xia
Western Xia
The Western Xia Dynasty or the Tangut Empire, was known to the Tanguts and the Tibetans as Minyak.The state existed from 1038 to 1227 AD in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, eastern Qinghai, northern Shaanxi, northeastern Xinjiang, southwest Inner Mongolia, and...
, Yuan
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
and the Northern Yuan dynasties, the Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
and Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
dynasties did not practice such alliances.
They were used to best effect by the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
, and the Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
-led Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(to Mongols, etc.).
Han Dynasty
There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han Dynasty.- 200 B.C.: Emperor Gaozu of Han marries a Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Modu Chanyu. This is the first recorded incidence of heqin marriage in Chinese history. - 192 B.C.: Emperor Hui of HanEmperor Hui of HanEmperor Hui of Han was the second emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. He was the second son of the first Han emperor, Han Gaozu and Empress Dowager Lü. He is generally remembered as a weak character dominated by his mother, Empress Dowager Lü, personally kind and generous but unable to escape...
marries another Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Modu Chanyu. - 176 B.C.: Emperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of Han was the fifth emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. His given name is Heng.Liu Heng was a son of Emperor Gao of Han and Consort Bo, later empress dowager...
marries a third Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Modu Chanyu. - 174 B.C.: Emperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of Han was the fifth emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. His given name is Heng.Liu Heng was a son of Emperor Gao of Han and Consort Bo, later empress dowager...
marries a Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Laoshang Chanyu. She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor. - 162 B.C.: Emperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of Han was the fifth emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. His given name is Heng.Liu Heng was a son of Emperor Gao of Han and Consort Bo, later empress dowager...
marries another Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Laoshang Chanyu. - 160 B.C.: Emperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of HanEmperor Wen of Han was the fifth emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. His given name is Heng.Liu Heng was a son of Emperor Gao of Han and Consort Bo, later empress dowager...
marries a Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Gunchen ChanyuGunchen ChanyuGunchen Chanyu , whose proper name is unknown, was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu, the successor to Laoshang Chanyu . During his long reign Gunchen Chanyu outlived the Han emperors Wendi Liu Heng 文帝劉恆 , Jingdi Liu Qi 景帝 劉啟 Gunchen Chanyu (aka Junchen Chinese: 單于, 軍臣; r. 161–126 BCE), whose proper...
. - 156 B.C.: Emperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of Han was an emperor of China in the Han Dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights...
marries another Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Gunchen ChanyuGunchen ChanyuGunchen Chanyu , whose proper name is unknown, was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu, the successor to Laoshang Chanyu . During his long reign Gunchen Chanyu outlived the Han emperors Wendi Liu Heng 文帝劉恆 , Jingdi Liu Qi 景帝 劉啟 Gunchen Chanyu (aka Junchen Chinese: 單于, 軍臣; r. 161–126 BCE), whose proper...
. - 155 B.C.: Emperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of Han was an emperor of China in the Han Dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights...
marries a third Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Gunchen ChanyuGunchen ChanyuGunchen Chanyu , whose proper name is unknown, was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu, the successor to Laoshang Chanyu . During his long reign Gunchen Chanyu outlived the Han emperors Wendi Liu Heng 文帝劉恆 , Jingdi Liu Qi 景帝 劉啟 Gunchen Chanyu (aka Junchen Chinese: 單于, 軍臣; r. 161–126 BCE), whose proper...
. - 152 B.C.: Emperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of HanEmperor Jing of Han was an emperor of China in the Han Dynasty from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights...
marries his own daughter, Princess Nangong (南宮公主), to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Gunchen ChanyuGunchen ChanyuGunchen Chanyu , whose proper name is unknown, was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu, the successor to Laoshang Chanyu . During his long reign Gunchen Chanyu outlived the Han emperors Wendi Liu Heng 文帝劉恆 , Jingdi Liu Qi 景帝 劉啟 Gunchen Chanyu (aka Junchen Chinese: 單于, 軍臣; r. 161–126 BCE), whose proper...
. - 140 B.C.: Emperor Wu of HanEmperor Wu of HanEmperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
marries a Han "princess" to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Gunchen ChanyuGunchen ChanyuGunchen Chanyu , whose proper name is unknown, was a Chanyu of the Xiongnu, the successor to Laoshang Chanyu . During his long reign Gunchen Chanyu outlived the Han emperors Wendi Liu Heng 文帝劉恆 , Jingdi Liu Qi 景帝 劉啟 Gunchen Chanyu (aka Junchen Chinese: 單于, 軍臣; r. 161–126 BCE), whose proper...
. - 108 B.C.: Emperor Wu of HanEmperor Wu of HanEmperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
marries Princess Liu Xijun (劉細君公主), daughter of Han prince Liu Jian, Prince of Jiangdu (江都王劉建), to Liejiaomi, King of WusunWusunThe Wūsūn were a nomadic steppe people who, according to the Chinese histories, originally lived in western Gansu in northwest China west of the Yuezhi people...
. - 103 B.C.: Emperor Wu of HanEmperor Wu of HanEmperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
marries Princess Liu Jieyou (劉解憂公主), daughter of Han prince Liu Wu, Prince of Chu (楚王劉戊), to Junxumi, King of WusunWusunThe Wūsūn were a nomadic steppe people who, according to the Chinese histories, originally lived in western Gansu in northwest China west of the Yuezhi people...
(King Liejiaomi's grandson). After King Junxumi's death in 93 B.C., Princess Jieyou, in accordance with WusunWusunThe Wūsūn were a nomadic steppe people who, according to the Chinese histories, originally lived in western Gansu in northwest China west of the Yuezhi people...
tradition, married his successor (and younger brother), King Wengguimi. After King Wengguimi's death in 60 B.C., Princess Jieyou again remarried to his successor King Nimi (son of King Junximi and a Xiongnu princess). - 33 B.C.: Emperor Yuan of HanEmperor Yuan of HanEmperor Yuan of Han was an emperor of the Chinese Han Dynasty. He reigned from 48 BC to 33 BC. Emperor Yuan was remembered for the promotion of Confucianism as the official creed of Chinese government. He appointed Confucius adherents to important government posts...
marries Wang ZhaojunWang ZhaojunWang Qiang , more commonly known by her style name Wang Zhaojun was the consort of the Xiongnu chanyu Huhanye...
, a lady of the imperial harem, to XiongnuXiongnuThe Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
chieftain Huhanye. After Huhanye's death in 31 B.C., she remarried to Huhanye's successor (his son by his first wife and thus her stepson) Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.
Sixteen Kingdoms Period
During the Sixteen KingdomsSixteen Kingdoms
The Sixteen Kingdoms, or less commonly the Sixteen States, were a collection of numerous short-lived sovereign states in China proper and its neighboring areas from 304 to 439 AD after the retreat of the Jin Dynasty to South China and before the establishment of the Northern Dynasties...
period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (i.e. daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms
Sixteen Kingdoms
The Sixteen Kingdoms, or less commonly the Sixteen States, were a collection of numerous short-lived sovereign states in China proper and its neighboring areas from 304 to 439 AD after the retreat of the Jin Dynasty to South China and before the establishment of the Northern Dynasties...
period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.
- Fú Jiān, Emperor Xuanzhao of Former QinFu JianFu Jian may refer to:* Fú Jiàn , founding emperor of Former Qin, posthumous name Emperor Jingming* Fú Jiān , ruler of Former Qin, posthumous name Emperor Xuanzhao-See also:...
, married one of his daughters to Yang Ding, ruler of the state of ChouchiChouchiChouchi is a Chinese local regime of the Di ethnicity in modern-day Gansu Province during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern Dynasties.-History:...
. - Fu Deng, Emperor Gao of Former QinFu DengFu Deng was an emperor of the Chinese/Di state Former Qin. He assumed the throne in 386 after the deaths of Fu Jiān and Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi , even though he was only a distant relative of theirs, as by that time Former Qin's territory had largely been reduced to the territory under his control...
, married his younger sister, Princess Dongping (東平公主) to Qifu Gangui, Prince of Western QiQifu GanguiQifu Gangui or Qifu Qiangui , formally Prince Wuyuan of Henan , was a prince of the Chinese/Xianbei state Western Qin. He was a brother of the founding prince, Qifu Guoren , who became prince after Qifu Guoren's death in 388 because Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu was considered too young for...
. - 441 A.D.: Feng Ba, Emperor Wencheng of Northern YanFeng BaFeng Ba , courtesy name Wenqi , nickname Qizhifa , formally Emperor Wencheng of Yan , was an emperor of the Chinese state Northern Yan...
married his daughter, Princess Lelang (樂浪公主), to Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran. - 415 A.D.: Yao Xing, Emperor Wenhuan of Later QinYao XingYao Xing , courtesy name Zilue , formally Emperor Wenhuan of Qin , was an emperor of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. He was the son of the founding emperor Yao Chang . For most of his reign, he did not use the title of emperor, but used the title Heavenly Prince...
married his daughter, Princess XipingConsort YaoConsort Yao , who was initially Princess Xiping of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin, posthumously honored Empress Zhaoai , was the wife of Emperor Mingyuan of the Chinese/Xianbei state Northern Wei .Princess Xiping was the daughter of Yao Xing Consort Yao (姚夫人, personal name unknown) (died ...
(西平公主), to Emperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Si , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the oldest son of the founding emperor Emperor Daowu...
. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally created empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife. - Qifu Chipan, Prince Wenzhao of Western QinQifu ChipanQifu Chipan , formally Prince Wenzhao of Qin , was a prince of the Chinese/Xianbei state Western Qin. During his reign, Western Qin reached its prime after he destroyed and seized the territory of the rival state Southern Liang in 414, but it then began a gradual decline under attacks by Xia and...
, marries his daughter, Princess Xingping (興平公主), to Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang'sJuqu MengxunJuqu Mengxun was a prince of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Northern Liang, and the first from the Juqu clan. His cousin Juqu Nancheng and he initially supported Duan Ye as prince of Northern Liang in 397 after rebelling against Later Liang, but in 401, Juqu Mengxun tricked Duan Ye into wrongly...
son Juqu Xingguo. - 433 A.D.: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern LiangJuqu MengxunJuqu Mengxun was a prince of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Northern Liang, and the first from the Juqu clan. His cousin Juqu Nancheng and he initially supported Duan Ye as prince of Northern Liang in 397 after rebelling against Later Liang, but in 401, Juqu Mengxun tricked Duan Ye into wrongly...
marries his daughter, Princess Xingping (興平公主), to Emperor Taiwu of Northern WeiEmperor Taiwu of Northern WeiEmperor Taiwu of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Tao , nickname Foli , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei...
. She became Emperor Taiwu's concubine.
Southern and Northern Dynasties
During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was also divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of Heqin marriage.
- 428 A.D.: Emperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Si , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the oldest son of the founding emperor Emperor Daowu...
marries his daughter, Princess Shiping (始平公主), to Helian Chang, Emperor of XiaHelian ChangHelian Chang , courtesy name Huan'guo , nickname Zhe , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Xia. He was the successor and a son of the founding emperor Helian Bobo . After his father's death in 425, he tried to expand Xia further, but soon his state began to collapse in light of pressure...
. - 437 A.D.: Emperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Si , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the oldest son of the founding emperor Emperor Daowu...
marries his daughter, Princess WuweiPrincess TuobaPrincess Tuoba , also known by her Northern Wei title Princess Wuwei , was the daughter of Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei and who later was a princess of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Northern Liang...
(武威公主), to Juqu Mujian, Prince Ai of HexiJuqu MujianJuqu Mujian , named Juqu Maoqian in some sources, formally Prince Ai of Hexi , was the a prince of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Northern Liang -- with most Chinese historians considering him the last prince, although with some considering his brothers Juqu Wuhui and Juqu Anzhou to be princes of the...
, last ruler of the state of Northern LiangNorthern LiangThe Northern Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was founded by the Xiongnu Juqu family, although they initially supported the Han official Duan Ye as prince, they overthrew him in 401 and took over themselves....
. - Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主), a "princess" of the imperial family of Northern WeiNorthern WeiThe Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...
, married the Khagan of the RouranRouranRouran , Mongolia name Jujan or Nirun Ruanruan/Ruru , Tan Tan , Juan-Juan or Zhu-Zhuwas the name of a confederation of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of Inner China from the late 4th century until the middle 6th century...
, Yujiulü AnaguiYujiulü AnaguiYujiulü Anagui khan of the Rouran with the title of Chiliantoubingdoufa Khan . He was succeeded by Yujiulü Tiefa.When Bumin Qaghan wanted to marry a princess of the royal family, Anagui sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave...
. - Princess Qianjin (千金公主), daughter of Yuwen Zhao, Prince of Zhao (趙王宇文招) and a member of the imperial family of Northern ZhouNorthern ZhouThe Northern Zhou Dynasty followed the Western Wei, and ruled northern China from 557 to 581. It was overthrown by the Sui Dynasty.Northern Zhou's basis of power was established by Yuwen Tai, who was paramount general of Western Wei, following the split of Northern Wei into Western Wei and...
, married Ishbara Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic KhaganateIshbara QaghanIshbara Qaghan was the first son of Issik Qaghan, grandson of Bumin Qaghan, and the fifth khagan of the first...
. - 582 A.D.: Emperor Ming of Western LiangEmperor Ming of Western LiangEmperor Ming of Western Liang , personal name Xiao Kui , courtesy name Renyuan , was a emperor of the Chinese Liang Dynasty...
marries his daughter, Princess Xiao of Western LiangEmpress Xiao (Yang)Empress Xiao , formally Empress Min , was an empress of the Chinese Sui Dynasty...
, to Yang Guang, Prince of JinEmperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of Sui , personal name Yang Guang , alternative name Ying , nickname Amo , known as Emperor Ming during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong), was the second son of Emperor Wen of Sui, and the second emperor of China's Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but...
, the second son and eventual successor of Emperor Ming's overlord Emperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of Sui — personal name Yang Jian , Xianbei name Puliuru Jian , nickname Naluoyan — was the founder and first emperor of China's Sui Dynasty . He was a hard-working administrator and a micromanager. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state...
.
Sui Dynasty
With the establishment of the Sui DynastySui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty was a powerful, but short-lived Imperial Chinese dynasty. Preceded by the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it ended nearly four centuries of division between rival regimes. It was followed by the Tang Dynasty....
in 581 A.D., China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.
There were a total of seven instances of Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.
- 597 A.D.: Emperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of Sui — personal name Yang Jian , Xianbei name Puliuru Jian , nickname Naluoyan — was the founder and first emperor of China's Sui Dynasty . He was a hard-working administrator and a micromanager. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state...
marries Princess Anyi (安義公主), a Sui "princess", to Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. She was assassinated by Yung Yu-lu in 599 A.D. - 599 A.D.: Emperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of Sui — personal name Yang Jian , Xianbei name Puliuru Jian , nickname Naluoyan — was the founder and first emperor of China's Sui Dynasty . He was a hard-working administrator and a micromanager. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state...
marries another Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (義成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, to Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. After his death in 609 A.D., Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom of levirate marriageLevirate marriageLevirate marriage is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obligated to marry his brother's widow, and the widow is obligated to marry her deceased husband's brother....
, remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife), Shibi Qaghan. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619 A.D., Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother, Chuluo QaghanChuluo KhanChulo Khagan was the khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, and second son of Qimin, former title: Ilteber Shad . He succeeded his elder brother Shibi and ruled for 18 months...
. After Chuluo Qaghan's death in 621 A.D., Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to Chuluo Qaghan's successor and younger brother, Illig Qaghan, who revolted against the Tang DynastyTang DynastyThe Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
and was captured and killed in 630 A.D. - Emperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of Sui , personal name Yang Guang , alternative name Ying , nickname Amo , known as Emperor Ming during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong), was the second son of Emperor Wen of Sui, and the second emperor of China's Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but...
married Princess Xinyi (信義公主), a Sui "princess", to Heshana Khan, Khagan of the Western Turkish KhaganateHeshana KhanHeshana Khan , at one point known as Chuluo Khan and , personal name Ashina Daman , was a khan of the Western Turkic Khaganate...
. - Emperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of Sui , personal name Yang Guang , alternative name Ying , nickname Amo , known as Emperor Ming during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong), was the second son of Emperor Wen of Sui, and the second emperor of China's Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but...
married his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to Shibi Qaghan's eldest son Tuli Qaghan (突利可汗). - 596 A.D.: Emperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of SuiEmperor Wen of Sui — personal name Yang Jian , Xianbei name Puliuru Jian , nickname Naluoyan — was the founder and first emperor of China's Sui Dynasty . He was a hard-working administrator and a micromanager. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state...
marries Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", to Murong Shifu, Khan of Tuyuhun. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597 A.D., Princess Guanghua remarried to Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother, Murong FuyunMurong FuyunMurong Fuyun , formal title Busabo Khan , was a ruler of the Xianbei/Qiang/Tibetan state Tuyuhun. He first became ruler when his brother Murong Shifu was assassinated in 597, and became one of the longest-ruling monarchs in Tuyuhun history...
. - Emperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of SuiEmperor Yang of Sui , personal name Yang Guang , alternative name Ying , nickname Amo , known as Emperor Ming during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong), was the second son of Emperor Wen of Sui, and the second emperor of China's Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but...
married a Sui "princess" to Qu Boya, ruler of the oasis city of GaochangGaochangGaochang is the site of an ancient oasis city built on the northern rim of the inhospitable Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China. A busy trading center, it was a stopping point for merchant traders traveling on the Silk Road...
in the Taklamakan Desert.
Tang Dynasty
During the Tang Dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were aimed primarily at five major states that bordered the Tang EmpireTang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
: The Tuyuhun Kingdom, Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
, the Khitans
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
, Orkhon Uyghur, and the Kingdom of Nanzhao. Unlike during some preceding dynasties, most heqin princesses during the Tang Dynasty were actual princesses (or at least noblewomen of recent imperial descent).
There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:
- 640 A.D.: Emperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Shìmín , was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649...
marries Princess Honghua (弘化公主) to Murong Nuohebo, Khan of TuyuhunMurong NuoheboMurong Nuohebo , regal title Wudiyebaledou Khan or, in short, Ledou Khan , Tang Dynasty noble title Prince of Qinghai , was the last khan of the Xianbei/Qiang/Tibetan state Tuyuhun...
. - 641 A.D.: Emperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Shìmín , was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649...
marries Princess WenchengPrincess WenchengPrincess Wencheng was a niece of the powerful Emperor Taizong of China's Tang Dynasty, who left China in 640, according to records, arriving the next year in Tibet to marry the thirty-seven year old Songtsän Gampo the thirty-third king of the Yarlung Dynasty of Tibet, in a marriage of...
to Songtsän Gampo, King of Tibet. - 642 A.D.: Emperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Shìmín , was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649...
marries his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新興公主), to Zhenzhu K李魯甦han, Khan of XueyantuoZhenzhu KhanZhenzhu Khan , personal name Yi'nan , full regal title Zhenzhupiqie Khan , was a khan of Xueyantuo, under whom Xueyantuo rose from being a vassal of Eastern Tujue to a mighty khanate ruling over northern/central Asia...
. - 664 A.D.: Emperor Gaozong of TangEmperor Gaozong of TangEmperor Gaozong of Tang , personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Tang Dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683...
marries Lady Jincheng (金城縣主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (會稽郡王李道恩), to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷渾王子蘇度摸末), eldest son of Zhenzhu Khan, Khan of XueyantuoZhenzhu KhanZhenzhu Khan , personal name Yi'nan , full regal title Zhenzhupiqie Khan , was a khan of Xueyantuo, under whom Xueyantuo rose from being a vassal of Eastern Tujue to a mighty khanate ruling over northern/central Asia...
. - 664 A.D.: Emperor Gaozong of TangEmperor Gaozong of TangEmperor Gaozong of Tang , personal name Li Zhi , was the third emperor of the Tang Dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683...
marries Lady Jinming (金明縣主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷渾王子闥盧摸末), second son of Zhenzhu Khan, Khan of XueyantuoZhenzhu KhanZhenzhu Khan , personal name Yi'nan , full regal title Zhenzhupiqie Khan , was a khan of Xueyantuo, under whom Xueyantuo rose from being a vassal of Eastern Tujue to a mighty khanate ruling over northern/central Asia...
. - 698 A.D.: A daughter of Qapaghan Qaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries Empress Wu Zetian'sWu ZetianWu Zetian , personal name Wu Zhao , often referred to as Tian Hou during the Tang Dynasty and Empress Consort Wu in later times, was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Empress Regnant...
great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮陽王武延秀). - 703: A daughter of Qapaghan Qaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries Li Dan, Crown Prince'sEmperor Ruizong of TangEmperor Ruizong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Dàn , known at times during his life as Li Xulun , Li Lun , Wu Lun , and Wu Dan , was the fifth and ninth emperor of Tang Dynasty...
eldest son Li Chengqi, Prince of SongLi ChengqiLi Chengqi , known as Wu Chengqi during the reign of his grandmother Wu Zetian and as Li Xian after 716, formally Emperor Rang , was an imperial prince of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty who served as crown prince during the first reign of his father Emperor Ruizong who yielded that position to...
. - 709 A.D.: Empress Wu ZetianWu ZetianWu Zetian , personal name Wu Zhao , often referred to as Tian Hou during the Tang Dynasty and Empress Consort Wu in later times, was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Empress Regnant...
marries her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson Li Shouli, Prince of BinLi ShouliLĭ Shǒulĭ was the second son of Li Xián who also known as Crown Prince Zhanghuai of Tang. Born Li Guangren during the Chuigong era of his youngest uncle Emperor Ruizong of Tang's reign when his grandmother Wu Zetian held the real power, he was renamed Shouli and given the title Crown Prince Xima...
, to Me Agtsom, Emperor of Tibet. - 712 A.D.: Emperor Ruizong of TangEmperor Ruizong of TangEmperor Ruizong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Dàn , known at times during his life as Li Xulun , Li Lun , Wu Lun , and Wu Dan , was the fifth and ninth emperor of Tang Dynasty...
marries his granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son Li ChengqiLi ChengqiLi Chengqi , known as Wu Chengqi during the reign of his grandmother Wu Zetian and as Li Xian after 716, formally Emperor Rang , was an imperial prince of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty who served as crown prince during the first reign of his father Emperor Ruizong who yielded that position to...
, to Qapaghan Qaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate. - 715 A.D.:
- 717 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries Princess Yongle (永樂公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (楊元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (東平王李續) (son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji, the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of TangEmperor Taizong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Shìmín , was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649...
), to Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the KhitansKhitan peoplethumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
. - 717 A.D.: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic KhaganateWestern Turkic KhaganateThe Western Turkic Khaganate was formed as a result of the internecine wars in the beginning of the 7th century after the Göktürk Khaganate had splintered into two politiesEastern and Western.The Western Turks initially sought friendly relations with the Byzantine Empire in order to expand their...
marries Sulu Khan, Khagan of TurgeshTurgeshThe Türgesh, Turgish or Türgish were a Turkic tribal confederation who emerged from the ruins of the Western Turkic Kaganate...
. - 722 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁於). - 726 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries his niece, Princess Donghua (東華公主) (surname Chen (陳)), to Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固). - 726 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries Princess Dongguang (東光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜) (eighth daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of TangEmperor Zhongzong of TangEmperor Zhongzong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Xiǎn , at times during his life Li Zhe and Wu Xian , was the fourth Emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710.Emperor Zhongzong was the son of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and Empress Wu...
) and Wei Jie (韋捷), to Li Lusu (李魯甦), ruler of Kumo XiKumo XiThe Kumo Xi ) were a Mongolic steppe people located in current Manchuria from 207 AD to 907 AD. After the death of their ancestor Tadun in 207 they were no longer called Wuhuan but joined the Khitan Xianbei in submitting to the Yuwen Xianbei. Their history is widely linked to the more famous Khitan...
. - 744 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries Princess Heyi (和義公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城縣令李參), to Axilan Dagan (阿悉爛達干), King of Ningyuan (寧遠國王) in the Fergana ValleyFergana ValleyThe Fergana Valley or Farghana Valley is a region in Central Asia spreading across eastern Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Divided across three subdivisions of the former Soviet Union, the valley is ethnically diverse, and in the early 21st century was the scene of ethnic conflict...
. - 745 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (靜樂公主) (the daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng (信成公主) and Dugu Ming (獨孤明)), to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李懷秀). - 745 A.D.: Emperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of TangEmperor Xuanzong of Tang , also commonly known as Emperor Ming of Tang , personal name Li Longji , known as Wu Longji from 690 to 705, was the seventh emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 43 years was the longest during the Tang Dynasty...
marries Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (長寧公主) (daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of TangEmperor Zhongzong of TangEmperor Zhongzong of Tang , personal name Lǐ Xiǎn , at times during his life Li Zhe and Wu Xian , was the fourth Emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China, ruling briefly in 684 and again from 705 to 710.Emperor Zhongzong was the son of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and Empress Wu...
) and Yang Shenjiao (楊慎交), to Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延寵) - 756 A.D.: Princess Pijia (毗伽公主), daughter of Bayanchur Khan, Khagan of the Uyghur KhaganateBayanchur KhanBayanchur Khan , was an Uyghur khagan from 747 to 759 AD. His official titles were "Ay Tengrida Qut Bolmish" and "El Etmish Bilge Qaghan" . His Tang Dynasty-invested title was Yingwuweiyuanpiqiejuo Khan or Yingwu Khan in short...
, marries Li Chengcai, Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承採), son of Li Shouli, Prince of BinLi ShouliLĭ Shǒulĭ was the second son of Li Xián who also known as Crown Prince Zhanghuai of Tang. Born Li Guangren during the Chuigong era of his youngest uncle Emperor Ruizong of Tang's reign when his grandmother Wu Zetian held the real power, he was renamed Shouli and given the title Crown Prince Xima...
.
There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
.
- 640640Year 640 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 640 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Tulga succeeds his father Suinthila as king...
—690690Year 690 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 690 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Asia :* Beginning of Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty in China...
: 5 instances, to Tuyuhun, and 1 instance to TibetTibetTibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
. - 710710Year 710 was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 710 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Asia :* The Asuka period, the second and last part...
—745745Year 745 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 745 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Asia :* Newly founded Uighur Empire control most of...
: 4 instances, to KhitanKhitan peoplethumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
, 3 instances, to XiXiXi is the 14th letter of the Greek alphabet. It is pronounced in Modern Greek, and generally or in English...
, and 1 instance, to Tibet. - 758758Year 758 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 758 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Asia :* Emperor Junnin succeeds Empress Kōken on the...
—821821Year 821 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Tang Mu Zong becomes emperor of China.* First recorded session of the Parliament of Croatia- Byzantine Empire :...
: 7 instances, to Orkhon Uyghur (including two daughters of the Chinese Emperor, i.e. real princesses, and 3 of TieleTiele peopleThe Tiele or Tele , were a confederation of nine Turkic peoples living to the north of China and in Central Asia, emerging after the disintegration of the Xiongnu confederacy...
descent). - 883883Year 883 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Oldest known mention of the city of Duisburg.* Monte Cassino is sacked and burned down by the Saracens....
: 1 occurrence, to Nanzhao (second daughter of Emperor Yizong of TangEmperor Yizong of TangEmperor Yizong of Tang , né Li Wen , later changed to Li Cui , was an emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He reigned from 859 to 873. Yizong was the eldest son of Emperor Xuānzong...
).
During the Ming Dynasty, according to the indigenous people of Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
, Malaysia and descendants of Chinese immigrants there, Princess Hang Li Poh (汉丽宝公主) was given in marriage to the Malay Sultan together with 500 lady servants. Although this story is not found in Ming dynasty historical records, it was written in the Malay Annals. And Malacca people generally believed the story to be true, and some Chinese there claim to be descendants of the Princess. The Chinese graves dating to the Ming dynasty in Bukit Cina
Bukit Cina
Bukit Cina is a hillside of historical significance in the capital of Malaysian state of Malacca, Malacca Town. It is located several kilometers to the north from the historical center of Malacca , but these days, it's surrounded by the modern city on all sides.-History:According to the local...
and other folklores and related relics there also provide strong supporting evidence. This marriage arrangement was not likely to result in practicable military alliance, however, since the Malacca Sultanate
Malacca Sultanate
Established by the Malay ruler Parameswara, the Sultanate of Malacca was first a Hindu kingdom in 1402 and later became Muslim following the marriage of the princess of Pasai in 1409. Centered in the modern town of Malacca, the sultanate bordered the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam in the north to...
was too far away from China. Nevertheless, the Malacca Sultanate did pay tributes to China, and Chinese influence helped deterred attack from Siam
Siam (disambiguation)
Siam is an exonym that was used as the name of Thailand before 24 June 1939 and again from 8 September 1945 to 20 July 1949; see History of Thailand...
.