Golden-crowned Sifaka
Encyclopedia
The golden-crowned sifaka or Tattersall's sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) is a medium-sized lemur
characterized by mostly white fur, prominent furry ears and a golden-orange crown
. It is one of the smallest sifaka
s (genus
Propithecus), weighing around 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) and measuring approximately 90 cm (35.4 in) from head to tail. Like all sifakas, it is a vertical clinger and leaper, and its diet includes mostly seeds and leaves. The golden-crowned sifaka is named after its discoverer, Ian Tattersall
, who first spotted the species in 1974. However, it was not formally described until 1988, after a research team led by Elwyn Simons observed and captured some specimens for captive breeding
. The golden-crowned sifaka most closely resembles the western forest sifakas of the P. verreauxi group, yet its karyotype
suggests a closer relationship with the P. diadema group of eastern forest sifakas. Despite the similarities with both groups, more recent studies of its karyotype support its classification as a distinct species.
Found in gallery
, deciduous
, and semi-evergreen forest, its restricted range includes 44 forest fragments, totaling an area of 44125 hectares (170.4 sq mi), centered around the town of Daraina
in northeast Madagascar
. Its estimated population is between 6,000 and 10,000 individuals. It is primarily active during the day, although it also tends to be active at dawn and dusk during the rainy season. It sleeps in tall emergent trees, and is preyed upon by the Fossa
. The golden-crowned sifaka lives in groups of around five to six individuals, with groups containing a balanced number of adult males and females. Scent is used to mark territories
, which are defended by growling, chasing, and ritualistic leaping displays. Reproduction is seasonal
, with gestation
lasting six months and lactation
lasting five months. Infants are weaned
during the wet season to ensure the best chances of survival.
The small range and fragmented populations of this species weigh heavily on its survival. Forest fragmentation
, habitat destruction
, poaching
, slash-and-burn agriculture
, and other human factors threaten its existence. The golden-crowned sifaka is listed by the IUCN Red List
as Endangered. Its range was originally not covered by any national parks or protected area
s in Madagascar, but a new protected area was established in 2005 to include a 20000 hectares (77.2 sq mi) portion. Attempts have been made to keep the golden-crowned sifaka in captivity at the Duke Lemur Center
in Durham, North Carolina
. The small colony was maintained from 1988 to 2008. In Madagascar, lawlessness resulting from the 2009 political coup led to increased poaching of this species, and many were sold to local restaurants as a delicacy.
in northeast Madagascar by Ian Tattersall
, who observed but did not capture the animal. Unsure of its classification, Tattersall provisionally considered it a variant of the silky sifaka
in his 1982 book, The Primates of Madagascar, citing its mostly white fur, but also noting its uncharacteristic orange crown patch and tufted ears. Driven by a report in 1986 that the forest where Tattersall had observed this unique sifaka was contracted to be clear-cut
for charcoal
production, a research team from the Duke Lemur Center
, led by Elwyn Simons, obtained permits to capture specimens for a captive breeding
program. Simons and his team were the first to capture and observe the golden-crowned sifaka, formally describing it as a new species in 1988 and naming it in honor of Tattersall. The specimens were found 6 to 7 km (3.7 to 4.3 mi) northeast of Daraina
, a village in the northeast corner of Madagascar.
There have been conflicting studies regarding the taxonomic status of the golden-crowned sifaka. When described by Simons in 1988, size, vocalizations
, and karyotypes (the number and appearance of chromosome
s) were compared with the other sifakas. In terms of size, general morphology, and vocalizations, the golden-crowned sifaka is more comparable to the western forest sifakas (known as the P. verreauxi group) in that it is smaller in length and weight. Its karyotype, however, is more similar to that of the eastern forest sifakas (known as the P. diadema group). The golden-crowned sifaka has 42 chromosomes (2n=42), 16 of which are autosomal pairs
(not sex chromosomes) that are meta- or submetacentric
(where chromosome arms are equal or unequal in length, respectively). The remaining autosomal pairs are smaller and acrocentric
(with the shorter chromosome arm difficult to observe). Its X chromosome
is metacentric, which is comparable to that of the P. diadema group, not the P. verreauxi group. Given the conflicting information, its geographic isolation, as well as the unique long fur tufts on the ears—a trait not shared by any other sifaka—the golden-crowned sifaka was recognized as a distinct species.
In 1997, comparisons of repeated DNA sequences within the family Indriidae
supported Simon's classification, placing the golden-crowned sifaka as a sister group to the other sifakas. In 2001, a study involving mitochondrial DNA
suggested a very recent divergence between it and the Coquerel's sifaka
, then considered a subspecies of the P. verreauxi group. If this were true, the golden-crowned sifaka would not merit species status and would form a subclade with the Coquerel's sifaka within the P. verreauxi group. In 2004, a comparative study of the karyotypes of the three traditional species of sifakas provided insight into the chromosomal arrangements of all three groups. This study found that the golden-crowned sifaka differs from P. verreauxi group and P. diadema group by 9 and 17 chromosomal rearrangements respectively, and conversely argued that the golden-crowned sifaka is indeed a separate species and is more closely related to the P. verreauxi group. More recently, in 2007 a craniodental (skull
and tooth) study provided evidence for 9 or 10 distinct sifaka species, including the golden-crowned sifaka. It also placed the golden-crowned sifaka within the P. verreauxi group.
, Von der Decken's sifaka, and Verreaux's sifaka. It has a coat of moderately long, creamy-white fur with a golden tint, dark black or chocolate-brown fur on its neck and throat, pale orange fur
on the tops of its legs and forelimb
s, a white tail and hindlimbs, and a characteristic bright orange-gold crown
. It is the only sifaka with prominent tufts of white fur protruding from its ears, making its head appear somewhat triangular and distinctive in appearance. Its eyes are orange, and its face is black and mostly hairless, with dark gray-black fur with white hairs stretching from beneath the eyes to the cheeks. Its snout
is blunt and rounded, and its broad nose helps to distinguish it from other sifakas. Occasionally the bridge of the nose will have a patch of white fur. Similar to other sifakas, this arboreal
animal has long, strong legs that enable it to cling and leap
between tree trunks and branches.
, gallery
, and semi-evergreen forests and is found at altitudes up to 500 m (1,640.4 ft), though it seems to prefer lower elevations. Surveys have shown it to be limited to highly fragmented forests surrounding the town of Daraina in an area encircled by the Loky and Manambato rivers in northeastern Madagascar. The golden-crowned sifaka has one of the smallest geographic ranges of all indriid
lemur species. Out of 75 forest fragments studied by researchers, its presence could be definitively reported in only 44, totaling 44125 ha (170.4 sq mi). This study, published in 2002, also estimated the total species population and observed population densities. Home range
size varied between 0.18 and 0.29 km² (0.0694983885466563 and 0.111969625991835 sqmi) per group. With an average group size
of five individuals, the population density ranged between 17 and 28 individuals per km2. Another home range size estimate of 0.09 to 0.12 km² (0.0347491942733281 to 0.0463322590311042 sqmi) has also been suggested with a population density range of 10 and 23 individuals per km2. The forested area available to the species within its desired elevation range was estimated at 360 km² (139 sq mi), yielding an estimated population of 6,120–10,080 and a breeding population between 2,520 and 3,960 individuals.
The species is sympatric (coexists) with two other medium-sized lemurs: the Sanford's brown lemur
(Eulemur sanfordii) and the crowned lemur
(Eulemur coronatus).
) during the rainy season (November through April). In captivity, it has been observed feeding at night, unlike captive Verreaux's sifakas. It travels between 461.7 and 1077 m (1,514.8 and 3,533.5 ft) per day, an intermediate range compared to other sifakas of the eastern forests. The golden-crowned sifaka can be observed feeding and resting higher in the canopy during the dry season (May through October). It sleeps in the taller trees (the emergent layer) of the forest at night.
When stressed, the golden-crowned sifaka emits grunting vocalizations as well as repeated "churrs" that escalate into a high-amplitude
"whinney." Its ground predator alarm call, which sounds like "shē-fäk", closely resembles that of Verreaux's sifaka. It also emits mobbing alarm calls in response to birds of prey
.
, making seed
s a year-round staple in its diet when available. The golden-crowned sifaka also eats unripe fruit
s, flower
s, and leaves
. One study showed a diet composition of 37% unripe fruit and seeds, 22% immature leaves, 17% mature leaves, 13% flowers, and 9% fruit pulp. Individuals have also been observed consuming tree bark
during the dry season. In general, approximately 60% of its diet consists of unripe fruits and seed, mainly from leguminous
pods, and less than 50% consists of leaves. At Daraina, it has been observed feeding on the sakoa tree (Poupartia caffra
) and on mango
trees. Immature leaves and flowers are eaten when available, in the early wet season. Daily traveling distance tends to increase when immature leaves are available. Studies have also shown that when food distribution is patchy, feeding times are shorter and more time is spent traveling. Dietary diversity has been shown to be consistent between populations, suggesting that it is important for the lemur to get a varied mix of nutrients and to protect itself from high levels of specific plant toxins.
A study in 1993 showed variability and flexibility in feeding preferences between three research sites around Daraina. Plant species preferences (measured in feeding time) changed between wetter, intermediate, and drier forests:
s are more evenly balanced, consisting of two or more members of both sexes. Females are dominant within the group, and only one female breeds successfully each season. Males will roam between groups during the mating season.
Because of their smaller home ranges relative to other sifakas, group encounters are slightly more common, occurring a few times a month. It has been noted that the temperament of the golden-crowned sifaka is more volatile than that of other sifaka species and, in the case of a dispute, this animal frequently emits a grunt-like vocalization that seems to signal annoyance. Aggressive interactions between groups are generally non-physical but include loud growling, territorial marking, chasing, and ritualistic leaping displays. Same-sexed individuals act most aggressively towards each other during such encounters. Scent marking
is the most common form of territorial defense, with scent marks acting as "signposts" to demarcate territorial boundaries. Females use glands in the genital
regions ("anogenital") while males use both anogenital and chest glands.
, often mating
during the last week of January. Its gestation
period is a little less than six months, and its lactation
period is five months. Research has indicated that reproduction is strategically linked with forest seasonality. Gestation starts in the later part of the wet season (late January), and continues for approximately 170 days. Parturition
occurs in the middle of the dry season (late June or July). Weaning
occurs during the middle of the wet season, in December, when an abundance of immature leaves is available. It is thought that such reproductive timing exists to ensure adequate protein intake from the immature leaves for both mother and child at the end of the lactation period.
Females reproduce once every two years. Infants are born with little hair and initially cling to their mother's belly. As they mature, they begin to ride on her back. Following weaning, riding on the back is only tolerated for short durations, particularly when the group is alerted to the presence of a predator. By one year of age, the juveniles are 70% of their full adult body weight. Infant mortality
is high in this species. Upon reaching sexual maturity
, males leave their natal group and transfer to neighboring social groups. Observations by researchers and reports from local people indicate that this species will jump to the ground and cross more than 200 m (656.2 ft) of grassland to reach nearby forest patches. This suggests that forest fragmentation may not completely isolate separated populations.
, although the golden-crowned sifaka reacts to the presence of birds of prey
with alarm calls. A hematology
and serum chemistry
study published in 1995 revealed that 59% of the wild golden-crowned sifaka sampled were infected with a microfilaria
l parasite, a potentially unknown species of nematode
in the genus Mansonella. Healthy, infected individuals did not appear to be adversely affected by it, but the overall effect on the dwindling population is unknown. Also, no malaria
l or intestinal parasite
s were found, although 48% of the golden-crowned sifakas examined had external ear mite
s.
there will be no eastern rainforest left by 2020. Illegal logging
practices, slash-and-burn agriculture (known as tavy), uncontrolled grass fires
, gold mining
, poaching
, and clearing land for agricultural use have all significantly contributed to the significant deforestation witnessed in Madagascar and the ongoing decline of suitable habitat for this species.
Malagasy farmers continue to use fire to clear out agricultural land and pasture for livestock, promoting grass growth while inhibiting forest regeneration. The fires sometimes burn out of control and destroy forest edges along with the natural flora
, increasing the damage even further than intended. Due to the nature of Madagascar's geology and soil, tavy also depletes the fertility of the soil, accelerating the crop rotation
rate and necessitating expansion into primary forests.
Although coal
is the preferred cooking fuel of the Malagasy people, the most affordable and prominent source of energy is timber, known as kitay. Wood is also used as a primary building material, only adding further incentive to remove trees from the forest. With the depletion of dead wood from the forest patches, the people have begun to remove young, healthy trees. This is seen most commonly in areas closest to villages. Although the shapes and sizes of forest fragments around the Daraina region have been mostly stable for 50 years prior to a study in 2002, the six years preceding the study had seen 5% of the small- to medium-sized forest fragments disappear due to increased human encroachment.
A newly emergent threat facing the golden-crowned sifaka is hunting by the gold miners moving into the region's forests. Although mining operations are small scale, the practice of gold mining takes a toll on the forested regions because deep mining pits are often dug near or underneath large trees, disturbing the extensive root systems and ultimately killing the trees in the area. The influx of gold miners has also increased poaching pressure. Although the species is protected from hunting by local fady (taboo
) around Daraina, due to their likeness to humans, and by Malagasy law, the gold miners who have immigrated to the area have begun to hunt the golden-crowned sifaka as a source of bushmeat
. In 1993, David M. Meyers, a researcher who has studied the golden-crowned sifaka, speculated that if bushmeat hunting were to escalate, the species would go extinct in less than ten years since it is easy to find and not fearful of humans. Indeed, bushmeat hunting by people from nearby Ambilobe
has already extirpated
at least one isolated population.
and degradation. However, since it has been found around gold mining camps and degraded forests, it is not restricted to undisturbed forests and appears to tolerate human activity. Regardless, with its low population, highly restricted range, and badly fragmented habitat, the prospect for survival for the golden-crowned sifaka is considered bleak. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) added it to its list of the 25 most endangered primates in 1997. Previously, in 1992, the IUCN's Species Survival Commission
(IUCN/SSC) Primate Specialist Group also assigned the species its highest priority rating. As of its 2008 assessment, the golden-crowned sifaka was downgraded from Critically Endangered to Endangered
on the IUCN Red List
. In its four previous assessments, it was listed as Critically Endangered in 1996 and 2000 and Endangered in 1990 and 1994.
The area inhabited by the golden-crowned sifaka is also an important agricultural and economical resource for the human population. Suggested conservation action aimed at protecting this species and its habitat has focused on offering varying degrees of protection to forest fragments in the region, allowing human activity and resource extraction in areas that have less conservation potential while strictly protecting areas critical to the species' survival. In 2002, none of the forested areas that the golden-crowned sifaka inhabits were part of a formally protected national park
or reserve
. A conservation study from 1989 called for the creation of a national park that includes the forest of Binara as well as the dry forests to the north of Daraina. A more recent study from 2002 proposed a network of protected forest areas including areas outside of the village of Daraina, forests north of the Monambato River, and the northern forests that constitute the species' northern reservoir. In 2005, Fanamby, a Malagasy non-governmental organization
(NGO), teamed up with Conservation International
to create a 20000 hectares (77.2 sq mi) protected area that both Association Fanamby and the Ministry of Water and Forests manage. As of 2008, only ten forest patches that could support viable populations remained, according to the IUCN.
Only one captive
population of golden-crowned sifakas has been represented in a zoological collection. Building on a successful record of maintaining a viable captive Verreaux's sifaka population, the Duke Lemur Center
(DLC) in Durham, North Carolina
, requested and obtained permission from the government of Madagascar
to capture and export this (then) unknown species for captive breeding
. Plans were also made to establish a captive breeding program at the Ivoloina Forestry Station, now known as Parc Ivoloina
. In November 1987, during the same expedition that resulted in the formal description of the species, two males and two females were caught and measured. Five others were also caught, but were released because they were juvenile males. In July 1988, a golden-crowned sifaka was born in captivity at the DLC. However, the captive population was small and not viable for long-term breeding, and captive sifakas have proven difficult to maintain due to their specialized dietary needs. The last captive individual passed away in 2008. Despite the loss of its small colony after 20 years, DLC believes that establishment of a captive population for conservation-oriented captive breeding purposes could provide an important second level of protection, particularly if habitat protection measures are unsuccessful.
, or around US$0.53, and then sold in restaurants for 8,000 ariary (US$4.20). Russell Mittermeier
, president of Conservation International, said that the arrests would not end the poaching since the poachers would "just get slaps on the wrist".
Lemur
Lemurs are a clade of strepsirrhine primates endemic to the island of Madagascar. They are named after the lemures of Roman mythology due to the ghostly vocalizations, reflective eyes, and the nocturnal habits of some species...
characterized by mostly white fur, prominent furry ears and a golden-orange crown
Crown (anatomy)
A crown is the top of the head.The following birds and other animals are said to have a crown on their head:* Cranes** Grey-crowned Crane** Red-crowned Crane** Black-crowned Crane* Crowned eagle* Gray-crowned Rosy Finch* Yellow-crowned Gonolek...
. It is one of the smallest sifaka
Sifaka
Sifakas are a genus of lemur from the family Indriidae within the order Primates. Their name of the family is an onomatopoeia of their characteristic "shi-fak" alarm call. Like all lemurs, they are found only on the island of Madagascar...
s (genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Propithecus), weighing around 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) and measuring approximately 90 cm (35.4 in) from head to tail. Like all sifakas, it is a vertical clinger and leaper, and its diet includes mostly seeds and leaves. The golden-crowned sifaka is named after its discoverer, Ian Tattersall
Ian Tattersall
Ian Tattersall is a paleoanthropologist and a curator at the American Museum of Natural History. Tattersall received his PhD from Yale University in 1971. In addition to human evolution, he has worked extensively with lemurs. He is working with The Templeton Foundation.-Selected publications:* The...
, who first spotted the species in 1974. However, it was not formally described until 1988, after a research team led by Elwyn Simons observed and captured some specimens for captive breeding
Captive breeding
Captive breedingis the process of breeding animals in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other conservation facilities; sometimes the process is construed to include release of individual organisms to the wild, when there is sufficient...
. The golden-crowned sifaka most closely resembles the western forest sifakas of the P. verreauxi group, yet its karyotype
Karyotype
A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of an eukaryotic cell. The term is also used for the complete set of chromosomes in a species, or an individual organism.p28...
suggests a closer relationship with the P. diadema group of eastern forest sifakas. Despite the similarities with both groups, more recent studies of its karyotype support its classification as a distinct species.
Found in gallery
Gallery forest
Gallery forests are evergreen forests that form as corridors along rivers or wetlands and project into landscapes that are otherwise only sparsely treed such as savannas, grasslands or deserts....
, deciduous
Madagascar dry deciduous forests
The Madagascar dry deciduous forests represent a tropical dry forest ecoregion generally situated in the western part of Madagascar. The area has high numbers of endemic plant and animal species but has suffered large-scale clearance for agriculture...
, and semi-evergreen forest, its restricted range includes 44 forest fragments, totaling an area of 44125 hectares (170.4 sq mi), centered around the town of Daraina
Daraina
Daraina is a town and commune in northern Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Vohemar, which is a part of Sava Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 10,000 in 2001 commune census....
in northeast Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
. Its estimated population is between 6,000 and 10,000 individuals. It is primarily active during the day, although it also tends to be active at dawn and dusk during the rainy season. It sleeps in tall emergent trees, and is preyed upon by the Fossa
Fossa (animal)
The fossa is a cat-like, carnivorous mammal that is endemic to Madagascar. It is a member of the Eupleridae, a family of carnivorans closely related to the mongoose family . Its classification has been controversial because its physical traits resemble those of cats, yet other traits suggest a...
. The golden-crowned sifaka lives in groups of around five to six individuals, with groups containing a balanced number of adult males and females. Scent is used to mark territories
Territory (animal)
In ethology the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics...
, which are defended by growling, chasing, and ritualistic leaping displays. Reproduction is seasonal
Seasonal breeder
Seasonal breeders are animal species that successfully mate only during certain times of the year. These times of year allow for the births at a time optimal for the survival of the young in terms of factors such as temperature, food and water. Related sexual interest and behaviors are expressed...
, with gestation
Gestation
Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal. Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time ....
lasting six months and lactation
Lactation
Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process occurs in all female mammals, however it predates mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is called breastfeeding or nursing...
lasting five months. Infants are weaned
Weaning
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing a mammal infant, either human or animal, to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk.The process takes place only in mammals, as only mammals produce milk...
during the wet season to ensure the best chances of survival.
The small range and fragmented populations of this species weigh heavily on its survival. Forest fragmentation
Forest fragmentation
Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation, occurring when forests are cut down in a manner that leaves relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants. The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open...
, habitat destruction
Habitat destruction
Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present. In this process, the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity. Habitat destruction by human activity mainly for the purpose of...
, poaching
Poaching
Poaching is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws. Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as poaching.It may be illegal and in...
, slash-and-burn agriculture
Slash and burn
Slash-and-burn is an agricultural technique which involves cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields. It is subsistence agriculture that typically uses little technology or other tools. It is typically part of shifting cultivation agriculture, and of transhumance livestock...
, and other human factors threaten its existence. The golden-crowned sifaka is listed by the IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
as Endangered. Its range was originally not covered by any national parks or protected area
Protected area
Protected areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognised natural, ecological and/or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the enabling laws of each country or the regulations of the international...
s in Madagascar, but a new protected area was established in 2005 to include a 20000 hectares (77.2 sq mi) portion. Attempts have been made to keep the golden-crowned sifaka in captivity at the Duke Lemur Center
Duke Lemur Center
The Duke Lemur Center is an sanctuary for rare and endangered prosimian primates, located at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. It is the largest sanctuary for prosimian primates in the world....
in Durham, North Carolina
Durham, North Carolina
Durham is a city in the U.S. state of North Carolina. It is the county seat of Durham County and also extends into Wake County. It is the fifth-largest city in the state, and the 85th-largest in the United States by population, with 228,330 residents as of the 2010 United States census...
. The small colony was maintained from 1988 to 2008. In Madagascar, lawlessness resulting from the 2009 political coup led to increased poaching of this species, and many were sold to local restaurants as a delicacy.
Taxonomy and phylogeny
The golden-crowned or Tattersall's sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli), known locally as ankomba malandy (or akomba malandy, meaning "white lemur"), was scientifically discovered in 1974 north of VohemarVohemar
Vohemar is a coastal city and commune in northern Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Vohemar, which is a part of Sava Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 15,000 in 2001 commune census....
in northeast Madagascar by Ian Tattersall
Ian Tattersall
Ian Tattersall is a paleoanthropologist and a curator at the American Museum of Natural History. Tattersall received his PhD from Yale University in 1971. In addition to human evolution, he has worked extensively with lemurs. He is working with The Templeton Foundation.-Selected publications:* The...
, who observed but did not capture the animal. Unsure of its classification, Tattersall provisionally considered it a variant of the silky sifaka
Silky Sifaka
The silky sifaka , or silky simpona, is a large lemur characterized by long, silky white fur. It has a very restricted range in northeastern Madagascar, where it is known locally as the simpona...
in his 1982 book, The Primates of Madagascar, citing its mostly white fur, but also noting its uncharacteristic orange crown patch and tufted ears. Driven by a report in 1986 that the forest where Tattersall had observed this unique sifaka was contracted to be clear-cut
Clearcutting
Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a controversial forestry/logging practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Clearcutting, along with shelterwood and seed tree harvests, is used by foresters to create certain types of forest ecosystems and to promote select species that...
for charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of carbon, and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
production, a research team from the Duke Lemur Center
Duke Lemur Center
The Duke Lemur Center is an sanctuary for rare and endangered prosimian primates, located at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. It is the largest sanctuary for prosimian primates in the world....
, led by Elwyn Simons, obtained permits to capture specimens for a captive breeding
Captive breeding
Captive breedingis the process of breeding animals in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other conservation facilities; sometimes the process is construed to include release of individual organisms to the wild, when there is sufficient...
program. Simons and his team were the first to capture and observe the golden-crowned sifaka, formally describing it as a new species in 1988 and naming it in honor of Tattersall. The specimens were found 6 to 7 km (3.7 to 4.3 mi) northeast of Daraina
Daraina
Daraina is a town and commune in northern Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Vohemar, which is a part of Sava Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 10,000 in 2001 commune census....
, a village in the northeast corner of Madagascar.
There have been conflicting studies regarding the taxonomic status of the golden-crowned sifaka. When described by Simons in 1988, size, vocalizations
Animal communication
Animal communication is any behavior on the part of one animal that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of another animal. The study of animal communication, is sometimes called Zoosemiotics has played an important part in the...
, and karyotypes (the number and appearance of chromosome
Chromosome
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
s) were compared with the other sifakas. In terms of size, general morphology, and vocalizations, the golden-crowned sifaka is more comparable to the western forest sifakas (known as the P. verreauxi group) in that it is smaller in length and weight. Its karyotype, however, is more similar to that of the eastern forest sifakas (known as the P. diadema group). The golden-crowned sifaka has 42 chromosomes (2n=42), 16 of which are autosomal pairs
Autosome
An autosome is a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome, or allosome; that is to say, there is an equal number of copies of the chromosome in males and females. For example, in humans, there are 22 pairs of autosomes. In addition to autosomes, there are sex chromosomes, to be specific: X and Y...
(not sex chromosomes) that are meta- or submetacentric
Centromere
A centromere is a region of DNA typically found near the middle of a chromosome where two identical sister chromatids come closest in contact. It is involved in cell division as the point of mitotic spindle attachment...
(where chromosome arms are equal or unequal in length, respectively). The remaining autosomal pairs are smaller and acrocentric
Centromere
A centromere is a region of DNA typically found near the middle of a chromosome where two identical sister chromatids come closest in contact. It is involved in cell division as the point of mitotic spindle attachment...
(with the shorter chromosome arm difficult to observe). Its X chromosome
X chromosome
The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in many animal species, including mammals and is common in both males and females. It is a part of the XY sex-determination system and X0 sex-determination system...
is metacentric, which is comparable to that of the P. diadema group, not the P. verreauxi group. Given the conflicting information, its geographic isolation, as well as the unique long fur tufts on the ears—a trait not shared by any other sifaka—the golden-crowned sifaka was recognized as a distinct species.
In 1997, comparisons of repeated DNA sequences within the family Indriidae
Indriidae
The Indriidae are a family of strepsirrhine primates. They are medium to large sized lemurs with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six...
supported Simon's classification, placing the golden-crowned sifaka as a sister group to the other sifakas. In 2001, a study involving mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate...
suggested a very recent divergence between it and the Coquerel's sifaka
Coquerel's Sifaka
Coquerel's sifaka is a medium-sized lemur of the sifaka genus Propithecus. Like all lemurs, it is endemic to Madagascar.-Description:...
, then considered a subspecies of the P. verreauxi group. If this were true, the golden-crowned sifaka would not merit species status and would form a subclade with the Coquerel's sifaka within the P. verreauxi group. In 2004, a comparative study of the karyotypes of the three traditional species of sifakas provided insight into the chromosomal arrangements of all three groups. This study found that the golden-crowned sifaka differs from P. verreauxi group and P. diadema group by 9 and 17 chromosomal rearrangements respectively, and conversely argued that the golden-crowned sifaka is indeed a separate species and is more closely related to the P. verreauxi group. More recently, in 2007 a craniodental (skull
Skull
The skull is a bony structure in the head of many animals that supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain.The skull is composed of two parts: the cranium and the mandible. A skull without a mandible is only a cranium. Animals that have skulls are called craniates...
and tooth) study provided evidence for 9 or 10 distinct sifaka species, including the golden-crowned sifaka. It also placed the golden-crowned sifaka within the P. verreauxi group.
Anatomy and physiology
The golden-crowned sifaka is one of the smallest sifaka species with a weight of 3.4 to 3.6 kg (7.5 to 7.9 lb), a head-body length of 45 to 47 cm (17.7 to 18.5 in), a tail length of 42 to 47 cm (16.5 to 18.5 in), and total length of 87 to 94 cm (34.3 to 37 in). It is comparable in size to the sifakas inhabiting the southern and western dry forests, such as Coquerel's sifaka, the crowned sifakaCrowned Sifaka
The crowned sifaka is a sifaka endemic to Madagascar. It has a length of 87 to 102 centimeters, of which 47-57 centimeters are tail. The crowned sifaka lives in western Madagascar. It lives in dry deciduous forest....
, Von der Decken's sifaka, and Verreaux's sifaka. It has a coat of moderately long, creamy-white fur with a golden tint, dark black or chocolate-brown fur on its neck and throat, pale orange fur
Fur
Fur is a synonym for hair, used more in reference to non-human animals, usually mammals; particularly those with extensives body hair coverage. The term is sometimes used to refer to the body hair of an animal as a complete coat, also known as the "pelage". Fur is also used to refer to animal...
on the tops of its legs and forelimb
Forelimb
A forelimb is an anterior limb on an animal's body. When referring to quadrupeds , the term foreleg is often instead used....
s, a white tail and hindlimbs, and a characteristic bright orange-gold crown
Crown (anatomy)
A crown is the top of the head.The following birds and other animals are said to have a crown on their head:* Cranes** Grey-crowned Crane** Red-crowned Crane** Black-crowned Crane* Crowned eagle* Gray-crowned Rosy Finch* Yellow-crowned Gonolek...
. It is the only sifaka with prominent tufts of white fur protruding from its ears, making its head appear somewhat triangular and distinctive in appearance. Its eyes are orange, and its face is black and mostly hairless, with dark gray-black fur with white hairs stretching from beneath the eyes to the cheeks. Its snout
Snout
The snout, or muzzle, is the protruding portion of an animal's face, consisting of its nose, mouth, and jaw.-Terminology:The term "muzzle", used as a noun, can be ambiguous...
is blunt and rounded, and its broad nose helps to distinguish it from other sifakas. Occasionally the bridge of the nose will have a patch of white fur. Similar to other sifakas, this arboreal
Arboreal locomotion
Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals in trees. In every habitat in which trees are present, animals have evolved to move in them. Some animals may only scale trees occasionally, while others are exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals...
animal has long, strong legs that enable it to cling and leap
Vertical clinging and leaping
"Vertical clinging and leaping" is a type of arboreal locomotion seen most commonly among the strepsirrhine primates, and particularly the members of the family Indriidae. At rest, the animal clings to a vertical support, such as the side of a tree or bamboo stalk...
between tree trunks and branches.
Geographic range and habitat
The golden-crowned sifaka lives in dry deciduousMadagascar dry deciduous forests
The Madagascar dry deciduous forests represent a tropical dry forest ecoregion generally situated in the western part of Madagascar. The area has high numbers of endemic plant and animal species but has suffered large-scale clearance for agriculture...
, gallery
Gallery forest
Gallery forests are evergreen forests that form as corridors along rivers or wetlands and project into landscapes that are otherwise only sparsely treed such as savannas, grasslands or deserts....
, and semi-evergreen forests and is found at altitudes up to 500 m (1,640.4 ft), though it seems to prefer lower elevations. Surveys have shown it to be limited to highly fragmented forests surrounding the town of Daraina in an area encircled by the Loky and Manambato rivers in northeastern Madagascar. The golden-crowned sifaka has one of the smallest geographic ranges of all indriid
Indriidae
The Indriidae are a family of strepsirrhine primates. They are medium to large sized lemurs with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six...
lemur species. Out of 75 forest fragments studied by researchers, its presence could be definitively reported in only 44, totaling 44125 ha (170.4 sq mi). This study, published in 2002, also estimated the total species population and observed population densities. Home range
Home range
Home range is the area where an animal lives and travels in. It is closely related to, but not identical with, the concept of "territory".The concept that can be traced back to a publication in 1943 by W. H. Burt, who constructed maps delineating the spatial extent or outside boundary of an...
size varied between 0.18 and 0.29 km² (0.0694983885466563 and 0.111969625991835 sqmi) per group. With an average group size
Group size measures
Many animals, including humans, tend to live in groups, herds, flocks, bands, packs, shoals, or colonies of conspecific individuals. The size of these groups, as expressed by the number of participant individuals, is an important aspect of their social environment...
of five individuals, the population density ranged between 17 and 28 individuals per km2. Another home range size estimate of 0.09 to 0.12 km² (0.0347491942733281 to 0.0463322590311042 sqmi) has also been suggested with a population density range of 10 and 23 individuals per km2. The forested area available to the species within its desired elevation range was estimated at 360 km² (139 sq mi), yielding an estimated population of 6,120–10,080 and a breeding population between 2,520 and 3,960 individuals.
The species is sympatric (coexists) with two other medium-sized lemurs: the Sanford's brown lemur
Sanford's Brown Lemur
Sanford's brown lemur , or Sanford's lemur, is a species of prosimian primate in the Lemuridae family. The Sanford's brown lemur was previously considered a subspecies of the common brown lemur but as of 2005 many of the brown lemurs have been elevated to a full species status...
(Eulemur sanfordii) and the crowned lemur
Crowned Lemur
The crowned lemur is a lemur that is 31–36 cm long and weighs 2 kg. Its tail is about 42–51 cm long). The crowned lemur is endemic to the dry deciduous forests of the northern tip of Madagascar. It eats a diet of mostly flowers, fruits, and leaves...
(Eulemur coronatus).
Behavior
The golden-crowned sifaka is primarily active during the day (diurnal), but researchers have witnessed activity in the early morning and evening (crepuscularCrepuscular
Crepuscular animals are those that are active primarily during twilight, that is during dawn and dusk. The word is derived from the Latin word crepusculum, meaning "twilight." Crepuscular is, thus, in contrast with diurnal and nocturnal behavior. Crepuscular animals may also be active on a bright...
) during the rainy season (November through April). In captivity, it has been observed feeding at night, unlike captive Verreaux's sifakas. It travels between 461.7 and 1077 m (1,514.8 and 3,533.5 ft) per day, an intermediate range compared to other sifakas of the eastern forests. The golden-crowned sifaka can be observed feeding and resting higher in the canopy during the dry season (May through October). It sleeps in the taller trees (the emergent layer) of the forest at night.
When stressed, the golden-crowned sifaka emits grunting vocalizations as well as repeated "churrs" that escalate into a high-amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system. For example, sound waves in air are oscillations in atmospheric pressure and their amplitudes are proportional to the change in pressure during one oscillation...
"whinney." Its ground predator alarm call, which sounds like "shē-fäk", closely resembles that of Verreaux's sifaka. It also emits mobbing alarm calls in response to birds of prey
Bird of prey
Birds of prey are birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing, using their keen senses, especially vision. They are defined as birds that primarily hunt vertebrates, including other birds. Their talons and beaks tend to be relatively large, powerful and adapted for tearing and/or piercing flesh....
.
Diet
The diet of the golden-crowned sifaka consists of a wide variety of plants—as many as 80 species—whose availability varies based on the season. It is a seed predatorSeed predation
Seed predation, often referred to as granivory, is a type of plant-animal interaction in which granivores feed on the seeds of plants as a main or exclusive food source, in many cases leaving the seeds damaged and not viable...
, making seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
s a year-round staple in its diet when available. The golden-crowned sifaka also eats unripe fruit
Fruit
In broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.The term has different meanings dependent on context. In non-technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state,...
s, flower
Flower
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants . The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs...
s, and leaves
Leaves
-History:Vocalist Arnar Gudjonsson was formerly the guitarist with Mower, and he was joined by Hallur Hallsson , Arnar Ólafsson , Bjarni Grímsson , and Andri Ásgrímsson . Late in 2001 they played with Emiliana Torrini and drew early praise from the New York Times...
. One study showed a diet composition of 37% unripe fruit and seeds, 22% immature leaves, 17% mature leaves, 13% flowers, and 9% fruit pulp. Individuals have also been observed consuming tree bark
Bark
Bark is the outermost layers of stems and roots of woody plants. Plants with bark include trees, woody vines and shrubs. Bark refers to all the tissues outside of the vascular cambium and is a nontechnical term. It overlays the wood and consists of the inner bark and the outer bark. The inner...
during the dry season. In general, approximately 60% of its diet consists of unripe fruits and seed, mainly from leguminous
Fabaceae
The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, is a large and economically important family of flowering plants. The group is the third largest land plant family, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae, with 730 genera and over 19,400 species...
pods, and less than 50% consists of leaves. At Daraina, it has been observed feeding on the sakoa tree (Poupartia caffra
Poupartia
Poupartia is a genus of plant in family Anacardiaceae.Species include:* Poupartia borbonica, Gmelin* Poupartia pubescens, Engl.* Poupartia caffra , H.Perrier...
) and on mango
Mango
The mango is a fleshy stone fruit belonging to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is native to India from where it spread all over the world. It is also the most cultivated fruit of the tropical world. While...
trees. Immature leaves and flowers are eaten when available, in the early wet season. Daily traveling distance tends to increase when immature leaves are available. Studies have also shown that when food distribution is patchy, feeding times are shorter and more time is spent traveling. Dietary diversity has been shown to be consistent between populations, suggesting that it is important for the lemur to get a varied mix of nutrients and to protect itself from high levels of specific plant toxins.
A study in 1993 showed variability and flexibility in feeding preferences between three research sites around Daraina. Plant species preferences (measured in feeding time) changed between wetter, intermediate, and drier forests:
| Wetter sites | Intermediate sites | Driest sites | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Favored plant families | Fabaceae Fabaceae The Fabaceae or Leguminosae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, is a large and economically important family of flowering plants. The group is the third largest land plant family, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae, with 730 genera and over 19,400 species... Sapindaceae Sapindaceae Sapindaceae, also known as the soapberry family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales. There are about 140-150 genera with 1400-2000 species, including maple, horse chestnut and lychee.... Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae are a family of flowering plants bearing fruits that are drupes and in some cases producing urushiol, an irritant. Anacardiaceae include numerous genera with several of economic importance. Notable plants in this family include cashew , mango, poison ivy, sumac, smoke tree, and marula... Myrtaceae Myrtaceae The Myrtaceae or Myrtle family are a family of dicotyledon plants, placed within the order Myrtales. Myrtle, clove, guava, feijoa, allspice, and eucalyptus belong here. All species are woody, with essential oils, and flower parts in multiples of four or five... Annonaceae Annonaceae Annonaceae, also called the custard apple familyis a family of flowering plants consisting of trees, shrubs or rarely lianas.With about 2300 to 2500 species and more than 130 genera,... |
Fabaceae Anacardiaceae Olacaceae Olacaceae Olacaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Santalales. They are woody plants, native throughout the tropical regions of the world.... Araliaceae Araliaceae Araliaceae is a family of flowering plants, also known as the Aralia family or Ivy family. The family includes 254 species of trees, shrubs, lianas and perennial herbaceous plants into 2 subfamilies... Malvaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae, or the mallow family, is a family of flowering plants containing over 200 genera with close to 2,300 species. Judd & al. Well known members of this family include okra, jute and cacao... |
Fabaceae Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae Ebenaceae Ebenaceae The Ebenaceae are a family of flowering plants, which includes ebony and persimmon. The family has approximately 500 species of trees and shrubs in two genera, Diospyros and Euclea. The species are mostly evergreen and native to the tropics and subtropics, with a few deciduous species native to... Combretaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Myrtales. The family includes about 600 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas in 18 genera. The family includes the leadwood tree, Combretum imberbe. Three genera, Conocarpus, Laguncularia and Lumnitzera, grow in mangrove habitats .... |
| Favored plant species | Cynometra Cynometra Cynometra is genus of tropical forest trees with a pantropical distribution. It is particularly important as a forest component in west Africa and the neotropics. Cynometra alexandri is a familiar timber tree of central and east Africa... sp. (Fabaceae) Filicium longifolium (Sapindaceae) Eugenia Eugenia Eugenia is a genus of flowering plants in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. It has a worldwide, although highly uneven, distribution in tropical and subtropical regions. The bulk of the approximately 1,000 species occur in the New World tropics, especially in the northern Andes, the Caribbean, and the... sp. (Myrtaceae) Cordyla madagascariensis Cordyla madagascariensis Cordyla madagascariensis is a species of legume in the Fabaceae family.It is found only in Madagascar.-Source:* Du Puy, D. & Labat, H. 1998. . Downloaded on 19 July 2007.... (Fabaceae) Xylopia flexuosa Xylopia Xylopia is a genus of plant in family Annonaceae. This genus is solely composed of trees, distribution of which is pantropical . It contains the following species :* Xylopia africana, Oliv.... (Annonaceae) |
Cynometra sp. (Fabaceae) Baudouinia fluggeiformis Baudouinia Baudouinia is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It belongs to the sub family Caesalpinioideae.... (Fabaceae) Albizia boivini (Fabaceae) Pongamiopsis Pongamiopsis Pongamiopsis is a genus of legume in the Fabaceae family native to Madagascar.- Species of Pongamiopsis :* Pongamiopsis amygdalina* Pongamiopsis pervilleana* Pongamiopsis viguieri* Pongamiopsis cloiselli... sp. (Fabaceae) Olax lanceolata Olax Olax is a genus of plant in family Olacaceae. It contains the following species :* Olax austrosinensis* Olax aphylla* Olax dissitiflora* Olax emirnensis* Olax imbricata, Roxb.* Olax lanceolata... (Olacaceae) |
Pongamiopsis cloiselli Pongamiopsis Pongamiopsis is a genus of legume in the Fabaceae family native to Madagascar.- Species of Pongamiopsis :* Pongamiopsis amygdalina* Pongamiopsis pervilleana* Pongamiopsis viguieri* Pongamiopsis cloiselli... (Fabaceae) Diospyros lokohensis Diospyros Diospyros is a genus of about 450–500 species of deciduous and evergreen trees. The majority are native to the tropics, with only a few species extending into temperate regions. They are commonly known as ebony or persimmon trees... (Ebenaceae) Terminalia Terminalia (plant) Terminalia is a genus of large trees of the flowering plant family Combretaceae, comprising around 100 species distributed in tropical regions of the world. This genus gets it name from Latin terminus, referring to the fact that the leaves appear at the very tips of the shoots.Trees of this genus... sp. 1 (Combretaceae) Erythrophysa belini Erythrophysa Erythrophysa is a genus of plant in family Sapindaceae. It contains the following species :* Erythrophysa alata, Hutch.* Erythrophysa belini* Erythrophysa sakalava, Capuron... (Sapindaceae) Tamarindus indica Tamarind Tamarind is a tree in the family Fabaceae. The genus Tamarindus is monotypic .-Origin:... (Fabaceae) |
Social organization
The social structure of the golden-crowned sifaka is very similar to that of Verreaux's sifaka, both averaging between five and six individuals per group, with a range between three to ten. Unlike the Verreaux's sifaka, group sex ratioSex ratio
Sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. The primary sex ratio is the ratio at the time of conception, secondary sex ratio is the ratio at time of birth, and tertiary sex ratio is the ratio of mature organisms....
s are more evenly balanced, consisting of two or more members of both sexes. Females are dominant within the group, and only one female breeds successfully each season. Males will roam between groups during the mating season.
Because of their smaller home ranges relative to other sifakas, group encounters are slightly more common, occurring a few times a month. It has been noted that the temperament of the golden-crowned sifaka is more volatile than that of other sifaka species and, in the case of a dispute, this animal frequently emits a grunt-like vocalization that seems to signal annoyance. Aggressive interactions between groups are generally non-physical but include loud growling, territorial marking, chasing, and ritualistic leaping displays. Same-sexed individuals act most aggressively towards each other during such encounters. Scent marking
Territory (animal)
In ethology the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics...
is the most common form of territorial defense, with scent marks acting as "signposts" to demarcate territorial boundaries. Females use glands in the genital
Sex organ
A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined, is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in a complex organism; flowers are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, cones are the reproductive...
regions ("anogenital") while males use both anogenital and chest glands.
Reproduction
The golden-crowned sifaka is a seasonal breederSeasonal breeder
Seasonal breeders are animal species that successfully mate only during certain times of the year. These times of year allow for the births at a time optimal for the survival of the young in terms of factors such as temperature, food and water. Related sexual interest and behaviors are expressed...
, often mating
Mating
In biology, mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for copulation. In social animals, it also includes the raising of their offspring. Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for insemination and subsequent internal fertilization...
during the last week of January. Its gestation
Gestation
Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal. Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time ....
period is a little less than six months, and its lactation
Lactation
Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process occurs in all female mammals, however it predates mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is called breastfeeding or nursing...
period is five months. Research has indicated that reproduction is strategically linked with forest seasonality. Gestation starts in the later part of the wet season (late January), and continues for approximately 170 days. Parturition
Childbirth
Childbirth is the culmination of a human pregnancy or gestation period with the birth of one or more newborn infants from a woman's uterus...
occurs in the middle of the dry season (late June or July). Weaning
Weaning
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing a mammal infant, either human or animal, to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk.The process takes place only in mammals, as only mammals produce milk...
occurs during the middle of the wet season, in December, when an abundance of immature leaves is available. It is thought that such reproductive timing exists to ensure adequate protein intake from the immature leaves for both mother and child at the end of the lactation period.
Females reproduce once every two years. Infants are born with little hair and initially cling to their mother's belly. As they mature, they begin to ride on her back. Following weaning, riding on the back is only tolerated for short durations, particularly when the group is alerted to the presence of a predator. By one year of age, the juveniles are 70% of their full adult body weight. Infant mortality
Infant mortality
Infant mortality is defined as the number of infant deaths per 1000 live births. Traditionally, the most common cause worldwide was dehydration from diarrhea. However, the spreading information about Oral Re-hydration Solution to mothers around the world has decreased the rate of children dying...
is high in this species. Upon reaching sexual maturity
Sexual maturity
Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an organism can reproduce. It is sometimes considered synonymous with adulthood, though the two are distinct...
, males leave their natal group and transfer to neighboring social groups. Observations by researchers and reports from local people indicate that this species will jump to the ground and cross more than 200 m (656.2 ft) of grassland to reach nearby forest patches. This suggests that forest fragmentation may not completely isolate separated populations.
Predators and parasites
The only predator known to target this species is the fossaFossa (animal)
The fossa is a cat-like, carnivorous mammal that is endemic to Madagascar. It is a member of the Eupleridae, a family of carnivorans closely related to the mongoose family . Its classification has been controversial because its physical traits resemble those of cats, yet other traits suggest a...
, although the golden-crowned sifaka reacts to the presence of birds of prey
Bird of prey
Birds of prey are birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing, using their keen senses, especially vision. They are defined as birds that primarily hunt vertebrates, including other birds. Their talons and beaks tend to be relatively large, powerful and adapted for tearing and/or piercing flesh....
with alarm calls. A hematology
Hematology
Hematology, also spelled haematology , is the branch of biology physiology, internal medicine, pathology, clinical laboratory work, and pediatrics that is concerned with the study of blood, the blood-forming organs, and blood diseases...
and serum chemistry
Blood serum
In blood, the serum is the component that is neither a blood cell nor a clotting factor; it is the blood plasma with the fibrinogens removed...
study published in 1995 revealed that 59% of the wild golden-crowned sifaka sampled were infected with a microfilaria
Microfilaria
The microfilaria is a stage in the life cycle of certain parasitic nematodes in the family Onchocercidae. In these species, the adults live in the circulatory system of vertebrates while the early larval stages develop in blood-feeding arthropod vectors...
l parasite, a potentially unknown species of nematode
Nematode
The nematodes or roundworms are the most diverse phylum of pseudocoelomates, and one of the most diverse of all animals. Nematode species are very difficult to distinguish; over 28,000 have been described, of which over 16,000 are parasitic. It has been estimated that the total number of nematode...
in the genus Mansonella. Healthy, infected individuals did not appear to be adversely affected by it, but the overall effect on the dwindling population is unknown. Also, no malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
l or intestinal parasite
Intestinal parasite
Intestinal parasites are parasites that populate the gastro-intestinal tract in humans and other animals. They can live throughout the body, but most prefer the intestinal wall. Means of exposure include: ingestion of undercooked meat, drinking infected water, and skin absorption...
s were found, although 48% of the golden-crowned sifakas examined had external ear mite
Ear mite
Ear mites are mites that live in the ears of animals. The most commonly seen species is Otodectes cynotis .-Contagion:...
s.
Human interactions
While the golden-crowned sifaka faces few biological threats, such as predation, it faces many significant human-caused (anthropogenic) threats. Its habitat has been highly fragmented, with forest patches isolated by severely degraded grasslands. By 1985 it was estimated that 34% of the entire eastern rainforest of the island had disappeared, and by extrapolation it is predicted that at this rate of deforestationDeforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use....
there will be no eastern rainforest left by 2020. Illegal logging
Illegal logging in Madagascar
Illegal logging has been a problem in Madagascar for decades and is perpetuated by extreme poverty and government corruption. Often taking the form of selective logging, the trade has been driven by high international demand for expensive, fine-grained lumber such as rosewood and ebony...
practices, slash-and-burn agriculture (known as tavy), uncontrolled grass fires
Wildfire
A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area. Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire, desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, squirrel fire, vegetation fire, veldfire, and wilkjjofire may be used to describe the same...
, gold mining
Gold mining
Gold mining is the removal of gold from the ground. There are several techniques and processes by which gold may be extracted from the earth.-History:...
, poaching
Poaching
Poaching is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws. Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as poaching.It may be illegal and in...
, and clearing land for agricultural use have all significantly contributed to the significant deforestation witnessed in Madagascar and the ongoing decline of suitable habitat for this species.
Malagasy farmers continue to use fire to clear out agricultural land and pasture for livestock, promoting grass growth while inhibiting forest regeneration. The fires sometimes burn out of control and destroy forest edges along with the natural flora
Flora
Flora is the plant life occurring in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring or indigenous—native plant life. The corresponding term for animals is fauna.-Etymology:...
, increasing the damage even further than intended. Due to the nature of Madagascar's geology and soil, tavy also depletes the fertility of the soil, accelerating the crop rotation
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.Crop rotation confers various benefits to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals...
rate and necessitating expansion into primary forests.
Although coal
Coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...
is the preferred cooking fuel of the Malagasy people, the most affordable and prominent source of energy is timber, known as kitay. Wood is also used as a primary building material, only adding further incentive to remove trees from the forest. With the depletion of dead wood from the forest patches, the people have begun to remove young, healthy trees. This is seen most commonly in areas closest to villages. Although the shapes and sizes of forest fragments around the Daraina region have been mostly stable for 50 years prior to a study in 2002, the six years preceding the study had seen 5% of the small- to medium-sized forest fragments disappear due to increased human encroachment.
A newly emergent threat facing the golden-crowned sifaka is hunting by the gold miners moving into the region's forests. Although mining operations are small scale, the practice of gold mining takes a toll on the forested regions because deep mining pits are often dug near or underneath large trees, disturbing the extensive root systems and ultimately killing the trees in the area. The influx of gold miners has also increased poaching pressure. Although the species is protected from hunting by local fady (taboo
Taboo
A taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and or forbidden based on moral judgment, religious beliefs and or scientific consensus. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society...
) around Daraina, due to their likeness to humans, and by Malagasy law, the gold miners who have immigrated to the area have begun to hunt the golden-crowned sifaka as a source of bushmeat
Bushmeat
Bushmeat initially referred to the hunting of wild animals in West and Central Africa and is a calque from the French viande de brousse. Today the term is commonly used for meat of terrestrial wild animals, killed for subsistence or commercial purposes throughout the humid tropics of the Americas,...
. In 1993, David M. Meyers, a researcher who has studied the golden-crowned sifaka, speculated that if bushmeat hunting were to escalate, the species would go extinct in less than ten years since it is easy to find and not fearful of humans. Indeed, bushmeat hunting by people from nearby Ambilobe
Ambilobe
Ambilobe is a city in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Ambilobe, which is a part of Diana Region. The town is the capital of Ambilobe district, and according to 2001 census the population was approximately 56,000....
has already extirpated
Local extinction
Local extinction, also known as extirpation, is the condition of a species which ceases to exist in the chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere...
at least one isolated population.
Conservation
Because studies have shown that the golden-crowned sifaka are most likely to be found in large forest fragments (greater than 1000 ha (3.9 sq mi)), the species is thought to be sensitive to forest fragmentationForest fragmentation
Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation, occurring when forests are cut down in a manner that leaves relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants. The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open...
and degradation. However, since it has been found around gold mining camps and degraded forests, it is not restricted to undisturbed forests and appears to tolerate human activity. Regardless, with its low population, highly restricted range, and badly fragmented habitat, the prospect for survival for the golden-crowned sifaka is considered bleak. For these reasons, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) added it to its list of the 25 most endangered primates in 1997. Previously, in 1992, the IUCN's Species Survival Commission
IUCN Species Survival Commission
The IUCN Species Survival Commission is a special commission operated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The commission's "major role is to provide information to IUCN on biodiversity conservation, the inherent value of species, their role in ecosystem health and functioning,...
(IUCN/SSC) Primate Specialist Group also assigned the species its highest priority rating. As of its 2008 assessment, the golden-crowned sifaka was downgraded from Critically Endangered to Endangered
Endangered species
An endangered species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters...
on the IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
. In its four previous assessments, it was listed as Critically Endangered in 1996 and 2000 and Endangered in 1990 and 1994.
The area inhabited by the golden-crowned sifaka is also an important agricultural and economical resource for the human population. Suggested conservation action aimed at protecting this species and its habitat has focused on offering varying degrees of protection to forest fragments in the region, allowing human activity and resource extraction in areas that have less conservation potential while strictly protecting areas critical to the species' survival. In 2002, none of the forested areas that the golden-crowned sifaka inhabits were part of a formally protected national park
National park
A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or...
or reserve
Nature reserve
A nature reserve is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research...
. A conservation study from 1989 called for the creation of a national park that includes the forest of Binara as well as the dry forests to the north of Daraina. A more recent study from 2002 proposed a network of protected forest areas including areas outside of the village of Daraina, forests north of the Monambato River, and the northern forests that constitute the species' northern reservoir. In 2005, Fanamby, a Malagasy non-governmental organization
Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
(NGO), teamed up with Conservation International
Conservation International
Conservation International is a nonprofit organization headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, which seeks to ensure the health of humanity by protecting Earth's ecosystems and biodiversity. CI’s work focuses on six key initiatives that affect human well-being: climate, food security, freshwater...
to create a 20000 hectares (77.2 sq mi) protected area that both Association Fanamby and the Ministry of Water and Forests manage. As of 2008, only ten forest patches that could support viable populations remained, according to the IUCN.
Only one captive
Captivity (animal)
Animals that live under human care are in captivity. Captivity can be used as a generalizing term to describe the keeping of either domesticated animals or wild animals. This may include for example farms, private homes and zoos...
population of golden-crowned sifakas has been represented in a zoological collection. Building on a successful record of maintaining a viable captive Verreaux's sifaka population, the Duke Lemur Center
Duke Lemur Center
The Duke Lemur Center is an sanctuary for rare and endangered prosimian primates, located at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. It is the largest sanctuary for prosimian primates in the world....
(DLC) in Durham, North Carolina
Durham, North Carolina
Durham is a city in the U.S. state of North Carolina. It is the county seat of Durham County and also extends into Wake County. It is the fifth-largest city in the state, and the 85th-largest in the United States by population, with 228,330 residents as of the 2010 United States census...
, requested and obtained permission from the government of Madagascar
Politics of Madagascar
Politics of Madagascar takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Madagascar is head of state and the Prime Minister of Madagascar is head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the...
to capture and export this (then) unknown species for captive breeding
Captive breeding
Captive breedingis the process of breeding animals in human controlled environments with restricted settings, such as wildlife reserves, zoos and other conservation facilities; sometimes the process is construed to include release of individual organisms to the wild, when there is sufficient...
. Plans were also made to establish a captive breeding program at the Ivoloina Forestry Station, now known as Parc Ivoloina
Parc Ivoloina
Parc Ivoloina is a recreational, zoological and educational park, with zoological exhibits, free-ranging lemurs, botanical trails, dugout canoe tours, and environmental education programs in Madagascar. Located near the city of Toamasina, it is run by the Madagascar Fauna Group - a...
. In November 1987, during the same expedition that resulted in the formal description of the species, two males and two females were caught and measured. Five others were also caught, but were released because they were juvenile males. In July 1988, a golden-crowned sifaka was born in captivity at the DLC. However, the captive population was small and not viable for long-term breeding, and captive sifakas have proven difficult to maintain due to their specialized dietary needs. The last captive individual passed away in 2008. Despite the loss of its small colony after 20 years, DLC believes that establishment of a captive population for conservation-oriented captive breeding purposes could provide an important second level of protection, particularly if habitat protection measures are unsuccessful.
Effects of the 2009 political crisis
As a result of the political crisis that began in 2009 and the resulting breakdown of law and order in Madagascar, poachers have hunted lemurs in the Daraina area and sold them to local restaurants as a delicacy. Pictures of dead lemurs that had been smoked for transport were taken by Fanamby and released by Conservation International in August 2009. The lemurs in the photographs included the endangered golden-crowned sifaka, as well as crowned lemurs. Around the time the photographs were released, 15 people were arrested for selling smoked lemurs, which were bought from hunters for 1,000 ariaryMalagasy ariary
The ariary is the currency of Madagascar. It is subdivided into 5 iraimbilanja and is one of only two non-decimal currencies currently circulating . The names ariary and iraimbilanja derive from the pre-colonial currency, with ariary being the name for a silver dollar...
, or around US$0.53, and then sold in restaurants for 8,000 ariary (US$4.20). Russell Mittermeier
Russell Mittermeier
Russell Alan Mittermeier is a primatologist, herpetologist and biological anthropologist. He has written several books for both popular and scientist audiences, and has authored some 300 scientific papers.-Biography:...
, president of Conservation International, said that the arrests would not end the poaching since the poachers would "just get slaps on the wrist".