Ghenadie Petrescu
Encyclopedia
Ghenadie Petrescu was a Wallachia
n-born Romania
n priest of the national Orthodox church
, who served as Metropolitan-Primate of Romania from 1893 to 1896. Ghenadie was a monk and hieromonk
steadily progressing through church ranks, and becoming Bishop of Argeş in 1875. While tending to this congregation, he established his reputation as philanthropist, art patron, and writer on historical subjects. Ghenadie also preserved an interest in politics, espousing a nationalist
Orthodox agenda and finding himself allies on both sides of Romania's two-party system
, Conservative and National Liberal
.
As Metropolitan, Ghenadie became tangled in a political controversy which tested the issues of separation between church and state
, and ruined his close relationship with Prime Minister
Dimitrie A. Sturdza. The conflict became one between Ghenadie and the Romanian Synod, whose civilian members opted to depose him. Ghenadie earned support from the opposition Conservatives, and was energetically defended in print by poet Alexandru Macedonski
. His decision to contest the Synod resulted in his banishment to Căldăruşani Monastery, as a simple monk. Large swathes of the public rallied behind him, causing protests and riots against the Sturdza government.
Although the Synod showed its readiness to reinstate Ghenadie, the latter did not follow suit, and spent the remainder of his life at Căldăruşani. In 1909, he was made Starets
for life. His final activities were in the field of art conservation.
, in 1836. His parents were of lowly origins, and his native home was in Hagiului mahala
. The future priest received his elementary education at a parish school, that of Domniţa Bălaşa Church. According to some sources, he took orders at Căldăruşani Monastery, Ilfov County
, in 1854. Others mention that this happened only in 1858, at Cernica Monastery.
Within four years, he was dispatched to the Metropolitan diocese of Bucharest, where he functioned as Deacon
(Archdeacon
as of 1865). In parallel, Ghenadie trained for the priesthood, was received into its ranks in 1869, eventually serving as the Metropolitan's Ecclesiarch. According to his biographical profile the literary magazine Familia
(April 1894), he became one of the first Romanian clergymen to live up to modern expectations, as both an educated priest and a promoter of education. Ghenadie was however noted for not having followed the academic path of theology, and for not having attended public school
.
In the 1860s, Ghenadie was intervening in the large political debate agitating Romania: the issue of naturalization
for residents not baptized into Eastern Orthodoxy. His was vocal among the anti-reform clergy, at a time when the Church threatened to excommunicate those politicians who acted in favor of reforming the citizenship law. In 1865, he argued that there was no compatibility between Jewish
, Catholic
or Protestant residents and the term "Romanians
". He later expanded on such subjects, helping to enshrine the notion of communion between church, nation and state, and arguing: "The Church is the foundation stone of any State, and the State cannot exist without it". His discourse has been read as a precursor to the theocracy
envisaged in the 1930s by nationalist Orthodox thinkers (Nichifor Crainic
, Gheorghe Racoveanu, Dumitru Stăniloae
, etc.).
With time, Ghenadie became close to the Conservative Party, whose cabinets appointed him to high office. In 1874, when Titu Maiorescu
was Minister of Religious Affairs, Ghenadie was unanimously voted an Archiereus
by the Romanian Synod. He was assigned to the Argeş Bishopric in February 1875, when Petre P. Carp
was head of the Ministry. His selection coincided with a period of "consolidation", which cemented the reforms of the previous period, when the United Principalities
had become the modern Romanian state and the church hierarchies had been fused together. The former Bishop of Argeş, also named Ghenadie, had taken part in the effort to consolidate the international prestige of Romanian Orthodoxy, by participating in bilateral meetings with the Old Catholic Church
.
, Ghenadie Petrescu became recognized as the new Bishop of Argeş. According to Familia, he had an outstanding profile: "He spent over 17 years in this office, serving at the Lord's altar, advancing the clergy's prosperity and the people's instruction, rendering good advice to each and all and, like all good Christians and Romanians, sacrificing large sums for the churches and schools in his care. [...] His philanthropic zeal and his generosity for the poor are well-known to the public." Constantin Dobrescu-Argeş, a journalist and activist from the Curtea de Argeş
area, also remembered: "The lower clergy and all the Eparchy
have seen him stepping into each and every hamlet, into the most secluded human dwellings; they heard him preaching the awakening, the encouragement and the rebirth of national and religious sentiment among the people. Instead of 400 wooden churches, which could barely stand to be called houses of prayer, he erected 400 temples, beautiful as far as taste and comfort go." During his reign, several new monasteries were reestablished within the Argeş Diocese, at Stănişoara, Ostrov, Turnu etc.
It was under Ghenadie's direction that restoration work was completed on Curtea de Argeş Cathedral
, receiving words of praise from a visiting King of Romania
, Carol I
. Ghenadie oversaw the (re)building of an Orthodox Seminary
in Curtea de Argeş, and, in 1888, contributed to the new reliquary
of Dimitrie Basarabov. The artifact, of fine silver, was paid for with Ghenadie's personal revenue and with funds collected from his congregation, and specially crafted by famed Russian Romanian silversmith Teodor Filipov. Ghenadie also oversaw the creation of a new reliquary to host the remains of Saint Filofteia.
The bishop's religious life was doubled by involvement in secular activities. Dobrescu-Argeş credits Ghenadie Petrescu with having been an active participant in all public works done for the benefit of the region, from the boulevard cutting across Curtea de Argeş to the railway network
which connected it to the world. After 1888, there was even an interest in spiritism
: Ghenadie is recorded as one of the regular guests of writer and National Liberal polemicist Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu
, attending séance
s where Theodor Speranţia was the medium
. From 1889, Ghenadie also published 8 volumes of anthology, Acte şi documente privind renaşterea României ("Papers and Documents on the Rebirth of Romania
"). The latter project had been a cherished dream of National Liberal politician and amateur historian Dimitrie Sturdza, and sought to provide readers with a guide to Romania's 19th century.
Bishop Ghenadie was a candidate for the Metropolitan seat in 1885, and gained significant support. Dobrescu-Argeş later claimed that Ghenadie withdrew from the race after the National Liberal lobby, who supported Iosif Gheorghian for the position, asked him to do so; there was no grudge preserved between the two contestants, with Ghenadie canvassing votes for Iosif. When Metropolitan Iosif resigned in early 1893, Ghenadie was one of the first choices for the seat: in May, the Synod and Parliament of Romania
both voted him in as leader the Romanian Church. Since Ghenadie lacked formal training, the regulation on such appointments had to be modified. He received his investiture from King Carol I, on May 21.
and Elisabeth
, the children of heir-apparent Ferdinand
. Once ordained Metropolitan, Ghenadie did not interrupt his activities as a scholar, and, in 1894, published Evangheliile. Studiu istorico-literar şi Autenticitatea Evangheliilor în genere ("The Gospels. A Historical-Literary Study and On the Overall Authenticity of the Gospels"). He was still preoccupied with church art and architecture, and, in 1894, arranged for the restoration of Bucharest's Darvari Skete.
Ghenadie found himself at odds with parts of the establishment, at a time when the Orthodox Church was being governed under a new statute, which placed the religious institution under extended public control, exercised through the civilian members of the Synod. The statute was hotly opposed by members of the clergy: as Protosyngel Miron Cristea
noted in 1909, Ghenadie's rule coincided with a nadir for the nation's clergymen. Metropolitan Iosif's own criticism of such legislation, as endorsed by the Conservatives, had been a factor in his decision to leave office. Shortly before coming to power as Prime Minister
, Dimitrie Sturdza spoke out against the new legislation.
The clash between the Metropolitan and the civil administration was followed the baptism of Crown Prince Carol. Ghenadie selected the baptismal font
, a relic of the Domniţa Bălaşa Church collection, and, following the ceremony, offered it as a gift to King Carol; he later tried to console Domniţa Bălaşa priests by sending them a replica of the font. According to one account, the Metropolitan also alienated his royal hosts by not making an exception to the Orthodox custom of administering the baptism, which involved sinking their baby into the font. A parallel conflict, resonating throughout the Balkans
, took place between Ghenadie and Neophytus VIII
, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. It reflected mounting tension between Greeks
, represented by Neophytus' Greek Orthodox Church
, and Aromanians
, who were under Romanian state protection. On official visit to the Aromanians of Macedonia
, Metropolitan Ghenadie held mass in the Romanian vernacular
, prompting the Patriarch to demand that the Romanian Synod sanction its leader.
Another point of contention was Ghenadie's relationship with Premier Sturdza. The Conservatives believed that, in seeking to display his friendship for Ghenadie, the Premier was being hypocritical. This point of view is expressed in O lichea ("A Scoundrel" or "A Stain"), a lampoon by Conservative opinion maker Ion Luca Caragiale
, who alleged that, once designated head of cabinet, Sturdza embarrassed the church by insisting to prostrate himself in front of its leader. Although equivocal, the piece remains one of Caragiale's most charged and crudest articles.
According to theologian Paul Brusanowski, Sturdza's arrival to power inaugurated an irregular "companionship" between the leader of the cabinet and the leader of the church. Ghenadie broke tradition when he invited Sturdza to attend a meeting of the Safta Brâncoveanu Foundation, the church's main charity outlet. This vexed other stakeholders, in particular the Bibescu and Ştirbei families of the original donors, and Ghenadie replied by cutting off the Church's share in the budget.
him altogether.
Ghenadie's dismissal was especially controversial: according to Familia, the event "shook temperaments" in Bucharest and made "a lively impression" on Transylvania
n observers. The same paper noted "great agitation" in Romania, and cited official protests from within the Conservative opposition and the breakaway faction of Nicolae Fleva
. While some early commentators noted that, above all, the dismissal was a political move, Paul Brusanowski argues that the ousted church leader was the one maneuvering through his political connections. According to Brusanowski, Fleva's conflict with Sturdza and his alliance with the Conservatives were entirely provoked by Ghenadie, in an attempt to preserve his position. Another voice to make public its support for the cause, in hopes that the government would topple, was Conservative figure Take Ionescu
, who spoke for a larger group of Bucharest citizens. A notorious defender of Ghenadie was Alexandru Macedonski
, the rebellious poet and journalist. Especially for the purpose, he created the propaganda gazette Liga Ortodoxă ("The Orthodox League"). He was joined in this effort by Fleva and by various other public figures: journalist Eugen Vaian, poet Tudor Arghezi
, writer and future priest Gala Galaction
.
In June 1896, Ghenadie received an order from the Attorney General to vacate the Metropolitan's Palace
. He objected, arguing that the Synod had broken the governing law, and stating that he would only leave if presented with a Royal Decree. As a consequence, Ghenadie was taken into custody by the authorities, driven out of the Palace through a side door, and taken by Romanian Police
carriage to Căldăruşani Monastery, where his banishment came in effect. Reportedly, the prosecutors caused embarrassment when they also proceeded to evacuate Ghenadie's friends and supporters, including Conservative politico Lascăr Catargiu
, out of the repossessed building. A while after, Carol signed a Royal Decree confirming his government's decision, and the interim leadership was left to a triumvirate of bishops: Partenie Clinceni, Iosif Naniescu, Gherasim Timuş.
The central press covered the clash with much interest, especially as Ghenadie's place of exile was initially kept a secret. Criticized for its sensationalism
, Adevărul
daily sent reporter Vespasian Pella on Ghenadie's trail immediately after the Palace incidents, and, on the next day, published Pella's exclusive interview with the former Metropolitan. Sympathetic journalists and politicians coalesced, organizing a pilgrimage to Căldăruşani and a rally at Bucharest's Dacia Hall (said to have been one of the most important gatherings of the period). The orators included Conservatives such as Fleva and Alexandru Lahovary
, alongside disgruntled Liberals (Gheorghe Gh. Mârzescu, George D. Pallade).
Angry, sometimes violent, protests continued in Bucharest for the next few months, peaking on November 18. At that moment, the pro-Ghenadie crowd attempted to storm into Senate
and were met with excessive force by the Gendarmes, leading to a street battle in front of University
quarters. The matter was only solved by a new National Liberal cabinet, presided upon by Petre S. Aurelian
and having Vasile Lascăr as head of Internal Affairs. This new administration, formed around National Liberals who opposed Sturdza, was entirely dedicated to a new settlement in the Ghenadie affair. Lascăr, who took credit for the pacification, later claimed that the Conservatives had been stoking the fire of popular discontent without assuming the responsibilities.
In short while, pilgrimages to Căldăruşani became the object of derision: in one instance, a group of eccentric high school students passing themselves off as the press made a noisy descent on the monastery, dined at the monks' expense, and even arranged an interview with Ghenadie. The prank was organized by friends Urmuz
, the future writer, and by George Ciprian
, later a comedian and playwright. As Ciprian recalled in the 1950s, Ghenadie was not upset when uncovering their subterfuge, and spoke to them about the injustices of his dismissal.
Macedonski was surprised by this turn of events. He shut down Liga Ortodoxă, and, in 1898, published the brochure Falimentul clerului ortodox român ("The Bankruptcy of the Romanian Orthodox Clergy"), with such verdicts as: "however vile a clergy may be, [it] will not go bankrupt if its leader won't force it into bankruptcy." Macedonski suggested that the entire scenario was undignified, noting that, in Catholicism, Church leaders were still refusing to sign a demeaning concordat
with the Italian Kingdom
; he called Ghenadie's legal battle "ridiculous". The poet's sense of frustration also led him to compose a "Psalm of Ghenadie".
In Catholic circles, Ghenadie's dismissal was reported as a clue that the Orthodox Church was in crisis. Das Vaterland journal, published in neighboring Austria-Hungary
by the Christian Social movement, announced: "all this quarrel between bishop and synod, and the entire situation of the Romanian church, is a new supporting argument for old experienced fact, namely that the Eastern Church
, as broken away from Rome
, shall never flourish, but will advance resolutely toward internal and external decomposition." Ghenadie's guilt was under constant reassessment by the Synod, reflecting political competitions outside the Romanian Orthodox Church. According to Miron Cristea, the institution shamed itself further by yielding to outside pressures, particularly since the Synod appeared unconvinced about the truth of its own convictions: "Only in a state of decay can one proceed in this manner." Similarly, Brusanowski argues: "the Synod [was forced] to render two mutually exclusive verdicts. It is therefore blasphemous and a sign of disrespect to state, as some prelates have done repeatedly [...], that all decisions of an episcopal Synod are inspired by the Holy Ghost."
In compensation for the loss of his see, Ghenadie was been appointed a lifetime Starets
of his place of exile, with a special law passed in 1909. He took an active part in restoring and refurbishing the monastery complex, which had been heavily damaged by time, and intervened sites outsides his jurisdiction. Early on, in 1904, he intervened at Zamfira Monastery
, where he demanded that the murals done by painter Nicolae Grigorescu
be covered up with tempera
artwork—his idea was obeyed, and the result remains one of the most controversial contributions. Some have described it as virtually an act of vandalism, and, in 50 years later, the process was reverted by church orders. Ghenadie requested, and received, King Carol's patronage for the Căldăruşani restoration works (begun in 1908), and hired artist D. Belizarie to recondition its archaic murals. In 1915, he personally oversaw the festive reopening of Căldăruşani Church.
Ghenadie Petrescu was honored by Bucharest citizens, his name assigned to a street downtown—the present-day Labirint Street. In 2009, author Ioana Pârvulescu made the deposed Metropolitan a character in her historical novel Viaţa începe vineri ("Life Begins on Friday").
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
n-born Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
n priest of the national Orthodox church
Romanian Orthodox Church
The Romanian Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church. It is in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox churches, and is ranked seventh in order of precedence. The Primate of the church has the title of Patriarch...
, who served as Metropolitan-Primate of Romania from 1893 to 1896. Ghenadie was a monk and hieromonk
Hieromonk
Hieromonk , also called a Priestmonk, is a monk who is also a priest in the Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholicism....
steadily progressing through church ranks, and becoming Bishop of Argeş in 1875. While tending to this congregation, he established his reputation as philanthropist, art patron, and writer on historical subjects. Ghenadie also preserved an interest in politics, espousing a nationalist
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
Orthodox agenda and finding himself allies on both sides of Romania's two-party system
Two-party system
A two-party system is a system where two major political parties dominate voting in nearly all elections at every level of government and, as a result, all or nearly all elected offices are members of one of the two major parties...
, Conservative and National Liberal
National Liberal Party (Romania)
The National Liberal Party , abbreviated to PNL, is a centre-right liberal party in Romania. It is the third-largest party in the Romanian Parliament, with 53 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and 22 in the Senate: behind the centre-right Democratic Liberal Party and the centre-left Social...
.
As Metropolitan, Ghenadie became tangled in a political controversy which tested the issues of separation between church and state
Separation of church and state
The concept of the separation of church and state refers to the distance in the relationship between organized religion and the nation state....
, and ruined his close relationship with Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Romania
The Prime Minister of Romania is the head of the Government of Romania. Initially, the office was styled President of the Council of Ministers , when the term "Government" included more than the Cabinet, and the Cabinet was called The Council of Ministers...
Dimitrie A. Sturdza. The conflict became one between Ghenadie and the Romanian Synod, whose civilian members opted to depose him. Ghenadie earned support from the opposition Conservatives, and was energetically defended in print by poet Alexandru Macedonski
Alexandru Macedonski
Alexandru Macedonski was a Wallachian-born Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism in his native country, and for leading the Romanian Symbolist movement during its early decades...
. His decision to contest the Synod resulted in his banishment to Căldăruşani Monastery, as a simple monk. Large swathes of the public rallied behind him, causing protests and riots against the Sturdza government.
Although the Synod showed its readiness to reinstate Ghenadie, the latter did not follow suit, and spent the remainder of his life at Căldăruşani. In 1909, he was made Starets
Starets
A starets is an elder of a Russian Orthodox monastery who functions as venerated adviser and teacher. Elders or spiritual fathers are charismatic spiritual leaders whose wisdom stems from God as obtained from ascetic experience...
for life. His final activities were in the field of art conservation.
Early career
Ghenadie Petrescu was born in the Wallachian capital of BucharestBucharest
Bucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River....
, in 1836. His parents were of lowly origins, and his native home was in Hagiului mahala
Mahala
Mahala is a Balkan word for "neighbourhood" or "quarter", a section of a rural or urban settlement, dating to the times of the Ottoman Empire. It was brought to the area through Ottoman Turkish mahalle, but it originates in Arabic mähallä, from the root meaning "to settle", "to occupy"...
. The future priest received his elementary education at a parish school, that of Domniţa Bălaşa Church. According to some sources, he took orders at Căldăruşani Monastery, Ilfov County
Ilfov County
Ilfov is the county that surrounds Bucharest, the capital of Romania. It used to be largely rural, but after the fall of communism, many of the county's villages and communes developed into high-income commuter towns, which act like suburbs or satellites of Bucharest...
, in 1854. Others mention that this happened only in 1858, at Cernica Monastery.
Within four years, he was dispatched to the Metropolitan diocese of Bucharest, where he functioned as Deacon
Deacon
Deacon is a ministry in the Christian Church that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions...
(Archdeacon
Archdeacon
An archdeacon is a senior clergy position in Anglicanism, Syrian Malabar Nasrani, Chaldean Catholic, and some other Christian denominations, above that of most clergy and below a bishop. In the High Middle Ages it was the most senior diocesan position below a bishop in the Roman Catholic Church...
as of 1865). In parallel, Ghenadie trained for the priesthood, was received into its ranks in 1869, eventually serving as the Metropolitan's Ecclesiarch. According to his biographical profile the literary magazine Familia
Familia (literary magazine)
The Romanian-language Familia literary magazine was first published by Iosif Vulcan in Budapest from June 5, 1865 to April 17, 1880. The magazine moved to Oradea and continued publication from April 27, 1880 to December 31, 1906....
(April 1894), he became one of the first Romanian clergymen to live up to modern expectations, as both an educated priest and a promoter of education. Ghenadie was however noted for not having followed the academic path of theology, and for not having attended public school
Education in Romania
According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Romanian Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research . Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislation. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old...
.
In the 1860s, Ghenadie was intervening in the large political debate agitating Romania: the issue of naturalization
Naturalization
Naturalization is the acquisition of citizenship and nationality by somebody who was not a citizen of that country at the time of birth....
for residents not baptized into Eastern Orthodoxy. His was vocal among the anti-reform clergy, at a time when the Church threatened to excommunicate those politicians who acted in favor of reforming the citizenship law. In 1865, he argued that there was no compatibility between Jewish
History of the Jews in Romania
The history of Jews in Romania concerns the Jews of Romania and of Romanian origins, from their first mention on what is nowadays Romanian territory....
, Catholic
Roman Catholicism in Romania
The Roman Catholic Church in Romania is a Latin Rite Christian church, part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and Curia in Rome. Its administration is centered in Bucharest, and comprises two archdioceses and four other dioceses...
or Protestant residents and the term "Romanians
Romanians
The Romanians are an ethnic group native to Romania, who speak Romanian; they are the majority inhabitants of Romania....
". He later expanded on such subjects, helping to enshrine the notion of communion between church, nation and state, and arguing: "The Church is the foundation stone of any State, and the State cannot exist without it". His discourse has been read as a precursor to the theocracy
Theocracy
Theocracy is a form of organization in which the official policy is to be governed by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided, or simply pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religious sect or religion....
envisaged in the 1930s by nationalist Orthodox thinkers (Nichifor Crainic
Nichifor Crainic
Nichifor Crainic was a Romanian writer, editor, philosopher, poet and theologian famed for his traditionalist and antisemitic activities...
, Gheorghe Racoveanu, Dumitru Stăniloae
Dumitru Staniloae
Dumitru Stăniloae was a Romanian Eastern Orthodox priest, theologian, academic, and professor. Father Stăniloae worked for over 45 years on a comprehensive Romanian translation of the Philokalia, a collection of writings by the Church Fathers, together with the hieromonk, Arsenie Boca, who brought...
, etc.).
With time, Ghenadie became close to the Conservative Party, whose cabinets appointed him to high office. In 1874, when Titu Maiorescu
Titu Maiorescu
Titu Liviu Maiorescu was a Romanian literary critic and politician, founder of the Junimea Society. As a literary critic, he was instrumental in the development of Romanian culture in the second half of the 19th century....
was Minister of Religious Affairs, Ghenadie was unanimously voted an Archiereus
Archiereus
Archiereus is a Greek term for bishop, when considered as the culmination of the priesthood.It is used in the liturgical books of the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Church, for those services which correspond to the pontifical services of the Roman Rite...
by the Romanian Synod. He was assigned to the Argeş Bishopric in February 1875, when Petre P. Carp
Petre P. Carp
Petre P. Carp , commonly rendered as P. P. Carp, was a Romanian conservative politician and literary critic who served as a Prime Minister of Romania for two terms...
was head of the Ministry. His selection coincided with a period of "consolidation", which cemented the reforms of the previous period, when the United Principalities
United Principalities
The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, also known as the Romanian Principalities, was the official name of Romania following the 1859 election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince or domnitor of both territories...
had become the modern Romanian state and the church hierarchies had been fused together. The former Bishop of Argeş, also named Ghenadie, had taken part in the effort to consolidate the international prestige of Romanian Orthodoxy, by participating in bilateral meetings with the Old Catholic Church
Old Catholic Church
The term Old Catholic Church is commonly used to describe a number of Ultrajectine Christian churches that originated with groups that split from the Roman Catholic Church over certain doctrines, most importantly that of Papal Infallibility...
.
As Bishop of Argeş
After serving for a year as the VicarVicar
In the broadest sense, a vicar is a representative, deputy or substitute; anyone acting "in the person of" or agent for a superior . In this sense, the title is comparable to lieutenant...
, Ghenadie Petrescu became recognized as the new Bishop of Argeş. According to Familia, he had an outstanding profile: "He spent over 17 years in this office, serving at the Lord's altar, advancing the clergy's prosperity and the people's instruction, rendering good advice to each and all and, like all good Christians and Romanians, sacrificing large sums for the churches and schools in his care. [...] His philanthropic zeal and his generosity for the poor are well-known to the public." Constantin Dobrescu-Argeş, a journalist and activist from the Curtea de Argeş
Curtea de Arges
Curtea de Argeș is a city in Romania on the right bank of the Argeş River, where it flows through a valley of the lower Carpathians , on the railway from Pitești to the Turnu Roşu Pass. It is part of Argeș County. The city administers one village, Noapteș...
area, also remembered: "The lower clergy and all the Eparchy
Eparchy
Eparchy is an anglicized Greek word , authentically Latinized as eparchia and loosely translating as 'rule over something,' like province, prefecture, or territory, to have the jurisdiction over, it has specific meanings both in politics, history and in the hierarchy of the Eastern Christian...
have seen him stepping into each and every hamlet, into the most secluded human dwellings; they heard him preaching the awakening, the encouragement and the rebirth of national and religious sentiment among the people. Instead of 400 wooden churches, which could barely stand to be called houses of prayer, he erected 400 temples, beautiful as far as taste and comfort go." During his reign, several new monasteries were reestablished within the Argeş Diocese, at Stănişoara, Ostrov, Turnu etc.
It was under Ghenadie's direction that restoration work was completed on Curtea de Argeş Cathedral
Curtea de Arges Cathedral
The Cathedral of Curtea de Argeș is a church in Curtea de Argeș, Romania, located in the grounds of a monastery. It is dedicated to Saint Nicholas....
, receiving words of praise from a visiting King of Romania
King of Romania
King of the Romanians , rather than King of Romania , was the official title of the ruler of the Kingdom of Romania from 1881 until 1947, when Romania was proclaimed a republic....
, Carol I
Carol I of Romania
Carol I , born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was reigning prince and then King of Romania from 1866 to 1914. He was elected prince of Romania on 20 April 1866 following the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup...
. Ghenadie oversaw the (re)building of an Orthodox Seminary
Seminary
A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is an institution of secondary or post-secondary education for educating students in theology, generally to prepare them for ordination as clergy or for other ministry...
in Curtea de Argeş, and, in 1888, contributed to the new reliquary
Reliquary
A reliquary is a container for relics. These may be the physical remains of saints, such as bones, pieces of clothing, or some object associated with saints or other religious figures...
of Dimitrie Basarabov. The artifact, of fine silver, was paid for with Ghenadie's personal revenue and with funds collected from his congregation, and specially crafted by famed Russian Romanian silversmith Teodor Filipov. Ghenadie also oversaw the creation of a new reliquary to host the remains of Saint Filofteia.
The bishop's religious life was doubled by involvement in secular activities. Dobrescu-Argeş credits Ghenadie Petrescu with having been an active participant in all public works done for the benefit of the region, from the boulevard cutting across Curtea de Argeş to the railway network
Caile Ferate Române Line 900
Line 900 is one of CFR's main lines in Romania having a total of 533 km and passing through important cities like Alexandria, Bucureşti, Caransebeş, Craiova, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Giurgiu, Piteşti and Timişoara.-Secondary lines:...
which connected it to the world. After 1888, there was even an interest in spiritism
Spiritism
Spiritism is a loose corpus of religious faiths having in common the general belief in the survival of a spirit after death. In a stricter sense, it is the religion, beliefs and practices of the people affiliated to the International Spiritist Union, based on the works of Allan Kardec and others...
: Ghenadie is recorded as one of the regular guests of writer and National Liberal polemicist Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu
Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu
Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu was a Romanian writer and philologist, who pioneered many branches of Romanian philology and history. Hasdeu is considered to have been able to understand 26 languages .-Life:...
, attending séance
Séance
A séance is an attempt to communicate with spirits. The word "séance" comes from the French word for "seat," "session" or "sitting," from the Old French "seoir," "to sit." In French, the word's meaning is quite general: one may, for example, speak of "une séance de cinéma"...
s where Theodor Speranţia was the medium
Mediumship
Mediumship is described as a form of communication with spirits. It is a practice in religious beliefs such as Spiritualism, Spiritism, Espiritismo, Candomblé, Voodoo and Umbanda.- Concept :...
. From 1889, Ghenadie also published 8 volumes of anthology, Acte şi documente privind renaşterea României ("Papers and Documents on the Rebirth of Romania
National awakening of Romania
During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were treated as second-class citizens in their country...
"). The latter project had been a cherished dream of National Liberal politician and amateur historian Dimitrie Sturdza, and sought to provide readers with a guide to Romania's 19th century.
Bishop Ghenadie was a candidate for the Metropolitan seat in 1885, and gained significant support. Dobrescu-Argeş later claimed that Ghenadie withdrew from the race after the National Liberal lobby, who supported Iosif Gheorghian for the position, asked him to do so; there was no grudge preserved between the two contestants, with Ghenadie canvassing votes for Iosif. When Metropolitan Iosif resigned in early 1893, Ghenadie was one of the first choices for the seat: in May, the Synod and Parliament of Romania
Parliament of Romania
The Parliament of Romania is made up of two chambers:*The Chamber of Deputies*The SenatePrior to the modifications of the Constitution in 2003, the two houses had identical attributes. A text of a law had to be approved by both houses...
both voted him in as leader the Romanian Church. Since Ghenadie lacked formal training, the regulation on such appointments had to be modified. He received his investiture from King Carol I, on May 21.
As Metropolitan
Ghenadie's short rule witnessed few national events. It is however remembered as the time when Romania's royal family, a Hohenzollern branch, had its first born-Orthodox members: Ghenadie personally baptized CarolCarol II of Romania
Carol II reigned as King of Romania from 8 June 1930 until 6 September 1940. Eldest son of Ferdinand, King of Romania, and his wife, Queen Marie, a daughter of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, the second eldest son of Queen Victoria...
and Elisabeth
Elisabeth of Romania
Elisabeth of Romania was the Queen Consort of King George II of Greece.-Biography:...
, the children of heir-apparent Ferdinand
Ferdinand I of Romania
Ferdinand was the King of Romania from 10 October 1914 until his death.-Early life:Born in Sigmaringen in southwestern Germany, the Roman Catholic Prince Ferdinand Viktor Albert Meinrad of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, later simply of Hohenzollern, was a son of Leopold, Prince of...
. Once ordained Metropolitan, Ghenadie did not interrupt his activities as a scholar, and, in 1894, published Evangheliile. Studiu istorico-literar şi Autenticitatea Evangheliilor în genere ("The Gospels. A Historical-Literary Study and On the Overall Authenticity of the Gospels"). He was still preoccupied with church art and architecture, and, in 1894, arranged for the restoration of Bucharest's Darvari Skete.
Ghenadie found himself at odds with parts of the establishment, at a time when the Orthodox Church was being governed under a new statute, which placed the religious institution under extended public control, exercised through the civilian members of the Synod. The statute was hotly opposed by members of the clergy: as Protosyngel Miron Cristea
Miron Cristea
Miron Cristea, was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian cleric and politician....
noted in 1909, Ghenadie's rule coincided with a nadir for the nation's clergymen. Metropolitan Iosif's own criticism of such legislation, as endorsed by the Conservatives, had been a factor in his decision to leave office. Shortly before coming to power as Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Romania
The Prime Minister of Romania is the head of the Government of Romania. Initially, the office was styled President of the Council of Ministers , when the term "Government" included more than the Cabinet, and the Cabinet was called The Council of Ministers...
, Dimitrie Sturdza spoke out against the new legislation.
The clash between the Metropolitan and the civil administration was followed the baptism of Crown Prince Carol. Ghenadie selected the baptismal font
Baptismal font
A baptismal font is an article of church furniture or a fixture used for the baptism of children and adults.-Aspersion and affusion fonts:...
, a relic of the Domniţa Bălaşa Church collection, and, following the ceremony, offered it as a gift to King Carol; he later tried to console Domniţa Bălaşa priests by sending them a replica of the font. According to one account, the Metropolitan also alienated his royal hosts by not making an exception to the Orthodox custom of administering the baptism, which involved sinking their baby into the font. A parallel conflict, resonating throughout the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
, took place between Ghenadie and Neophytus VIII
Patriarch Neophytus VIII of Constantinople
Neophytus VIII was Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1891 to 1894.-See also:*List of Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople...
, the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. It reflected mounting tension between Greeks
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
, represented by Neophytus' Greek Orthodox Church
Greek Orthodox Church
The Greek Orthodox Church is the body of several churches within the larger communion of Eastern Orthodox Christianity sharing a common cultural tradition whose liturgy is also traditionally conducted in Koine Greek, the original language of the New Testament...
, and Aromanians
Aromanians
Aromanians are a Latin people native throughout the southern Balkans, especially in northern Greece, Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, and as an emigrant community in Serbia and Romania . An older term is Macedo-Romanians...
, who were under Romanian state protection. On official visit to the Aromanians of Macedonia
Macedonia (region)
Macedonia is a geographical and historical region of the Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe. Its boundaries have changed considerably over time, but nowadays the region is considered to include parts of five Balkan countries: Greece, the Republic of Macedonia, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia, as...
, Metropolitan Ghenadie held mass in the Romanian vernacular
Romanian language
Romanian Romanian Romanian (or Daco-Romanian; obsolete spellings Rumanian, Roumanian; self-designation: română, limba română ("the Romanian language") or românește (lit. "in Romanian") is a Romance language spoken by around 24 to 28 million people, primarily in Romania and Moldova...
, prompting the Patriarch to demand that the Romanian Synod sanction its leader.
Another point of contention was Ghenadie's relationship with Premier Sturdza. The Conservatives believed that, in seeking to display his friendship for Ghenadie, the Premier was being hypocritical. This point of view is expressed in O lichea ("A Scoundrel" or "A Stain"), a lampoon by Conservative opinion maker Ion Luca Caragiale
Ion Luca Caragiale
Ion Luca Caragiale was a Wallachian-born Romanian playwright, short story writer, poet, theater manager, political commentator and journalist...
, who alleged that, once designated head of cabinet, Sturdza embarrassed the church by insisting to prostrate himself in front of its leader. Although equivocal, the piece remains one of Caragiale's most charged and crudest articles.
According to theologian Paul Brusanowski, Sturdza's arrival to power inaugurated an irregular "companionship" between the leader of the cabinet and the leader of the church. Ghenadie broke tradition when he invited Sturdza to attend a meeting of the Safta Brâncoveanu Foundation, the church's main charity outlet. This vexed other stakeholders, in particular the Bibescu and Ştirbei families of the original donors, and Ghenadie replied by cutting off the Church's share in the budget.
Dismissal and political backlash
While Sturdza withdrew from the affair so as not to provoke the king's anger, the Bibescus took steps to place Ghenadie under church indictment. The Synod put Ghenadie on trial (an abusive trial, according to some later commentators) at its Sf. Dumitru Church quarters. On May 20, 1896, it decided to strip Ghenadie of his ecclesiastical office, and initially defrockedDefrocking
To defrock, unfrock, or laicize ministers or priests is to remove their rights to exercise the functions of the ordained ministry. This may be due to criminal convictions, disciplinary matters, or disagreements over doctrine or dogma...
him altogether.
Ghenadie's dismissal was especially controversial: according to Familia, the event "shook temperaments" in Bucharest and made "a lively impression" on Transylvania
Transylvania
Transylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
n observers. The same paper noted "great agitation" in Romania, and cited official protests from within the Conservative opposition and the breakaway faction of Nicolae Fleva
Nicolae Fleva
Nicolae Fleva was a Wallachian-born Romanian politician, political journalist and lawyer. Known especially for his involvement in political incidents, and for a stated patriotism bordering on demagogy, he tested all political formulas that Romania's two-party system would allow...
. While some early commentators noted that, above all, the dismissal was a political move, Paul Brusanowski argues that the ousted church leader was the one maneuvering through his political connections. According to Brusanowski, Fleva's conflict with Sturdza and his alliance with the Conservatives were entirely provoked by Ghenadie, in an attempt to preserve his position. Another voice to make public its support for the cause, in hopes that the government would topple, was Conservative figure Take Ionescu
Take Ionescu
Take or Tache Ionescu was a Romanian centrist politician, journalist, lawyer and diplomat, who also enjoyed reputation as a short story author. Starting his political career as a radical member of the National Liberal Party , he joined the Conservative Party in 1891, and became noted as a social...
, who spoke for a larger group of Bucharest citizens. A notorious defender of Ghenadie was Alexandru Macedonski
Alexandru Macedonski
Alexandru Macedonski was a Wallachian-born Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism in his native country, and for leading the Romanian Symbolist movement during its early decades...
, the rebellious poet and journalist. Especially for the purpose, he created the propaganda gazette Liga Ortodoxă ("The Orthodox League"). He was joined in this effort by Fleva and by various other public figures: journalist Eugen Vaian, poet Tudor Arghezi
Tudor Arghezi
Tudor Arghezi was a Romanian writer, best known for his contribution to poetry and children's literature. Born Ion N. Theodorescu in Bucharest , he explained that his pen name was related to Argesis, the Latin name for the Argeş River.-Early life:Along with Mihai Eminescu, Mateiu Caragiale, and...
, writer and future priest Gala Galaction
Gala Galaction
Gala Galaction was a Romanian Orthodox clergyman and theologian, writer, journalist, left-wing activist, as well as a political figure of the People's Republic of Romania...
.
In June 1896, Ghenadie received an order from the Attorney General to vacate the Metropolitan's Palace
Palace of the Patriarchate
The Palace of the Chamber of Deputies is a building in Bucharest, Romania located on the plateau of Dealul Mitropoliei...
. He objected, arguing that the Synod had broken the governing law, and stating that he would only leave if presented with a Royal Decree. As a consequence, Ghenadie was taken into custody by the authorities, driven out of the Palace through a side door, and taken by Romanian Police
Romanian Police
The Romanian Police is the national police force and main civil law enforcement agency in Romania. It is subordinated to the Ministry of Interior and Administrative Reform.-Duties:The Romanian Police are responsible for:...
carriage to Căldăruşani Monastery, where his banishment came in effect. Reportedly, the prosecutors caused embarrassment when they also proceeded to evacuate Ghenadie's friends and supporters, including Conservative politico Lascăr Catargiu
Lascar Catargiu
Lascăr Catargiu was a Romanian conservative statesman born in Moldavia. He belonged to an ancient Wallachian family, one of whose members had been banished in the 17th century by Prince Matei Basarab, and had settled in Moldavia.-Biography:...
, out of the repossessed building. A while after, Carol signed a Royal Decree confirming his government's decision, and the interim leadership was left to a triumvirate of bishops: Partenie Clinceni, Iosif Naniescu, Gherasim Timuş.
The central press covered the clash with much interest, especially as Ghenadie's place of exile was initially kept a secret. Criticized for its sensationalism
Sensationalism
Sensationalism is a type of editorial bias in mass media in which events and topics in news stories and pieces are over-hyped to increase viewership or readership numbers...
, Adevărul
Adevarul
Adevărul is a Romanian daily newspaper, based in Bucharest. Founded in 1871 and reestablished in 1888, it was the main left-wing press venue to be published during the Romanian Kingdom's existence, adopting an independent pro-democratic position, advocating land reform and universal suffrage...
daily sent reporter Vespasian Pella on Ghenadie's trail immediately after the Palace incidents, and, on the next day, published Pella's exclusive interview with the former Metropolitan. Sympathetic journalists and politicians coalesced, organizing a pilgrimage to Căldăruşani and a rally at Bucharest's Dacia Hall (said to have been one of the most important gatherings of the period). The orators included Conservatives such as Fleva and Alexandru Lahovary
Alexandru Lahovary
Alexandru Lahovary was a member of the Romanian aristocracy, a politician and diplomat who served as the Minister of Justice, Minister of Agriculture, Industry, Trade and Property, Minister of Public Works and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Kingdom of Romania....
, alongside disgruntled Liberals (Gheorghe Gh. Mârzescu, George D. Pallade).
Angry, sometimes violent, protests continued in Bucharest for the next few months, peaking on November 18. At that moment, the pro-Ghenadie crowd attempted to storm into Senate
Senate of Romania
The Senate of Romania is the upper house in the bicameral Parliament of Romania. It has 137 seats , to which members are elected by direct popular vote, using Mixed member proportional representation in 42 electoral districts , to serve four-year terms.-Former location:After the Romanian...
and were met with excessive force by the Gendarmes, leading to a street battle in front of University
University of Bucharest
The University of Bucharest , in Romania, is a university founded in 1864 by decree of Prince Alexander John Cuza to convert the former Saint Sava Academy into the current University of Bucharest.-Presentation:...
quarters. The matter was only solved by a new National Liberal cabinet, presided upon by Petre S. Aurelian
Petre S. Aurelian
Petre S. Aurelian was a Romanian politician who served as a Prime Minister of Romania between 2 December 1896 and 12 April 1897....
and having Vasile Lascăr as head of Internal Affairs. This new administration, formed around National Liberals who opposed Sturdza, was entirely dedicated to a new settlement in the Ghenadie affair. Lascăr, who took credit for the pacification, later claimed that the Conservatives had been stoking the fire of popular discontent without assuming the responsibilities.
In short while, pilgrimages to Căldăruşani became the object of derision: in one instance, a group of eccentric high school students passing themselves off as the press made a noisy descent on the monastery, dined at the monks' expense, and even arranged an interview with Ghenadie. The prank was organized by friends Urmuz
Urmuz
Urmuz was a Romanian writer, lawyer and civil servant, who became a cult hero in Romania's avant-garde scene. His scattered work, consisting of absurdist short prose and poetry, opened a new genre in Romanian letters and humor, and captured the imagination of modernists for several generations...
, the future writer, and by George Ciprian
George Ciprian
George Ciprian was a Romanian actor and playwright. His writings make him a precursor of the Theatre of the Absurd.-Biography:...
, later a comedian and playwright. As Ciprian recalled in the 1950s, Ghenadie was not upset when uncovering their subterfuge, and spoke to them about the injustices of his dismissal.
Later life
Despite receiving strong support, Ghenadie formally obeyed the Synod's orders. Instead, he attacked the decision on legal grounds, hired himself a team of lawyers, and went to court. In the end, the Synod decided to overturn the defrocking, but Ghenadie was no longer fighting for recognition. On December 4, 1896, he was even formally reinstated, but withdrew on the same day. Iosif Gheorghian returned to the Metropolitan seat for a second reign.Macedonski was surprised by this turn of events. He shut down Liga Ortodoxă, and, in 1898, published the brochure Falimentul clerului ortodox român ("The Bankruptcy of the Romanian Orthodox Clergy"), with such verdicts as: "however vile a clergy may be, [it] will not go bankrupt if its leader won't force it into bankruptcy." Macedonski suggested that the entire scenario was undignified, noting that, in Catholicism, Church leaders were still refusing to sign a demeaning concordat
Concordat
A concordat is an agreement between the Holy See of the Catholic Church and a sovereign state on religious matters. Legally, they are international treaties. They often includes both recognition and privileges for the Catholic Church in a particular country...
with the Italian Kingdom
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
; he called Ghenadie's legal battle "ridiculous". The poet's sense of frustration also led him to compose a "Psalm of Ghenadie".
In Catholic circles, Ghenadie's dismissal was reported as a clue that the Orthodox Church was in crisis. Das Vaterland journal, published in neighboring Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
by the Christian Social movement, announced: "all this quarrel between bishop and synod, and the entire situation of the Romanian church, is a new supporting argument for old experienced fact, namely that the Eastern Church
Eastern Christianity
Eastern Christianity comprises the Christian traditions and churches that developed in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, the Middle East, Northeastern Africa, India and parts of the Far East over several centuries of religious antiquity. The term is generally used in Western Christianity to...
, as broken away from Rome
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
, shall never flourish, but will advance resolutely toward internal and external decomposition." Ghenadie's guilt was under constant reassessment by the Synod, reflecting political competitions outside the Romanian Orthodox Church. According to Miron Cristea, the institution shamed itself further by yielding to outside pressures, particularly since the Synod appeared unconvinced about the truth of its own convictions: "Only in a state of decay can one proceed in this manner." Similarly, Brusanowski argues: "the Synod [was forced] to render two mutually exclusive verdicts. It is therefore blasphemous and a sign of disrespect to state, as some prelates have done repeatedly [...], that all decisions of an episcopal Synod are inspired by the Holy Ghost."
In compensation for the loss of his see, Ghenadie was been appointed a lifetime Starets
Starets
A starets is an elder of a Russian Orthodox monastery who functions as venerated adviser and teacher. Elders or spiritual fathers are charismatic spiritual leaders whose wisdom stems from God as obtained from ascetic experience...
of his place of exile, with a special law passed in 1909. He took an active part in restoring and refurbishing the monastery complex, which had been heavily damaged by time, and intervened sites outsides his jurisdiction. Early on, in 1904, he intervened at Zamfira Monastery
Zamfira Monastery
The Zamfira monastery is a monastery of Eastern Orthodox nuns, located in the Lipăneşti commune, Prahova County, Romania.-History:The church was erected in 1743, at the initiative of Zamfira Apostoli, the widow of a wealthy Wallachian salesman...
, where he demanded that the murals done by painter Nicolae Grigorescu
Nicolae Grigorescu
Nicolae Grigorescu was one of the founders of modern Romanian painting.-Biography:He was born in Pitaru, Dâmboviţa County, Wallachia. In 1843 the family moved to Bucharest. At a young age , he became an apprentice at the workshop of the painter Anton Chladek and created icons for the church of...
be covered up with tempera
Tempera
Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigment mixed with a water-soluble binder medium . Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this medium. Tempera paintings are very long lasting, and examples from the 1st centuries AD still exist...
artwork—his idea was obeyed, and the result remains one of the most controversial contributions. Some have described it as virtually an act of vandalism, and, in 50 years later, the process was reverted by church orders. Ghenadie requested, and received, King Carol's patronage for the Căldăruşani restoration works (begun in 1908), and hired artist D. Belizarie to recondition its archaic murals. In 1915, he personally oversaw the festive reopening of Căldăruşani Church.
Ghenadie Petrescu was honored by Bucharest citizens, his name assigned to a street downtown—the present-day Labirint Street. In 2009, author Ioana Pârvulescu made the deposed Metropolitan a character in her historical novel Viaţa începe vineri ("Life Begins on Friday").