First Carlist War
Encyclopedia
The First Carlist War was a civil war
in Spain
from 1833-1839.
, the first Bourbon
king of Spain, promulgated the Salic Law
, which declared illegal the inheritance of the Spanish crown by women. His purpose was to thwart the Habsburg
s' regaining the throne by way of the female dynastic line.
A century later, King Ferdinand VII of Spain had no male descendant, but only two daughters, Isabella (later known as Isabella II of Spain
) and Luisa Fernanda
. So he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction
, to allow Isabella to become Queen after his death.
The Infante Carlos
, the king's brother, would have normally become king without the Pragmática Sanción. He and his followers, such as Secretary of Justice Francisco Tadeo Calomarde
, pressed Ferdinand to change his mind. But the ill Ferdinand kept his decision and when he died on 29 September 1833, Isabella became the legitimate queen. As she was only a child, a regent was needed: her mother, Queen Consort Maria Christina
.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the political situation in Spain was extremely problematic. During the war of independence against Napoleon, the Cortes
met in Cádiz
(1812) and elaborated the first Spanish constitution
, possibly the most modern and most liberal in the world. After the war, when Ferdinand VII returned to Spain, he annulled the constitution in the Manifest of Valencia, and thus became an absolute king, governing by decrees and restoring the Spanish Inquisition
, abolished by Joseph Bonaparte
, brother of Napoleon.
Towards the end of his life, Ferdinand made some concessions to the liberals, giving them hopes of a liberal rule. But there was a strong absolutist party which did not want to lose its position. Its members knew that Maria Christina and Isabella would make liberal reforms, so they looked for another candidate for the throne; and their natural choice, with the background of the Salic Law, was Ferdinand's brother Carlos
. One historian has written that “the first Carlist war was fought not so much on the basis of the legal claim of Don Carlos, but because a passionate, dedicated section of the Spanish people favored a return to a kind of absolute monarchy that they felt would protect their individual freedoms (fueros), their regional individuality and their religious conservatism.”
A vivid summary of the war describes it as follows: "The Christinos and Carlists thirsted for each other’s blood, with all the fierce ardour of civil strife, animated by the memory of years of mutual insult, cruelty, and wrong. Brother against brother – father against son – best friend turned to bitterest foe – priests against their flocks – kindred against kindred."
The autonomy of Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia had been abolished in the 18th century by the Nueva Planta Decrees
that created a centralised Spanish state. Navarre, however, retained its self-governing status until 1833. The resentment against the loss of autonomy was considerably strong.
Meanwhile, there was a continued movement to suppress the Basque
Fueros and to move the customs borders to the Pyrenees
. Since the 18th century, a new emergent class had an interest in weakening the powerful Basque nobles and their influence and commerce, including that extending throughout the world with the help of the Jesuit order.
The newly appointed Spanish courtiers supported some of the great powers against the Basques at least since the abolition of the Jesuit order and the Godoy
regime. First they sided with the French Bourbons to suppress the Jesuits, with the formidable changes in America and the subsequent loss of Spanish influence. Then Godoy sided with the English against the Basques in the War of the Pyrenees
of 1793 and immediately afterwards with the French of Napoleon also against the Basques. The English interest was to destroy, for as long as possible, Spanish commercial routes and power, which was mainly sustained by the Basque ports, commercial navy and companies (Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas). The Spaniards only helped in such a destructive effort, bringing the Spanish empire to total annihilation.
The people of the Basque Provinces and Navarre
sided with Carlos because of traditionalism and historical respect for the Catholic Church; ideologically, Carlos was clearly close to them. There have been many authors who believed that the Carlist cause in the Basque Country
was a foral
ist cause. But this point of view is largely subjective, with the clear intention of creating indications of a Basque nationalism before the Arana brothers (an inspired and quite neutral version in "The Basque Nationalism", by Stanley G. Payne
). Many supporters of the Carlist cause believed a traditionalist rule would respect the ancient Foral institutions better.
Another important reason for the massive mobilisation of the Basque Provinces and Navarre for the Carlist cause was the tremendous influence of the Basque clergy in the society. Salvador de Madariaga
, in his book "Memories of a Federalist" (Buenos Aires, 1967), accused the Basque clergy of being "the heart, the brain and the root of the intolerance and the hard line" of the Spanish Catholic Church; there are also other social and economic causes, which have not been properly studied. In fact, there are more narrative books about the Carlist War in the Basque Provinces than historical works. This means a "romantic" vision of the Basque people fighting for their rights against the foreign rule of Castile.
Meanwhile, in Catalonia
and Aragón
, the people saw the chance of recovering their foral rights, which were lost after the Spanish Succession War when Philip V
defeated the armies that fought for Archduke Karl of Austria
, the other candidate to the throne after the death of Charles II of Spain
. Carlos, however, never said anything about the foral rights.
On the other side, the liberals and moderates united to defend the "new order" represented by María Cristina and her three-year-old daughter, Isabella. They controlled the institutions, almost the whole army and the cities; the Carlist movement was stronger in the country. The liberals had the crucial support of United Kingdom
, France
and Portugal
, support that was shown in the important credits to Cristina's treasury and the military help from the British (British Legion or Westminster Legion under General Lacy Evans
), the French (the French Foreign Legion
) and the Portuguese (a part of the regular army, under General Barão Das Antas). The Liberals were strong enough to win the war in two months, but an inefficient government and the dispersion of the Carlist forces gave Carlos time to consolidate his forces and hold out for almost seven years in the northern and eastern provinces.
As Paul Johnson has written, "both royalists and liberals began to develop strong local followings, which were to perpetuate and transmute themselves, through many open commotions and deceptively tranquil intervals, until they exploded in the merciless civil war of 1936-39."
Both sides raised special troops during the war. The Liberal side counted with the volunteer Basque units known as the Chapelgorris
, while Tomás de Zumalacárregui
created the special units known as aduaneros
. Zumalacárregui also formed the unit known as Guías de Navarra
from Liberal troops from La Mancha
, Valencia
, Andalusia
and other places who had been made prisoners at the Battle of Alsasua
(1834). After this battle, they had been faced with the choice of joining the Carlist troops or being executed.
The term Requetés
was at first applied to just the Tercer Batallón de Navarra (Third Battalion of Navarre) and subsequently to all Carlist combatants.
The war attracted independent adventurers, such as the Briton C. F. Henningsen, who served as Zumalacárregui’s chief bodyguard (and later was his biographer), or Martín Zurbano
, a contrabandista or smuggler, who "soon after the commencement of the war sought and obtained permission to raise a body of men to act in conjunction with the queen’s troops against the Carlists. His standard, once displayed, was resorted to by smugglers, robbers, and outcasts of all descriptions, attracted by the prospect of plunder and adventure. These were increased by deserters..."
About 250 foreign volunteers fought for the Carlists, the majority French monarchists, but also men from Portugal
, Britain, Belgium
, Piedmont
, and the German
states. Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg
fought for the Carlists, and had taken part in the French conquest of Algeria
and the Swiss
civil war
of the Sonderbund
. The Carlists' ranks also included such men as Prince Felix Lichnowsky, Adolfo Loning, Baron Wilhelm Von Radhen, A. Von Goeben, all of whom later wrote books concerning the war.
The Liberal generals, such as Vicente Genaro de Quesada
and Marcelino de Oraá Lecumberri
, were often veterans of the Peninsular War
, or of the wars resulting from independence movements in South America
, such as Jerónimo Valdés
, who participated in the battle of Ayacucho
(1824).
Both sides executed prisoners of war by firing squad, the most notorious incident occurring at Heredia, when 118 Liberal prisoners were executed by order of Zumalacárregui. The British attempted to intervene, and through Lord Eliot
, the Lord Eliot Convention
was signed on April 27–28, 1835.
The treatment of prisoners of the First Carlist War was thus regulated. The positive effects were immediate. A soldier of the British Legion wrote that:
However, though "it was mutually agreed upon to treat the prisoners taken on either side according to the ordinary rules of war, a few months only elapsed before similar barbarities were practiced with all their former remorselessness."
The war was long and hard, and the Carlist forces achieved important victories in the north under the direction of the brilliant general Tomás de Zumalacárregui. Opposing his advisers, Carlos V decided to conquer Bilbao
, defended by the British navy. With such an important city in his power, the Prussian or Russian Tsarist banks would give him credit to win the war; one of the most important problems for Carlos was a lack of funds. In the siege of Bilbao
, Zumalacárregui was wounded in the leg by a stray bullet. The wound was not serious, but it did not heal properly, and finally General Zumalacárregui lost his life on June 25, 1835. Many historians believe the circumstances of his death were suspicious, and have pointed out that the general had many enemies in the Carlist court; however, nothing has been proven.
In the European theatre all the great powers backed the Isabeline army, as many British observers wrote in their reports. Meanwhile, in the east, Carlist general Ramón Cabrera
held the initiative in the war, but his forces were too few to achieve a decisive victory over the liberal forces. In 1837 the Carlist effort culminated in the Royal Expedition, which reached the walls of Madrid, but subsequently retreated after the Battle of Aranzueque
.
attempted to establish a strong position there for the Carlists, and he left Ronda
on November 18, 1836, entering Algeciras
on November 22. However, after Gómez Damas departed from Algeciras, he was defeated by Ramón María Narváez y Campos at the Battle of Majaceite
. An English
commentator wrote that “it was at Majaciete that [Narváez] rescued Andalucía from the Carlist invasion by a brilliant coup de main
, in a rapid but destruction action, which will not readily be effaced from the memory of the southern provinces.”
At Arcos de la Frontera
, in charge of a squadron of 70 horsemen, the Liberal Diego de Leon managed to detain a Carlist column until Liberal reinforcements arrived.
Ramon Cabrera
had collaborated with Gómez Damas in the expedition of Andalusia, where his defeat of the Liberals allowed for the temporary occupation of Córdoba
and Extremadura
until Cabrera's defeat at Villarrobledo
.
After the death of Zumalacárregui, the liberals slowly regained the initiative but were not able to win the war until 1839.
After failing recovering the Carlist fortress of Morella, the liberals suffered a defeat at the Battle of Maella
(1838).
The war in the North ended with the Convenio de Vergara, also known as the Abrazo de Vergara ("the embrace in Vergara"; Bergara in Basque), 31 August 1839, between the liberal general Baldomero Espartero, Count of Luchana
and the Carlist General Rafael Maroto. Some authors have written that General Maroto was a traitor who forced Carlos to accept the peace, but it is clear that the Carlists were too tired to continue with the war against the liberal government. In the east, General Cabrera
continued fighting but he was alone and finally had to flee to France in July 1840. However, Cabrera was considered a hero and returned in 1848 for the Second Carlist War
.
Rumors (that continue to this day) circulated that the General Maroto, as well as other Carlist generals, were secretly Freemasons, subverting the Carlists from within .
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
in Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
from 1833-1839.
Historical background
At the beginning of the 18th century, Philip VPhilip V of Spain
Philip V was King of Spain from 15 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death.Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a...
, the first Bourbon
House of Bourbon
The House of Bourbon is a European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty . Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma...
king of Spain, promulgated the Salic Law
Salic law
Salic law was a body of traditional law codified for governing the Salian Franks in the early Middle Ages during the reign of King Clovis I in the 6th century...
, which declared illegal the inheritance of the Spanish crown by women. His purpose was to thwart the Habsburg
Habsburg
The House of Habsburg , also found as Hapsburg, and also known as House of Austria is one of the most important royal houses of Europe and is best known for being an origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1438 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian Empire and...
s' regaining the throne by way of the female dynastic line.
A century later, King Ferdinand VII of Spain had no male descendant, but only two daughters, Isabella (later known as Isabella II of Spain
Isabella II of Spain
Isabella II was the only female monarch of Spain in modern times. She came to the throne as an infant, but her succession was disputed by the Carlists, who refused to recognise a female sovereign, leading to the Carlist Wars. After a troubled reign, she was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of...
) and Luisa Fernanda
Infanta Luisa Fernanda, Duchess of Montpensier
Infanta María Luisa Fernanda of Spain was Infanta of Spain and Duchess of Montpensier. She was the youngest daughter of king Ferdinand VII of Spain and his fourth wife Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies, the queen-regent, who was also his niece.-Biography:-Heiress-presumptive:When her elder...
. So he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction
Pragmatic Sanction of 1830
The Pragmatic Sanction of 1830 , issued March 29, 1830 by King Ferdinand VII of Spain, ratified a Decree of 1789 by Charles IV of Spain, which had replaced the semi-Salic system established by Philip V of Spain with the mixed succession system that predated the Bourbon monarchy .When Philip V,...
, to allow Isabella to become Queen after his death.
The Infante Carlos
Infante Carlos, Count of Molina
The Infante Carlos of Spain was the second surviving son of King Charles IV of Spain and of his wife, Maria Luisa of Parma. As Carlos V he was the first of the Carlist claimants to the throne of Spain...
, the king's brother, would have normally become king without the Pragmática Sanción. He and his followers, such as Secretary of Justice Francisco Tadeo Calomarde
Francisco Tadeo Calomarde y Arría
Francisco Tadeo Calomarde y Arría was a Spanish statesman.-Biography:Calomarde was born in Villel, Aragon, to poor parents....
, pressed Ferdinand to change his mind. But the ill Ferdinand kept his decision and when he died on 29 September 1833, Isabella became the legitimate queen. As she was only a child, a regent was needed: her mother, Queen Consort Maria Christina
Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies
Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies was Queen consort of Spain and Regent of Spain .-Early years and first marriage:...
.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the political situation in Spain was extremely problematic. During the war of independence against Napoleon, the Cortes
Cortes Generales
The Cortes Generales is the legislature of Spain. It is a bicameral parliament, composed of the Congress of Deputies and the Senate . The Cortes has power to enact any law and to amend the constitution...
met in Cádiz
Cádiz
Cadiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the homonymous province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia....
(1812) and elaborated the first Spanish constitution
Spanish Constitution of 1812
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was promulgated 19 March 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, the national legislative assembly of Spain, while in refuge from the Peninsular War...
, possibly the most modern and most liberal in the world. After the war, when Ferdinand VII returned to Spain, he annulled the constitution in the Manifest of Valencia, and thus became an absolute king, governing by decrees and restoring the Spanish Inquisition
Spanish Inquisition
The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition , commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition , was a tribunal established in 1480 by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the Medieval...
, abolished by Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte was the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily , and later King of Spain...
, brother of Napoleon.
Towards the end of his life, Ferdinand made some concessions to the liberals, giving them hopes of a liberal rule. But there was a strong absolutist party which did not want to lose its position. Its members knew that Maria Christina and Isabella would make liberal reforms, so they looked for another candidate for the throne; and their natural choice, with the background of the Salic Law, was Ferdinand's brother Carlos
Infante Carlos, Count of Molina
The Infante Carlos of Spain was the second surviving son of King Charles IV of Spain and of his wife, Maria Luisa of Parma. As Carlos V he was the first of the Carlist claimants to the throne of Spain...
. One historian has written that “the first Carlist war was fought not so much on the basis of the legal claim of Don Carlos, but because a passionate, dedicated section of the Spanish people favored a return to a kind of absolute monarchy that they felt would protect their individual freedoms (fueros), their regional individuality and their religious conservatism.”
A vivid summary of the war describes it as follows: "The Christinos and Carlists thirsted for each other’s blood, with all the fierce ardour of civil strife, animated by the memory of years of mutual insult, cruelty, and wrong. Brother against brother – father against son – best friend turned to bitterest foe – priests against their flocks – kindred against kindred."
The autonomy of Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia had been abolished in the 18th century by the Nueva Planta Decrees
Nueva Planta decrees
The Nueva Planta decrees were a number of decrees signed between 1707 and 1716 by Philip V—the first Bourbon king of Spain—during and shortly after the end of the War of the Spanish Succession which he won....
that created a centralised Spanish state. Navarre, however, retained its self-governing status until 1833. The resentment against the loss of autonomy was considerably strong.
Basque reasons for Carlist uprising
Basque people
The Basques as an ethnic group, primarily inhabit an area traditionally known as the Basque Country , a region that is located around the western end of the Pyrenees on the coast of the Bay of Biscay and straddles parts of north-central Spain and south-western France.The Basques are known in the...
Fueros and to move the customs borders to the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
. Since the 18th century, a new emergent class had an interest in weakening the powerful Basque nobles and their influence and commerce, including that extending throughout the world with the help of the Jesuit order.
The newly appointed Spanish courtiers supported some of the great powers against the Basques at least since the abolition of the Jesuit order and the Godoy
Manuel de Godoy
Don Manuel Francisco Domingo de Godoy y Álvarez de Faria, de los Ríos y Sánchez-Zarzosa, also Manuel de Godoy y Álvarez de Faria de los Ríos Sánchez Zarzosa , was Prime Minister of Spain from 1792 to 1797 and from 1801 to 1808...
regime. First they sided with the French Bourbons to suppress the Jesuits, with the formidable changes in America and the subsequent loss of Spanish influence. Then Godoy sided with the English against the Basques in the War of the Pyrenees
War of the Pyrenees
War of the Pyrenees refers to the Pyrenees front of the First Coalition's war against the First French Republic. Also known as Great War, War of Roussillon, or War of the Convention, it pitted Revolutionary France against the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal from March 1793 to July 1795 during the...
of 1793 and immediately afterwards with the French of Napoleon also against the Basques. The English interest was to destroy, for as long as possible, Spanish commercial routes and power, which was mainly sustained by the Basque ports, commercial navy and companies (Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas). The Spaniards only helped in such a destructive effort, bringing the Spanish empire to total annihilation.
The contenders
Navarre
Navarre , officially the Chartered Community of Navarre is an autonomous community in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Country, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and Aquitaine in France...
sided with Carlos because of traditionalism and historical respect for the Catholic Church; ideologically, Carlos was clearly close to them. There have been many authors who believed that the Carlist cause in the Basque Country
Basque Country (autonomous community)
The Basque Country is an autonomous community of northern Spain. It includes the Basque provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa, also called Historical Territories....
was a foral
Foral
thumb|left|200px|Foral of Castro Verde - PortugalThe word foral derives from the Portuguese word foro, ultimately from Latin forum, equivalent to Spanish fuero, Galician foro, Catalan furs and Basque foru ....
ist cause. But this point of view is largely subjective, with the clear intention of creating indications of a Basque nationalism before the Arana brothers (an inspired and quite neutral version in "The Basque Nationalism", by Stanley G. Payne
Stanley G. Payne
Stanley George Payne is a historian of modern Spain and European Fascism at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He retired from full time teaching in 2004 and is currently Professor Emeritus at its Department of History. Payne is one of the most famous modern theorists of fascism...
). Many supporters of the Carlist cause believed a traditionalist rule would respect the ancient Foral institutions better.
Another important reason for the massive mobilisation of the Basque Provinces and Navarre for the Carlist cause was the tremendous influence of the Basque clergy in the society. Salvador de Madariaga
Salvador de Madariaga
Salvador de Madariaga y Rojo was a Spanish diplomat, writer, historian and pacifist. He had two daughters....
, in his book "Memories of a Federalist" (Buenos Aires, 1967), accused the Basque clergy of being "the heart, the brain and the root of the intolerance and the hard line" of the Spanish Catholic Church; there are also other social and economic causes, which have not been properly studied. In fact, there are more narrative books about the Carlist War in the Basque Provinces than historical works. This means a "romantic" vision of the Basque people fighting for their rights against the foreign rule of Castile.
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
and Aragón
Aragon
Aragon is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces : Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza...
, the people saw the chance of recovering their foral rights, which were lost after the Spanish Succession War when Philip V
Philip V of Spain
Philip V was King of Spain from 15 November 1700 to 15 January 1724, when he abdicated in favor of his son Louis, and from 6 September 1724, when he assumed the throne again upon his son's death, to his death.Before his reign, Philip occupied an exalted place in the royal family of France as a...
defeated the armies that fought for Archduke Karl of Austria
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles VI was the penultimate Habsburg sovereign of the Habsburg Empire. He succeeded his elder brother, Joseph I, as Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia , Hungary and Croatia , Archduke of Austria, etc., in 1711...
, the other candidate to the throne after the death of Charles II of Spain
Charles II of Spain
Charles II was the last Habsburg King of Spain and the ruler of large parts of Italy, the Spanish territories in the Southern Low Countries, and Spain's overseas Empire, stretching from the Americas to the Spanish East Indies...
. Carlos, however, never said anything about the foral rights.
On the other side, the liberals and moderates united to defend the "new order" represented by María Cristina and her three-year-old daughter, Isabella. They controlled the institutions, almost the whole army and the cities; the Carlist movement was stronger in the country. The liberals had the crucial support of United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, support that was shown in the important credits to Cristina's treasury and the military help from the British (British Legion or Westminster Legion under General Lacy Evans
George de Lacy Evans
Sir De Lacy Evans GCB was a British Army general who served in four wars in which the United Kingdom's troops took part in the 19th century. He was later a long-serving Member of Parliament....
), the French (the French Foreign Legion
French Foreign Legion
The French Foreign Legion is a unique military service wing of the French Army established in 1831. The foreign legion was exclusively created for foreign nationals willing to serve in the French Armed Forces...
) and the Portuguese (a part of the regular army, under General Barão Das Antas). The Liberals were strong enough to win the war in two months, but an inefficient government and the dispersion of the Carlist forces gave Carlos time to consolidate his forces and hold out for almost seven years in the northern and eastern provinces.
As Paul Johnson has written, "both royalists and liberals began to develop strong local followings, which were to perpetuate and transmute themselves, through many open commotions and deceptively tranquil intervals, until they exploded in the merciless civil war of 1936-39."
The combatants
Chapelgorris
Chapelgorris were a type of volunteer unit during the First Carlist War, raised at the beginning of the war in the province of Guipúzcoa...
, while Tomás de Zumalacárregui
Tomás de Zumalacárregui
- From Peninsula War to Ferdinand VII:Zumalacárregui was born at Ormaiztegi in Gipuzkoa, Basque Country, on 29 December 1788. His father, Francisco Antonio de Zumalacárregui, was a lawyer who possessed some property, and the son was articled to a solicitor....
created the special units known as aduaneros
Aduaneros
The aduaneros were a special military force created by Tomás de Zumalacárregui during the First Carlist War. They were entrusted with the levying of revenue for various consumer goods...
. Zumalacárregui also formed the unit known as Guías de Navarra
Guías de Navarra
The Guías de Navarra were a Carlist battalion of the First Carlist War, created by Zumalacárregui in 1834.Their name was a misnomer: they were neither Navarrese nor guides, but captured Liberal troops from La Mancha, Valencia, Andalusia and other places who had been made prisoners at the Battle of...
from Liberal troops from La Mancha
La Mancha
La Mancha is a natural and historical region or greater comarca located on an arid, fertile, elevated plateau of central Spain, south of Madrid, stretching between the Montes de Toledo and the western spurs of the Serrania de Cuenca. It is bounded on the south by the Sierra Morena and on the north...
, Valencia
Valencia (province)
Valencia or València is a province of Spain, in the central part of the Valencian Community.It is bordered by the provinces of Alicante, Albacete, Cuenca, Teruel, Castellón, and the Mediterranean Sea...
, Andalusia
Andalusia
Andalusia is the most populous and the second largest in area of the autonomous communities of Spain. The Andalusian autonomous community is officially recognised as a nationality of Spain. The territory is divided into eight provinces: Huelva, Seville, Cádiz, Córdoba, Málaga, Jaén, Granada and...
and other places who had been made prisoners at the Battle of Alsasua
Battle of Alsasua
The Battle of Alsasua, also known as the Battle of Altsasu or la Acción de la Venta, was a battle that occurred on April 22, 1834 during the First Carlist War. Carlist general Tomás de Zumalacárregui destroyed a convoy led by the Liberal general Vicente Genaro de Quesada traveling from...
(1834). After this battle, they had been faced with the choice of joining the Carlist troops or being executed.
The term Requetés
Requetés
The Requetés were the Carlist militia during the Spanish Civil War. Wearing red berets, they mostly came from Navarre and were highly religious with many regarding the war as a Crusade...
was at first applied to just the Tercer Batallón de Navarra (Third Battalion of Navarre) and subsequently to all Carlist combatants.
The war attracted independent adventurers, such as the Briton C. F. Henningsen, who served as Zumalacárregui’s chief bodyguard (and later was his biographer), or Martín Zurbano
Martín Zurbano
Martín Zurbano Baras was a Spanish military figure. A guerrilla leader, he is considered a "martyr to Spanish liberty"....
, a contrabandista or smuggler, who "soon after the commencement of the war sought and obtained permission to raise a body of men to act in conjunction with the queen’s troops against the Carlists. His standard, once displayed, was resorted to by smugglers, robbers, and outcasts of all descriptions, attracted by the prospect of plunder and adventure. These were increased by deserters..."
About 250 foreign volunteers fought for the Carlists, the majority French monarchists, but also men from Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, Britain, Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
, Piedmont
Kingdom of Sardinia
The Kingdom of Sardinia consisted of the island of Sardinia first as a part of the Crown of Aragon and subsequently the Spanish Empire , and second as a part of the composite state of the House of Savoy . Its capital was originally Cagliari, in the south of the island, and later Turin, on the...
, and the German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
states. Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg
Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg
Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg had an adventurous career as a soldier, and described his wanderings and campaigns in several interesting works, of which the best known is his Wanderungen eines Lanzknechtes...
fought for the Carlists, and had taken part in the French conquest of Algeria
French Algeria
French Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962, under a variety of governmental systems. From 1848 until independence, the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria was administered as an integral part of France, much like Corsica and Réunion are to this day. The vast arid interior of Algeria, like the rest...
and the Swiss
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
civil war
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....
of the Sonderbund
Sonderbund
The Sonderbund War of November 1847 was a civil war in Switzerland. It ensued after seven Catholic cantons formed the Sonderbund in 1845 in order to protect their interests against a centralization of power...
. The Carlists' ranks also included such men as Prince Felix Lichnowsky, Adolfo Loning, Baron Wilhelm Von Radhen, A. Von Goeben, all of whom later wrote books concerning the war.
The Liberal generals, such as Vicente Genaro de Quesada
Vicente Genaro de Quesada
Vicente Genaro de Quesada was a Spanish military figure. He participated in the Battle of Burgos during the Peninsular War, leading the Royal Guard and Walloon Guard...
and Marcelino de Oraá Lecumberri
Marcelino de Oraá Lecumberri
Marcelino de Oraá Lecumberri was a Basque Spanish military man and administrator. Born in Beriain in Navarre, he distinguished himself as a cadet during the War of Spanish Independence....
, were often veterans of the Peninsular War
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
, or of the wars resulting from independence movements in South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
, such as Jerónimo Valdés
Jerónimo Valdés
Jerónimo Valdés was a Spanish military figure and administrator. Born in Villarín, in Asturias, he participated in the battle of Ayacucho , which was a defeat for the Spanish. He served as Viceroy of Navarre from 1833 to 1834 and also served as Minister of War. He fought on the Liberal side in...
, who participated in the battle of Ayacucho
Battle of Ayacucho
The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. It was the battle that sealed the independence of Peru, as well as the victory that ensured independence for the rest of South America...
(1824).
Both sides executed prisoners of war by firing squad, the most notorious incident occurring at Heredia, when 118 Liberal prisoners were executed by order of Zumalacárregui. The British attempted to intervene, and through Lord Eliot
Edward Eliot, 3rd Earl of St Germans
Edward Granville Eliot, 3rd Earl of St Germans GCB , DL, LL.D, PC , styled Lord Elliot from 1823 to 1845, was a British politician and diplomat.-Background and education:...
, the Lord Eliot Convention
Lord Eliot Convention
The Lord Eliot Convention, or simply the Eliot Convention or Eliot Treaty , was an April 1835 agreement brokered by Edward Eliot, 3rd Earl of St Germans between the two opposing sides of the First Carlist War...
was signed on April 27–28, 1835.
However, though "it was mutually agreed upon to treat the prisoners taken on either side according to the ordinary rules of war, a few months only elapsed before similar barbarities were practiced with all their former remorselessness."
The war in the Northern Front
Bilbao
Bilbao ) is a Spanish municipality, capital of the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country. With a population of 353,187 , it is the largest city of its autonomous community and the tenth largest in Spain...
, defended by the British navy. With such an important city in his power, the Prussian or Russian Tsarist banks would give him credit to win the war; one of the most important problems for Carlos was a lack of funds. In the siege of Bilbao
Bilbao
Bilbao ) is a Spanish municipality, capital of the province of Biscay, in the autonomous community of the Basque Country. With a population of 353,187 , it is the largest city of its autonomous community and the tenth largest in Spain...
, Zumalacárregui was wounded in the leg by a stray bullet. The wound was not serious, but it did not heal properly, and finally General Zumalacárregui lost his life on June 25, 1835. Many historians believe the circumstances of his death were suspicious, and have pointed out that the general had many enemies in the Carlist court; however, nothing has been proven.
In the European theatre all the great powers backed the Isabeline army, as many British observers wrote in their reports. Meanwhile, in the east, Carlist general Ramón Cabrera
Ramón Cabrera
Ramon Cabrera y Griñó was a Carlist general of Spain.He was born at Tortosa, province of Tarragona, Spain. As his family had in their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to the seminary of Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed up in disturbances and...
held the initiative in the war, but his forces were too few to achieve a decisive victory over the liberal forces. In 1837 the Carlist effort culminated in the Royal Expedition, which reached the walls of Madrid, but subsequently retreated after the Battle of Aranzueque
Battle of Aranzueque
The Battle of Aranzueque was a September 1837 confrontation at the village of Aranzueque, Spain during the First Carlist War.The battle pitted the troops of the pretender to the Spanish crown, Carlos V, against the troops of the Queen Regent Maria Christina, led by the general Baldomero...
.
The war in the Southern Front
In the south, the Carlist general Miguel Gómez DamasMiguel Gómez Damas
Miguel Gómez Damas was a Spanish Carlist general of the First Carlist War.Born at Torredonjimeno, in the province of Jaén, he served under the Carlist general Zumalacárregui and in 1836 undertook an unsuccessful military expedition against Liberal forces in various locations, including Asturias,...
attempted to establish a strong position there for the Carlists, and he left Ronda
Ronda
Ronda is a city in Spanish province of Málaga. It is located about West from the city of Málaga, within the autonomous community of Andalusia. Its population is approximately 35,000 inhabitants.-History:...
on November 18, 1836, entering Algeciras
Algeciras
Algeciras is a port city in the south of Spain, and is the largest city on the Bay of Gibraltar . Port of Algeciras is one of the largest ports in Europe and in the world in three categories: container,...
on November 22. However, after Gómez Damas departed from Algeciras, he was defeated by Ramón María Narváez y Campos at the Battle of Majaceite
Battle of Majaceite
The Battle of Majaceite was a battle of the First Carlist War. Ramón María Narváez y Campos was ordered to intercept the expedition of the Carlist general Miguel Gómez Damas...
. An English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
commentator wrote that “it was at Majaciete that [Narváez] rescued Andalucía from the Carlist invasion by a brilliant coup de main
Coup de main
A coup de main is a swift attack that relies on speed and surprise to accomplish its objectives in a single blow. The United States Department of Defense defines it as:The literal translation from French means a stroke or blow of the hand...
, in a rapid but destruction action, which will not readily be effaced from the memory of the southern provinces.”
At Arcos de la Frontera
Arcos de la Frontera
Arcos de la Frontera is a town in the province of Cádiz in southern Spain. It is located on the eastern bank of the Guadalete river, which flows to the Bay of Cadiz. The town commands a fine vista atop a sandstone ridge, from which the peak of San Cristobal and the Guadalete Valley can be seen...
, in charge of a squadron of 70 horsemen, the Liberal Diego de Leon managed to detain a Carlist column until Liberal reinforcements arrived.
Ramon Cabrera
Ramón Cabrera
Ramon Cabrera y Griñó was a Carlist general of Spain.He was born at Tortosa, province of Tarragona, Spain. As his family had in their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to the seminary of Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed up in disturbances and...
had collaborated with Gómez Damas in the expedition of Andalusia, where his defeat of the Liberals allowed for the temporary occupation of Córdoba
Córdoba, Spain
-History:The first trace of human presence in the area are remains of a Neanderthal Man, dating to c. 32,000 BC. In the 8th century BC, during the ancient Tartessos period, a pre-urban settlement existed. The population gradually learned copper and silver metallurgy...
and Extremadura
Extremadura
Extremadura is an autonomous community of western Spain whose capital city is Mérida. Its component provinces are Cáceres and Badajoz. It is bordered by Portugal to the west...
until Cabrera's defeat at Villarrobledo
Battle of Villarrobledo
The Battle of Villarrobledo was a battle of the First Carlist War, occurring on September 20, 1836, south of Villarrobledo at a campground called Vega de San Cristóbal, which lies near a hermitage of the same name...
.
The end of the war
After failing recovering the Carlist fortress of Morella, the liberals suffered a defeat at the Battle of Maella
Battle of Maella
The Battle of Maella was a battle of the First Carlist War, occurring on October 1, 1838, near the Aragonese town of Maella. The battle was a Carlist victory and resulted in the routing of most of the Liberal forces....
(1838).
The war in the North ended with the Convenio de Vergara, also known as the Abrazo de Vergara ("the embrace in Vergara"; Bergara in Basque), 31 August 1839, between the liberal general Baldomero Espartero, Count of Luchana
Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara
Don Joaquín Baldomero Fernández-Espartero y Alvarez de Toro, 1st Prince of Vergara, 1st Duke of la Victoria, 1st Duke of Morella, 1st Count of Luchana, 1st Viscount of Banderas was a Spanish general and political figure...
and the Carlist General Rafael Maroto. Some authors have written that General Maroto was a traitor who forced Carlos to accept the peace, but it is clear that the Carlists were too tired to continue with the war against the liberal government. In the east, General Cabrera
Ramón Cabrera
Ramon Cabrera y Griñó was a Carlist general of Spain.He was born at Tortosa, province of Tarragona, Spain. As his family had in their gift two chaplaincies, young Cabrera was sent to the seminary of Tortosa, where he made himself conspicuous as an unruly pupil, ever mixed up in disturbances and...
continued fighting but he was alone and finally had to flee to France in July 1840. However, Cabrera was considered a hero and returned in 1848 for the Second Carlist War
Second Carlist War
The Second Carlist War, or the War of the Matiners or Madrugadores , was a short civil war fought primarily in Catalonia by the Carlists under General Ramón Cabrera against the forces of the government of Isabella II...
.
Rumors (that continue to this day) circulated that the General Maroto, as well as other Carlist generals, were secretly Freemasons, subverting the Carlists from within .
Battles of the First Carlist War (Chronology)
- Battle of AlsasuaBattle of AlsasuaThe Battle of Alsasua, also known as the Battle of Altsasu or la Acción de la Venta, was a battle that occurred on April 22, 1834 during the First Carlist War. Carlist general Tomás de Zumalacárregui destroyed a convoy led by the Liberal general Vicente Genaro de Quesada traveling from...
(April 22, 1834) - Carlist victory - Battle of Alegría de ÁlavaBattle of Alegría de ÁlavaThe Battle of Alegría de Álava , a battle of the First Carlist War, occurred on October 27, 1834 at the field called Chinchetru, at Alegría de Álava, Álava, Spain...
(October 27, 1834) - Carlist victory - Battle of Venta de EchávarriBattle of Venta de EchavarriThe Battle of Venta de Echavarri , a battle of the First Carlist War, occurred on October 28, 1834. It was an immediate follow-up to the Battle of Alegría de Álava, which had occurred the day before...
(October 28, 1834) - Carlist victory - Battle of MendazaBattle of MendazaThe Battle of Mendaza was an early battle of the First Carlist War, occurring on December 12, 1834 at Mendaza, Navarre.The Carlists had enjoyed a victory in the Battle of Venta de Echavarri in October and also the fruits of a raid on Navarre, in which Tomás de Zumalacárregui would station himself...
(December 12, 1834) - Liberal victory - First Battle of ArquijasFirst Battle of Arquijas-Opening shots:The battle began when Liberal forces found Carlist general Tomás de Zumalacárregui waiting at the bridge of Arquijas over the Ega River in Navarre; about the middle of the day, some gunshots were exchanged between the several advanced posts....
(December 15, 1834) - Liberal victory - Second Battle of ArquijasSecond Battle of ArquijasThe Second Battle of Arquijas was a battle of the First Carlist War. It followed the First Battle of Arquijas. The battle was a second attack on the positions of Carlist commander Tomás de Zumalacárregui at the pass at Arquijas, Navarre. Liberal commander Francisco Espoz y Mina sent 5,000...
(February 5, 1835) - Carlist victory - Battle of ArtazaBattle of ArtazaThe Battle of Artaza was a battle that occurred on April 20-22, 1835 during the First Carlist War. Jerónimo Valdés, at the time Minister of War, arrived at the area known as Las Amescoas with 22,000 men with the intention of definitively destroying the Carlist forces.Zumalacárregui had 5,000 men,...
(April 22, 1835) - Carlist victory - Lord Eliot ConventionLord Eliot ConventionThe Lord Eliot Convention, or simply the Eliot Convention or Eliot Treaty , was an April 1835 agreement brokered by Edward Eliot, 3rd Earl of St Germans between the two opposing sides of the First Carlist War...
April 27–28, 1835 - British-sponsored agreement between Carlists and Liberals regarding treatment of prisoners - Battle of MendigorríaBattle of MendigorríaThe Battle of Mendigorría Grand was a battle of the First Carlist War. It occurred on July 16, 1835 south of Mendigorría, Navarre. The Carlists were commanded by Vicente González Moreno, who assumed this post after the death of Zumalacárregui at the Siege of Bilbao...
(July 16, 1835) - Liberal victory - Battle of ArlabánBattle of ArlabánThe Battle of Arlabán, a battle of the First Carlist War, occurred at the heights of Arlabán, between Álava and Guipúzcoa. Between January 16 and 17, 1836, the Liberals occupied after dislodging the Carlist forces there...
(January 16–18, 1836) - Carlist victory - Battle of TerapeguiBattle of TerapeguiThe Battle of Terapegui was fought on April 26, 1836, between Constitutionalists and Carlists in Spain during the First Carlist War. With the help of the French Foreign Legion, the Constitutionalists were victorious....
(April 26, 1836) - Liberal victory - Battle of VillarrobledoBattle of VillarrobledoThe Battle of Villarrobledo was a battle of the First Carlist War, occurring on September 20, 1836, south of Villarrobledo at a campground called Vega de San Cristóbal, which lies near a hermitage of the same name...
(September 20, 1836) - Liberal victory - Battle of MajaceiteBattle of MajaceiteThe Battle of Majaceite was a battle of the First Carlist War. Ramón María Narváez y Campos was ordered to intercept the expedition of the Carlist general Miguel Gómez Damas...
(November 23, 1836) - Liberal victory - Battle of LuchanaBattle of LuchanaThe Battle of Luchana occurred at Bilbao and its vicinities during the night of December 23, 1836 and went on until December 24, 1836. The Carlists were besieging Bilbao and controlled the water and land routes towards the city...
(December 24, 1836) - Liberal victory - Battle of OriamendiBattle of OriamendiThe Battle of Oriamendi was a battle fought on 16 March 1837 during the First Carlist War.The battle was part of a campaign in spring 1837 when the liberal Army tried to chase the Carlists from the Basque Country...
(March 16, 1837) - Carlist victory - Battle of HuescaBattle of HuescaThe Battle of Huesca was fought during the First Carlist War on March 24, 1837, between Spanish Constitutionalists and Carlists. During the course of the battle, the French Foreign Legion, which had been attached to the Cristinist army, suffered heavy casualties resulting in its strength been...
(March 24, 1837) - Liberal victory - Battle of Villar de los NavarrosBattle of Villar de los NavarrosThe Battle of Villar de los Navarros was a battle of the First Carlist War. It occurred near the town of Villar de los Navarros in Zaragoza Province and was a victory for the Carlists....
(August 24, 1837) - Carlist victory - Battle of AranzuequeBattle of AranzuequeThe Battle of Aranzueque was a September 1837 confrontation at the village of Aranzueque, Spain during the First Carlist War.The battle pitted the troops of the pretender to the Spanish crown, Carlos V, against the troops of the Queen Regent Maria Christina, led by the general Baldomero...
(September 1837) - Liberal victory, end of Carlist campaign known as the Expedición Real - Battle of MaellaBattle of MaellaThe Battle of Maella was a battle of the First Carlist War, occurring on October 1, 1838, near the Aragonese town of Maella. The battle was a Carlist victory and resulted in the routing of most of the Liberal forces....
(October 1, 1838) - Carlist victory - Battle of PeñacerradaBattle of PeñacerradaThe Battle of Peñacerrada, a battle of the First Carlist War, occurred at Peñacerrada on June 20-22, 1838. The Liberals were commanded by Pedro Saarsfield and Manuel Lorenzo, who had crossed the Ebro after the Battle of Los Arcos. They routed 1,500 Carlist troops situated at Peñecerrada...
(June 20–22, 1838) - Liberal victory - Battle of RamalesBattle of RamalesThe Battle of Ramales, a battle of the First Carlist War, occurred at Ramales in Cantabria on May 12, 1839. The Liberals were commanded by Baldomero Espartero, the Carlists by Rafael Maroto....
(May 13, 1839) - Liberal victory