Failure analysis is the process of collecting and analyzing data to determine the cause of a failure

Failure

Failure refers to the state or condition of not meeting a desirable or intended objective, and may be viewed as the opposite of success. Product failure ranges from failure to sell the product to fracture of the product, in the worst cases leading to personal injury, the province of forensic...

. It is an important discipline in many branches of manufacturing

Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale...

 industry, such as the electronics

Electronics

Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies...

 industry, where it is a vital tool used in the development of new products and for the improvement of existing products. It relies on collecting failed components for subsequent examination of the cause or causes of failure using a wide array of methods, especially microscopy

Microscopy

Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye...

 and spectroscopy

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative...

. The NDT or nondestructive testing

Nondestructive testing

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage....

 methods are valuable because the failed products are unaffected by analysis, so inspection always starts using these methods.

Forensic investigation

Forensic inquiry into the failed process or product is the starting point of failure analysis. Such inquiry is conducted using scientific analytical methods such as electrical and mechanical measurements, or by analysing failure data such as product reject reports or examples of previous failures of the same kind. The methods of forensic engineering

Forensic engineering

Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with...

 are especially valuable in tracing product defects and flaws. They may include fatigue

Fatigue (material)

'In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the material.Fatigue occurs...

 cracks, brittle

Brittle

A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant deformation . Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength. Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and glasses ...

 cracks produced by stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion cracking is the unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress in a corrosive environment, especially at elevated temperature in the case of metals. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when...

 or environmental stress cracking

Environmental stress cracking

Environmental Stress Cracking is one of the most common causes of unexpected brittle failure of thermoplastic polymers known at present. Environmental stress cracking may account for around 15-30% of all plastic component failures in service.ESC and polymer resistance to ESC have been studied...

 for example. Witness statement

Witness statement

A witness statement is a statement summarising the oral evidence that a witness will give at trial. The purpose the witness statement is to set out the evidence of the witness; in some jurisdictions the statement will stand as the evidence in chief of the witness , and the trial will simply...

s can be valuable for reconstructing the likely sequence of events and hence the chain of cause and effect. Human factors can also be assessed when the cause of the failure is determined. There are several useful methods to prevent product failures occurring in the first place, including failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)

Failure mode and effects analysis

A failure modes and effects analysis is a procedure in product development and operations management for analysis of potential failure modes within a system for classification by the severity and likelihood of the failures...

 and fault tree analysis (FTA)

Fault tree analysis

Fault tree analysis is a top down, deductive failure analysis in which an undesired state of a system is analyzed using boolean logic to combine a series of lower-level events...

, methods which can be used during prototyping to analyse failures before a product is marketed.

Failure theories can only be constructed on such data, but when corrective action is needed quickly, the precautionary principle

Precautionary principle

The precautionary principle or precautionary approach states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on those...

 demands that measures be put in place. In aircraft accidents for example, all planes of the type involved can be grounded immediately pending the outcome of the inquiry.

Another aspect of failure analysis is associated with No Fault Found (NFF) which is a term used in the field of failure analysis to describe a situation where an originally reported mode of failure can't be duplicated by the evaluating technician and therefore the potential defect can't be fixed.

NFF can be attributed to oxidation, defective connections of electrical components, temporary shorts or opens in the circuits, software bugs, temporary environmental factors, but also to the operator error. Large number of devices that are reported as NFF during the first troubleshooting

Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving, often applied to repair failed products or processes. It is a logical, systematic search for the source of a problem so that it can be solved, and so the product or process can be made operational again. Troubleshooting is needed to develop and...

 session often return to the failure analysis lab with the same NFF symptoms or a permanent mode of failure.

The term Failure analysis also applies to other fields such as business management and military strategy

Military strategy

Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...

.

Failure analysis engineers

A failure analysis engineer often plays a lead role in the analysis of failures, whether a component or product fails in service or if failure occurs in manufacturing or during production processing. In any case, one must determine the cause of failure to prevent future occurrence, and/or to improve the performance of the device, component or structure.

Methods of analysis

The failure analysis of many different products involves the use of the following tools and techniques:

Microscopes

• Optical microscope
  Optical microscope
  The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light microscope", is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly designed in their present compound form in the...
  
  
  • Liquid crystal
    Liquid crystal
    Liquid crystals are a state of matter that have properties between those of a conventional liquid and those of a solid crystal. For instance, an LC may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be oriented in a crystal-like way. There are many different types of LC phases, which can be...
    
    
• Scanning acoustic microscope
  Scanning acoustic microscope
  A Scanning Acoustic Microscope is a device which uses focused sound to investigate, measure, or image an object . It is commonly used in failure analysis and non-destructive evaluation. It also has applications in biological and medical research...
  
   (SAM)
• Scanning Acoustic Tomography (SCAT)
• Atomic Force Microscope
  Atomic force microscope
  Atomic force microscopy or scanning force microscopy is a very high-resolution type of scanning probe microscopy, with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer, more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit...
  
   (AFM)
• Stereomicroscope
• Photo emission microscope (PEM)
• X-ray microscope
  X-ray microscope
  An X-ray microscope uses electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.Unlike visible light, X-rays do not reflect or refract easily, and they are invisible to the human eye. Therefore the basic process of an X-ray microscope is to expose film or use a...
  
  
• Infra-red microscope
• Scanning SQUID microscope
  Scanning SQUID microscope
  A Scanning SQUID Microscope is a sensitive near-field imaging system for the measurement of weak magnetic fields by moving a Superconducting Quantum Interference Device across an area. The microscope can map out buried current-carrying wires by measuring the magnetic fields produced by the...
  
  

Sample Preparation

• Jet-etcher
  Jet-etcher
  A Jet Etcher is used to remove a portion of the plastic encapsulating package from a semiconductor device in order to expose the surface of the chip. This tool is routinely used to prepare devices for failure analysis....
  
  
• Plasma etcher
  Plasma etcher
  A plasma etcher, or etching tool, is a tool used in the production of semiconductor devices. Plasma etcher produces a plasma from a process gas, typically oxygen or a fluorine bearing gas, using a high frequency electric field, typically 13.56 MHz. A silicon wafer is placed in the plasma etcher,...
  
  
• Back Side Thinning Tools
  • Mechanical Back Side Thinning
  • Laser Chemical Back Side Etching

Spectroscopic Analysis

• Transmission line
  Transmission line
  In communications and electronic engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable designed to carry alternating current of radio frequency, that is, currents with a frequency high enough that its wave nature must be taken into account...
  
   pulse spectroscopy (TLPS)
• Auger electron spectroscopy
  Auger electron spectroscopy
  Auger electron spectroscopy is a common analytical technique used specifically in the study of surfaces and, more generally, in the area of materials science...
  
  
• Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy
  Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy
  Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy is an experimental tool for studying electrically active defects in semiconductors. DLTS establishes fundamental defect parameters and measures their concentration in the material...
  
   (DLTS)

Scanning Electron Microscopy

• Scanning electron microscope
  Scanning electron microscope
  A scanning electron microscope is a type of electron microscope that images a sample by scanning it with a high-energy beam of electrons in a raster scan pattern...
  
   (SEM)
  • Electron beam induced current
    Electron beam induced current
    Electron beam induced current is a semiconductor analysis technique performed in a scanning electron microscope or scanning transmission electron microscope . It is used to identify buried junctions or defects in semiconductors, or to examine minority carrier properties...
    
     (EBIC) in SEM
  • Charge Induced Voltage Alteration
    Charge Induced Voltage Alteration
    Charge induced voltage alteration is a technique which uses a scanning electron microscope to locate open conductors on CMOS integrated circuits...
    
     (CIVA) in SEM
  • Voltage contrast in SEM
  • Electron backscatter diffraction
    Electron backscatter diffraction
    Electron backscatter diffraction , also known as backscatter Kikuchi diffraction is a microstructural-crystallographic technique used to examine the crystallographic orientation of many materials, which can be used to elucidate texture or preferred orientation of any crystalline or polycrystalline...
    
     (EBSD) in SEM
  • Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
    Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
    Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy is an analytical technique used for the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a sample. It relies on the investigation of an interaction of a some source of X-ray excitation and a sample...
    
     (EDS) in SEM
• Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

Laser Signal Injection Microscopy (LSIM)

• Photo carrier stimulation
  • Static
    • Optical beam induced current
      Optical beam induced current
      Optical beam induced current is a semiconductor analysis technique performed using laser signal injection. The techniqueuses a scanning laser beam to create electron–hole pairs in a semiconductor sample...
      
       (OBIC)
    • Light Induced Voltage Alteration
      Light induced voltage alteration
      Light induced voltage alteration is a semiconductor analysis technique that uses a laser or infrared light source to induce voltage changes in a device while scanning the beam of light across its surface...
      
       (LIVA)
  • Dynamic
    • Laser Assisted Device Alteration
      Laser assisted device alteration
      Laser Assisted Device Alteration is a laser-based timing analysis technique used in the failure analysis of semiconductor devices. The laser is used to temporarily alter the operating characteristics of transistors on the device.-Theory of operation:...
      
       (LADA)
• Thermal Laser Stimulation
  Thermal laser stimulation
  Thermal laser stimulation represents a class of defect imaging techniques which employ a laser to produce a thermal variation in a semiconductor device. This technique may be used for semiconductor failure analysis...
  
   (TLS)
  • Static
    • Optical Beam Induced Resistance Change
      Thermal laser stimulation
      Thermal laser stimulation represents a class of defect imaging techniques which employ a laser to produce a thermal variation in a semiconductor device. This technique may be used for semiconductor failure analysis...
      
       (OBIRCH)
    • Thermally Induced Voltage Alteration
      Thermal laser stimulation
      Thermal laser stimulation represents a class of defect imaging techniques which employ a laser to produce a thermal variation in a semiconductor device. This technique may be used for semiconductor failure analysis...
      
       (TIVA)
    • External Induced Voltage Alteration
      Thermal laser stimulation
      Thermal laser stimulation represents a class of defect imaging techniques which employ a laser to produce a thermal variation in a semiconductor device. This technique may be used for semiconductor failure analysis...
      
       (XIVA)
    • Seebeck Effect Imaging
      Thermal laser stimulation
      Thermal laser stimulation represents a class of defect imaging techniques which employ a laser to produce a thermal variation in a semiconductor device. This technique may be used for semiconductor failure analysis...
      
       (SEI)
  • Dynamic
    • Soft Defect Localization (SDL)

Semiconductor Probing

• Mechanical Probe Station
  Mechanical probe station
  A Mechanical probe station is used to physically acquire signals from the internal nodes of a semiconductor device. The probe station utilizes manipulators which allow the precise positioning of thin needles on the surface of a semiconductor device. If the device is being electrically stimulated,...
  
  
• Electron Beam Prober
  Electron Beam Prober
  The Electron Beam Prober is a specialized adaption of a standard Scanning Electron Microscope that is used for semiconductor failure analysis. While a standard SEM may be operated in a voltage range of 25KeV to 30KeV, the E-beam Prober typically operates at 1KeV...
  
  
• Laser Voltage Prober
  Laser Voltage Prober
  The Laser Voltage Probe is a laser-based voltage and timing waveform acquisition system which is used to perform failure analysis on flip-chip integrated circuits. The device to be analyzed is de-encapsulated in order to expose the silicon surface. The silicon substrate is thinned mechanically...
  
  
• Time-Resolved Photon Emission Prober
  Time resolved photon emission prober
  The Time-Resolved Photon Emission Prober is an instrument which is used to measure timing waveforms on semiconductor devices. TRPE measurements are performed on the back side of the semiconductor device. The substrate of the device-under-test must first be thinned mechanically...
  
   (TRPE)

Software Based Fault Location Techniques

• CAD Navigation
  CAD Navigation
  CAD Navigation refers to software tools which are used for the correlation of electronic semiconductor design data with a physical semiconductor device. CAD Navigation tools consist of software that is capable of reading and displaying the physical layout and logical schematic for the device. The...
  
  
• Automatic Test Pattern Generation
  Automatic test pattern generation
  ATPG is an electronic design automation method/technology used to find an input sequence that, when applied to a digital circuit, enables automatic test equipment to distinguish between the correct circuit behavior and the faulty circuit...
  
   (ATPG)

See also

• Metallurgical Failure Analysis
  Metallurgical failure analysis
  Metallurgical failure analysis is the process by which a metallurgist determines the mechanism that has caused a metal component to fail. Typical failure modes involve various types of corrosion and mechanical damage...
  
  
• Acronyms in microscopy
• Failure mode and effects analysis
  Failure mode and effects analysis
  A failure modes and effects analysis is a procedure in product development and operations management for analysis of potential failure modes within a system for classification by the severity and likelihood of the failures...
  
   (FMEA)
• Failure rate
  Failure rate
  Failure rate is the frequency with which an engineered system or component fails, expressed for example in failures per hour. It is often denoted by the Greek letter λ and is important in reliability engineering....
  
  
• Forensic electrical engineering
  Forensic electrical engineering
  Forensic electrical engineering is a branch of forensic engineering, and is concerned with investigating electrical failures and accidents in a legal context. Many forensic electrical engineering investigations apply to fires suspected to be caused by electrical failures...
  
  
• Forensic engineering
  Forensic engineering
  Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with...
  
  
• Forensic materials engineering
  Forensic materials engineering
  A branch of Forensic engineering, the subject focuses on the material evidence from crime or accident scenes, seeking defects in those materials which might explain why an accident occurred, or the source of a specific material to identify a criminal...
  
  
• Forensic polymer engineering
  Forensic polymer engineering
  The study of failure in polymeric products is called forensic polymer engineering. The topic includes the fracture of plastic products, or any other reason why such a product fails in service, or fails to meet its specification...
  
  
• Forensic science
• Microscope
  Microscope
  A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy...
  
  
• Material science
• Sample Preparation Equipment
  Sample Preparation Equipment
  Sample preparation equipment refers to equipment used for the preparation of physical specimens for subsequent microscopy or related disciplines - including failure analysis and quality control...
  
  
• Accident Analysis
  Accident Analysis
  Accident analysis is carried out in order to determine the cause or causes of an accident or series of accidents so as to prevent further incidents of a similar kind. It is also known as accident investigation. It may be performed by a range of experts, including forensic scientists, forensic...
  
  
• Characterization (materials science)
  Characterization (materials science)
  Characterization, when used in materials science, refers to the use of external techniques to probe into the internal structure and properties of a material...
  
  
• Failure Reporting, Analysis and Corrective Action Systems
  Failure Reporting, Analysis and Corrective Action Systems
  A failure reporting, analysis and corrective action system is a system, sometimes carried out using software, that provides a process for reporting, classifying, analyzing failures, and planning corrective actions in response to those failures. It is typically used in an industrial environment to...
  
  (Failure Data Collection)

Further reading

• Martin, Perry L., Electronic Failure Analysis Handbook, McGraw-Hill Professional; 1st edition (February 28, 1999) ISBN 978-0-07-041044-2.
• Microelectronics Failure Analysis, ASM International; Fifth Edition (2004) ISBN 978-0-87170-804-5