Engineering ethics
Encyclopedia
Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics
and system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering
. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineer
s to society
, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science
, the philosophy of engineering
, and the ethics of technology
.
In the United States growing professionalism gave rise to the development of four founding engineering societies: ASCE (1851), the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
(AIEE) (1884), ASME (1880), and the American Institute of Mining Engineers
(AIME) (1871). ASCE and AIEE were more closely identified with the engineer as learned professional, where ASME, to an extent, and AIME almost entirely, identified with the view that the engineer is a technical employee.
Even so, at that time ethics was viewed as a personal rather than a broad professional concern.
When the 19th century drew to a close and the 20th century began, there had been series of significant structural failure
s, including some spectacular bridge failures, notably the Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster
(1876), Tay Bridge Disaster
(1879), and the Quebec Bridge collapse (1907). These had a profound effect on engineers and forced the profession to confront shortcomings in technical and construction practice, as well as ethical standards.
One response was the development of formal codes of ethics by three of the four founding engineering societies. AIEE adopted theirs in 1912. ASCE and ASME did so in 1914. AIME did not adopt a code of ethics in its history.
Concerns for professional practice and protecting the public highlighted by these bridge failures, as well as the Boston molasses disaster
(1919), provided impetus for another movement that had been underway for some time: to require formal credentials (Professional licensure in the US.) as a requirement to practice
. This involves meeting some combination of educational, experience, and testing requirements.
Over the following decades most American states and Canadian provinces either required engineers to be licensed, or passed special legislation reserving title rights to organization of professional engineers. The Canadian model is to require all persons working in fields of engineering that posed a risk to life, health, property, the public welfare and the environment to be licensed, and all provinces required licensing by the 1950s.
The US model has generally been only to require those practicing independently (i.e. consulting engineers) to be licensed, while engineers working in industry, education, and sometimes government need not be licensed. This has perpetuated the split between professional engineers and those in industry. Professional societies have adopted generally uniform codes of ethics. On the other hand technical societies have generally not adopted these, but instead sometimes offer ethics education and resources to members similar to those of the professional societies. This is not uniform, and the question of who is to be held in the highest regard: the public or the employer, is still an open one in industry, and sometimes in professional practice.
Efforts to promote ethical practice continue. In addition to the professional societies and chartering organizations efforts with their members, the Canadian Iron Ring
and American Order of the Engineer
trace their roots to the 1907 Quebec Bridge collapse. Both require members to swear an oath to uphold ethical practice and wear a symbolic ring as a reminder.
In the United States, the National Society of Professional Engineers released in 1946 its Canons of Ethics for Engineers and Rules of Professional Conduct, which evolved to the current Code of Ethics, adopted in 1964. These requests ultimately led to the creation of the Board of Ethical Review in 1954. Ethics cases rarely have easy answers, but the BER's nearly 500 advisory opinions have helped bring clarity to the ethical issues engineers face daily.
Currently, bribery and political corruption is being addressed very directly by several professional societies and business groups around the world. However, new issues have arisen, such as offshoring
, sustainable development
, and environmental protection, that the profession is having to consider and address.
, clients, employers, and the profession.
Many engineering professional societies have prepared codes of ethics. Some go back to the early decades of the twentieth century. These have been incorporated to a greater or lesser degree into the regulatory laws of several jurisdictions. While these statements of general principles served as a guide, engineers still require sound judgment to interpret of how the code would apply to specific circumstances.
The general principals of the codes of ethics are largely similar across the various engineering societies and chartering authorities of the world, which further extend the code and publishes specific guidance. The following is an example from the American Society of Civil Engineers
:
Responsibility of engineers
The engineer recognizes that the greatest merit is the work, so exercise their profession committed to serving society, attending to the welfare and progress of the majority.
By transforming nature for the benefit of mankind, the engineer must increase their awareness of the world is the abode of man and his interest in the universe is a guarantee of overcoming their spirit and knowledge of reality to make it fairer and happier.
The engineer should reject papers that are intended to harm the general interest, in this way avoid situations involving hazards or constitute a threat to the environment, life, health and other rights of human beings.
It is an inescapable duty of the engineer to hold the prestige of the profession and ensure its proper discharge; also maintain a professional demeanor rooted in the ability, honesty, fortitude, temperance, magnanimity, modesty, honesty and justice, with the consciousness of individual well-being subordinate to the good social.
The engineer must ensure the continuous improvement of their knowledge, particularly of their profession, disseminate their knowledge, share experience, provide opportunities for education and training of workers, provide recognition, moral and material support to the school where he studied, in this way revert to the opportunities the company has received.
It is the responsibility of the engineer who carried out their work efficiently and supports the laws. In particular, ensure compliance with the standards of worker protection provided by the law
As professionals, engineers are expected to commit themselves to high standards of conduct (NSPE) [1] 11/27/11
A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the appropriate authority a possible risk to others from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer's directions. According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the failure to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health.
In many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the client of the consequences in a forthright matter, and ensuring the client takes the engineer's advice. However, the engineer must ensure that the remedial steps are taken and, if they are not, the situation must be reported to the appropriate authority. In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority may not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the duty by making the situation public. As a result, whistleblowing by professional engineers is not an unusual event, and courts have often sided with engineers in such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality considerations that otherwise would have prevented the engineer from speaking out.
Some engineering societies are addressing environmental protection
as a stand-alone question of ethics.
The field of business ethics often overlaps and informs ethical decision making for engineers.
, and the losses of the Mars Polar Lander
and Mars Climate Orbiter
were technical and design process failures.
These episodes of engineering failure include ethical as well as technical issues.
Statementof Ethical Principles
Applied ethics
Applied ethics is, in the words of Brenda Almond, co-founder of the Society for Applied Philosophy, "the philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment"...
and system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering
Engineering
Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...
. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineer
Engineer
An engineer is a professional practitioner of engineering, concerned with applying scientific knowledge, mathematics and ingenuity to develop solutions for technical problems. Engineers design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality,...
s to society
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science
Philosophy of science
The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. It is also concerned with the use and merit of science and sometimes overlaps metaphysics and epistemology by exploring whether scientific results are actually a study of truth...
, the philosophy of engineering
Philosophy of engineering
The philosophy of engineering is an emerging discipline that considers what engineering is, what engineers do and how their work impacts on society. As such, the philosophy of engineering includes aspects of ethics and aesthetics, as well as the ontology, epistemology, etc...
, and the ethics of technology
Ethics of technology
Ethics in technology is a subfield of ethics addressing the ethical questions specific to the Technology Age. Some prominent works of philosopher Hans Jonas are devoted to ethics of technology. It is often held that technology itself is incapable of possessing moral or ethical qualities, since...
.
The 19th century and growing concern
As engineering rose as a distinct profession during the 19th century, engineers saw themselves as either independent professional practitioners or technical employees of large enterprises. There was considerable tension between the two sides as large industrial employers fought to maintain control of their employees.In the United States growing professionalism gave rise to the development of four founding engineering societies: ASCE (1851), the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
American Institute of Electrical Engineers
The American Institute of Electrical Engineers was a United States based organization of electrical engineers that existed between 1884 and 1963, when it merged with the Institute of Radio Engineers to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers .- History :The 1884 founders of the...
(AIEE) (1884), ASME (1880), and the American Institute of Mining Engineers
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers
The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers is a professional body for mining and metallurgy, with 90,000 members. It was founded in 1871 by 22 mining engineers in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, United States, being one of the first national engineering societies in the...
(AIME) (1871). ASCE and AIEE were more closely identified with the engineer as learned professional, where ASME, to an extent, and AIME almost entirely, identified with the view that the engineer is a technical employee.
Even so, at that time ethics was viewed as a personal rather than a broad professional concern.
Turning of the 20th century and turning point
Structural failure
Structural failure refers to loss of the load-carrying capacity of a component or member within a structure or of the structure itself. Structural failure is initiated when the material is stressed to its strength limit, thus causing fracture or excessive deformations...
s, including some spectacular bridge failures, notably the Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster
Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster
The Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster was a train disaster caused by bridge failure...
(1876), Tay Bridge Disaster
Tay Bridge disaster
The Tay Bridge disaster occurred on 28 December 1879, when the first Tay Rail Bridge, which crossed the Firth of Tay between Dundee and Wormit in Scotland, collapsed during a violent storm while a train was passing over it. The bridge was designed by the noted railway engineer Sir Thomas Bouch,...
(1879), and the Quebec Bridge collapse (1907). These had a profound effect on engineers and forced the profession to confront shortcomings in technical and construction practice, as well as ethical standards.
One response was the development of formal codes of ethics by three of the four founding engineering societies. AIEE adopted theirs in 1912. ASCE and ASME did so in 1914. AIME did not adopt a code of ethics in its history.
Concerns for professional practice and protecting the public highlighted by these bridge failures, as well as the Boston molasses disaster
Boston molasses disaster
The Boston Molasses Disaster, also known as the Great Molasses Flood and the Great Boston Molasses Tragedy, occurred on January 15, 1919, in the North End neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts in the United States. A large molasses storage tank burst, and a wave of molasses rushed through the...
(1919), provided impetus for another movement that had been underway for some time: to require formal credentials (Professional licensure in the US.) as a requirement to practice
Professional Engineer
Regulation of the engineering profession is established by various jurisdictions of the world to protect the safety, well-being and other interests of the general public, and to define the licensure process through which an engineer becomes authorized to provide professional services to the...
. This involves meeting some combination of educational, experience, and testing requirements.
Over the following decades most American states and Canadian provinces either required engineers to be licensed, or passed special legislation reserving title rights to organization of professional engineers. The Canadian model is to require all persons working in fields of engineering that posed a risk to life, health, property, the public welfare and the environment to be licensed, and all provinces required licensing by the 1950s.
The US model has generally been only to require those practicing independently (i.e. consulting engineers) to be licensed, while engineers working in industry, education, and sometimes government need not be licensed. This has perpetuated the split between professional engineers and those in industry. Professional societies have adopted generally uniform codes of ethics. On the other hand technical societies have generally not adopted these, but instead sometimes offer ethics education and resources to members similar to those of the professional societies. This is not uniform, and the question of who is to be held in the highest regard: the public or the employer, is still an open one in industry, and sometimes in professional practice.
Recent developments
Iron Ring
The Iron Ring is a ring worn by many engineers in Canada as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with the profession. Obtaining the ring is an optional endeavour, as it is not a prerequisite to becoming a Professional Engineer...
and American Order of the Engineer
Order of the Engineer
The Order of the Engineer is an association for graduate and professional engineers in the United States that emphasizes pride and responsibility in the engineering profession. It was inspired by the success of The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, a similar Canadian ceremony, and is a common...
trace their roots to the 1907 Quebec Bridge collapse. Both require members to swear an oath to uphold ethical practice and wear a symbolic ring as a reminder.
In the United States, the National Society of Professional Engineers released in 1946 its Canons of Ethics for Engineers and Rules of Professional Conduct, which evolved to the current Code of Ethics, adopted in 1964. These requests ultimately led to the creation of the Board of Ethical Review in 1954. Ethics cases rarely have easy answers, but the BER's nearly 500 advisory opinions have helped bring clarity to the ethical issues engineers face daily.
Currently, bribery and political corruption is being addressed very directly by several professional societies and business groups around the world. However, new issues have arisen, such as offshoring
Offshoring
Offshoring describes the relocation by a company of a business process from one country to another—typically an operational process, such as manufacturing, or supporting processes, such as accounting. Even state governments employ offshoring...
, sustainable development
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use, that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come...
, and environmental protection, that the profession is having to consider and address.
General principles
Codes of engineering ethics identify a specific precedence with respect to the engineer's consideration for the publicSociety
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
, clients, employers, and the profession.
Many engineering professional societies have prepared codes of ethics. Some go back to the early decades of the twentieth century. These have been incorporated to a greater or lesser degree into the regulatory laws of several jurisdictions. While these statements of general principles served as a guide, engineers still require sound judgment to interpret of how the code would apply to specific circumstances.
The general principals of the codes of ethics are largely similar across the various engineering societies and chartering authorities of the world, which further extend the code and publishes specific guidance. The following is an example from the American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Civil Engineers
The American Society of Civil Engineers is a professional body founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. It is the oldest national engineering society in the United States. ASCE's vision is to have engineers positioned as global leaders who strive toward...
:
- Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties.
- Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.
- Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
- Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.
- Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others.
- Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption.
- Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision.
Obligation to society
The paramount value recognized by engineers is the safety and welfare of the public. As demonstrated by the following selected excerpts, this is the case for professional engineering organizations in nearly every jurisdiction and engineering discipline:- Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersInstitute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersThe Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a non-profit professional association headquartered in New York City that is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence...
: "We, the members of the IEEE, … do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree: 1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;" - Institution of Civil EngineersInstitution of Civil EngineersFounded on 2 January 1818, the Institution of Civil Engineers is an independent professional association, based in central London, representing civil engineering. Like its early membership, the majority of its current members are British engineers, but it also has members in more than 150...
: "Members of the ICE should always be aware of their overriding responsibility to the public good. A member’s obligations to the client can never override this, and members of the ICE should not enter undertakings which compromise this responsibility. The ‘public good’ encompasses care and respect for the environment, and for humanity’s cultural, historical and archaeological heritage, as well as the primary responsibility members have to protect the health and well being of present and future generations." - Professional Engineers OntarioProfessional Engineers OntarioProfessional Engineers Ontario, PEO, is the self-regulatory body that governs Ontario's 73,000 professional engineers, and sets standards for and regulates engineering practice in the province. It has a statutory mandate under the Professional Engineers Act of Ontario to protect the public interest...
: "A practitioner shall, regard the practitioner's duty to public welfare as paramount." - National Society of Professional Engineers: "Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public."
- American Society of Mechanical EngineersAmerican Society of Mechanical EngineersThe American Society of Mechanical Engineers is a professional body, specifically an engineering society, focused on mechanical engineering....
: "Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance of their professional duties." - Institute of Industrial EngineersInstitute of Industrial EngineersThe Institute of Industrial Engineers is a professional society dedicated solely to the support of the industrial engineering profession and individuals involved with improving quality and productivity...
: "Engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering profession by: 2. Being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity the public, their employers and clients." - American Institute of Chemical EngineersAmerican Institute of Chemical EngineersThe American Institute of Chemical Engineers is a professional organization for chemical engineers.AIChE was established in 1908 with the purpose of establishing chemical engineers as a profession independent from chemists and mechanical engineers.As of 2010, AIChE had over 40,000 members,...
: "To achieve these goals, members shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and protect the environment in performance of their professional duties."
- American Nuclear SocietyAmerican Nuclear SocietyThe American Nuclear Society is an international, not-for-profit 501 scientific and educational organization with a membership of approximately 11,000 scientists, engineers, educators, students, and other associate members. Approximately 900 members live outside the United States in 40 countries....
: "ANS members uphold and advance the integrity and honor of their professions by using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare and the environment; being honest and impartial; serving with fidelity the public, their employers, and their clients; and striving to continuously improve the competence and prestige of their various professions."
Responsibility of engineers
The engineer recognizes that the greatest merit is the work, so exercise their profession committed to serving society, attending to the welfare and progress of the majority.
By transforming nature for the benefit of mankind, the engineer must increase their awareness of the world is the abode of man and his interest in the universe is a guarantee of overcoming their spirit and knowledge of reality to make it fairer and happier.
The engineer should reject papers that are intended to harm the general interest, in this way avoid situations involving hazards or constitute a threat to the environment, life, health and other rights of human beings.
It is an inescapable duty of the engineer to hold the prestige of the profession and ensure its proper discharge; also maintain a professional demeanor rooted in the ability, honesty, fortitude, temperance, magnanimity, modesty, honesty and justice, with the consciousness of individual well-being subordinate to the good social.
The engineer must ensure the continuous improvement of their knowledge, particularly of their profession, disseminate their knowledge, share experience, provide opportunities for education and training of workers, provide recognition, moral and material support to the school where he studied, in this way revert to the opportunities the company has received.
It is the responsibility of the engineer who carried out their work efficiently and supports the laws. In particular, ensure compliance with the standards of worker protection provided by the law
As professionals, engineers are expected to commit themselves to high standards of conduct (NSPE) [1] 11/27/11
Whistleblowing
A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the appropriate authority a possible risk to others from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer's directions. According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the failure to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health.
In many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the client of the consequences in a forthright matter, and ensuring the client takes the engineer's advice. However, the engineer must ensure that the remedial steps are taken and, if they are not, the situation must be reported to the appropriate authority. In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority may not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the duty by making the situation public. As a result, whistleblowing by professional engineers is not an unusual event, and courts have often sided with engineers in such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality considerations that otherwise would have prevented the engineer from speaking out.
Conduct
There are several other ethical issues that engineers may face. Some have to do with technical practice, but many others have to do with broader considerations of business conduct. These include:- Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors, and contractors
- Ensuring legal compliance by clients, client's contractors, and others
- Conflict of interestConflict of interestA conflict of interest occurs when an individual or organization is involved in multiple interests, one of which could possibly corrupt the motivation for an act in the other....
- BriberyBriberyBribery, a form of corruption, is an act implying money or gift giving that alters the behavior of the recipient. Bribery constitutes a crime and is defined by Black's Law Dictionary as the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official or...
and kickbacks, which also may include: - Gifts, meals, services, and entertainment
- Treatment of confidentialTrade secretA trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers...
or proprietary information - Consideration of the employer’s assets
- Outside employment/activities (Moonlighting)
Some engineering societies are addressing environmental protection
Environmental protection
Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the environment, on individual, organizational or governmental level, for the benefit of the natural environment and humans. Due to the pressures of population and our technology the biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently...
as a stand-alone question of ethics.
The field of business ethics often overlaps and informs ethical decision making for engineers.
Case studies and key individuals
Petroski notes that most engineering failures are much more involved than simple technical mis-calculations and involve the failure of the design process or management culture. However, not all engineering failures involve ethical issues. The infamous collapse of the first Tacoma Narrows BridgeTacoma Narrows Bridge (1940)
The 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge was the first incarnation of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, a suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Washington that spanned the Tacoma Narrows strait of Puget Sound between Tacoma and the Kitsap Peninsula. It opened to traffic on July 1, 1940, and dramatically collapsed...
, and the losses of the Mars Polar Lander
Mars Polar Lander
The Mars Polar Lander, also referred to as the Mars Surveyor '98 Lander, was a 290-kilogram robotic spacecraft lander, launched by NASA on January 3, 1999, to study the soil and climate of Planum Australe, a region near the south pole on Mars, as part of the Mars Surveyor '98 mission...
and Mars Climate Orbiter
Mars Climate Orbiter
The Mars Climate Orbiter was a 338 kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on December 11, 1998 to study the Martian climate, atmosphere, surface changes and to act as the communications relay in the Mars Surveyor '98 program, for Mars Polar Lander...
were technical and design process failures.
These episodes of engineering failure include ethical as well as technical issues.
- Space Shuttle Columbia disasterSpace Shuttle Columbia disasterThe Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred on February 1, 2003, when shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated over Texas and Louisiana during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, resulting in the death of all seven crew members...
(2003) - Space Shuttle Challenger disasterSpace Shuttle Challenger disasterThe Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart 73 seconds into its flight, leading to the deaths of its seven crew members. The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of central Florida at 11:38 am EST...
(1986) - Therac-25Therac-25The Therac-25 was a radiation therapy machine produced by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited after the Therac-6 and Therac-20 units ....
accidents (1985 to 1987) - Chernobyl disasterChernobyl disasterThe Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine , which was under the direct jurisdiction of the central authorities in Moscow...
(1986) - Bhopal disasterBhopal disasterThe Bhopal disaster also known as Bhopal Gas Tragedy was a gas leak incident in India, considered one of the world's worst industrial catastrophes. It occurred on the night of December 2–3, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India...
(1984) - Kansas City Hyatt Regency walkway collapseHyatt Regency walkway collapseThe Hyatt Regency hotel walkway collapse was a collapse of an interior suspended skywalk system that occurred on July 17, 1981, in Kansas City, Missouri, United States, killing 114 people and injuring 216 others during a tea dance. At the time, it was the deadliest structural collapse in U.S...
(1981) - Love CanalLove CanalLove Canal was a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York, located in the white collar LaSalle section of the city. It officially covers 36 square blocks in the far southeastern corner of the city, along 99th Street and Read Avenue...
(1980), Lois GibbsLois GibbsLois Marie Gibbs is an American environmental activist.Gibbs's involvement in environmental causes began in 1978 when she discovered that her 7-year-old son's elementary school in Niagara Falls, New York was built on a toxic waste dump. Subsequent investigation revealed that her entire... - Three Mile Island accidentThree Mile Island accidentThe Three Mile Island accident was a core meltdown in Unit 2 of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania near Harrisburg, United States in 1979....
(1979) - Citigroup CenterCitigroup CenterThe Citigroup Center is one of the ten tallest skyscrapers in New York City, United States, located at 53rd Street between Lexington Avenue and Third Avenue in midtown Manhattan...
(1978), William LeMessurierWilliam LeMessurierWilliam James LeMessurier was a prominent American structural engineer.Born in Pontiac, Michigan, LeMessurier graduated with an AB from Harvard, went to Harvard Graduate School of Design and then earned a master's degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1953. He was the founder and... - Ford PintoFord PintoThe Ford Pinto is a subcompact car produced by the Ford Motor Company for the model years 1971–1980. The car's name derives from the Pinto horse. Initially offered as a two-door sedan, Ford offered "Runabout" hatchback and wagon models the following year, competing in the U.S. market with the AMC...
safety problems (1970s) - Minamata diseaseMinamata disease', sometimes referred to as , is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms include ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death...
(1908–1973) - Chevrolet CorvairChevrolet Corvair-First generation :The 1960 Corvair 500 and 700 series four-door sedans were conceived as economy cars offering few amenities in order to keep the price competitive, with the 500 selling for under $2,000...
safety problems (1960s), Ralph NaderRalph NaderRalph Nader is an American political activist, as well as an author, lecturer, and attorney. Areas of particular concern to Nader include consumer protection, humanitarianism, environmentalism, and democratic government....
, and Unsafe at Any SpeedUnsafe at Any SpeedUnsafe at Any Speed: The Designed-In Dangers of the American Automobile by Ralph Nader, published in 1965, is a book detailing resistance by car manufacturers to the introduction of safety features, like seat belts, and their general reluctance to spend money on improving safety... - Boston molasses disasterBoston molasses disasterThe Boston Molasses Disaster, also known as the Great Molasses Flood and the Great Boston Molasses Tragedy, occurred on January 15, 1919, in the North End neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts in the United States. A large molasses storage tank burst, and a wave of molasses rushed through the...
(1919) - Quebec Bridge collapse (1907), Theodore CooperTheodore CooperTheodore Cooper was an American civil engineer. He may be best known as supervising engineer on the Quebec Bridge when it collapsed in 1907....
- Johnstown FloodJohnstown FloodThe Johnstown Flood occurred on May 31, 1889. It was the result of the catastrophic failure of the South Fork Dam situated upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, USA, made worse by several days of extremely heavy rainfall...
(1889), South Fork Fishing and Hunting ClubSouth Fork Fishing and Hunting ClubThe South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club was a Pennsylvania corporation which operated an exclusive and secretive retreat at a mountain lake near South Fork, Pennsylvania for more than fifty extremely wealthy men and their families... - Tay Bridge Disaster (1879), Thomas BouchThomas BouchSir Thomas Bouch was a British railway engineer in Victorian Britain.He was born in Thursby, near Carlisle, Cumberland, England and lived in Edinburgh. He helped develop the caisson and the roll-on/roll-off train ferry. He worked initially for the North British Railway and helped design parts of...
, William Henry BarlowWilliam Henry BarlowOn 28 December 1879, the central section of the North British Railway's bridge across the River Tay near Dundee collapsed in the Tay Bridge disaster as an express train crossed it in a heavy storm. All 75 passengers and crew on the train were killed...
, and William YollandWilliam YollandWilliam Yolland CB, FRS was an English military surveyor, astronomer and engineer, and was Britain’s Chief Inspector of Railways from 1877 until his death... - Ashtabula River Railroad DisasterAshtabula River Railroad DisasterThe Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster was a train disaster caused by bridge failure...
(1876), Amasa StoneAmasa StoneAmasa Stone was an American industrialist who built railroads and invested in mills in Ohio. He was a major benefactor of Western Reserve College, which became part of Case Western Reserve University in 1967. Amasa Stone Chapel was built after his death in his memory...
Canada
- Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia (APEGBC)Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British ColumbiaThe Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia is the licensing body for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists in the Province of British Columbia, Canada....
- Act, Bylaws and Code of Ethics
- Association of Professional Engineers, Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta (APEGGA)Association of Professional Engineers, Geologists, and Geophysicists of AlbertaThe Association of Professional Engineers, Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta is a professional association specific to the Canadian province of Alberta. The association, which acts as a regulatory agency, derives its authority from Alberta statute. It was created in 1920.APEGGA regulates...
- Association of Professional Engineers, Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta (APEGGA)
- EGGP Code of Ethics
- Professional Engineers Ontario (PEO)Professional Engineers OntarioProfessional Engineers Ontario, PEO, is the self-regulatory body that governs Ontario's 73,000 professional engineers, and sets standards for and regulates engineering practice in the province. It has a statutory mandate under the Professional Engineers Act of Ontario to protect the public interest...
- Professional Engineers Ontario (PEO)
- Code of Ethics (See link on front page.)
- L'Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec (OIQ)
- Code of Ethics of Engineers
- Iron RingIron RingThe Iron Ring is a ring worn by many engineers in Canada as a symbol and reminder of the obligations and ethics associated with the profession. Obtaining the ring is an optional endeavour, as it is not a prerequisite to becoming a Professional Engineer...
- Iron Ring
- The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer
- University of Western OntarioUniversity of Western OntarioThe University of Western Ontario is a public research university located in London, Ontario, Canada. The university's main campus covers of land, with the Thames River cutting through the eastern portion of the main campus. Western administers its programs through 12 different faculties and...
- University of Western Ontario
- Software Ethics - A Guide to the Ethical and Legal Use of Software for Members of the University Community of the University of Western Ontario
United Kingdom
- Association for Consultancy and Engineering (ACE)
- Anti-Corruption Action Statement
- Institution of Civil EngineersInstitution of Civil EngineersFounded on 2 January 1818, the Institution of Civil Engineers is an independent professional association, based in central London, representing civil engineering. Like its early membership, the majority of its current members are British engineers, but it also has members in more than 150...
(ICE)
- Institution of Civil Engineers
- Royal Charter, By-laws, Regulations and Rules
- Institution of Engineering and TechnologyInstitution of Engineering and TechnologyThe Institution of Engineering and Technology is a British professional body for those working in engineering and technology in the United Kingdom and worldwide. It was formed in 2006 from two separate institutions: the Institution of Electrical Engineers , dating back to 1871, and the...
(IET)
- Institution of Engineering and Technology
- Professional ethics and the IET
- Engineering Council (EC)
- http://www.engc.org.uk/ecukdocuments/internet/document%20library/Statement%20of%20Ethical%20Principles.pdf
Statementof Ethical Principles
United States
- National Academy of EngineeringNational Academy of EngineeringThe National Academy of Engineering is a government-created non-profit institution in the United States, that was founded in 1964 under the same congressional act that led to the founding of the National Academy of Sciences...
- Online Ethics Center of the National Academy of Engineering
- List of links to various professional and scientific societies' codes of ethics
- Onlineethics.org
- National Institute for Engineering Ethics (NIEE)
- National Society of Professional EngineersNational Society of Professional EngineersThe National Society of Professional Engineers is a professional engineering organization in the United States. From their press releases:...
(NSPE)
- Code of Ethics
- Board of Ethical Review and BER Cases
- Ethics Resources and References
- American Institute of Chemical EngineersAmerican Institute of Chemical EngineersThe American Institute of Chemical Engineers is a professional organization for chemical engineers.AIChE was established in 1908 with the purpose of establishing chemical engineers as a profession independent from chemists and mechanical engineers.As of 2010, AIChE had over 40,000 members,...
(AIChE)
- American Institute of Chemical Engineers
- Code of Ethics
- American Society of Civil EngineersAmerican Society of Civil EngineersThe American Society of Civil Engineers is a professional body founded in 1852 to represent members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. It is the oldest national engineering society in the United States. ASCE's vision is to have engineers positioned as global leaders who strive toward...
(ASCE)
- American Society of Civil Engineers
- Code of Ethics
- Standards of Professional Conduct for Civil Engineers
- American Society of Mechanical EngineersAmerican Society of Mechanical EngineersThe American Society of Mechanical Engineers is a professional body, specifically an engineering society, focused on mechanical engineering....
(ASME), Code of Ethics - Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersInstitute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersThe Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is a non-profit professional association headquartered in New York City that is dedicated to advancing technological innovation and excellence...
(IEEE)
- American Society of Mechanical Engineers
- Code of Ethics
- The Order of the EngineerOrder of the EngineerThe Order of the Engineer is an association for graduate and professional engineers in the United States that emphasizes pride and responsibility in the engineering profession. It was inspired by the success of The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, a similar Canadian ceremony, and is a common...
- The Order of the Engineer
- The Obligation of an Engineer
- Society of Manufacturing EngineersSociety of Manufacturing EngineersThe Society of Manufacturing Engineers is a non-profit organization.-History of the Society:Founded in 1932 with 33 members, the organization was originally named The Society of Tool Engineers . A year later, it was renamed the American Society of Tool Engineers...
(SME)
- Society of Manufacturing Engineers
- Code of Ethics
International
- Global Infrastructure Anti-Corruption Centre
- Transparency InternationalTransparency InternationalTransparency International is a non-governmental organization that monitors and publicizes corporate and political corruption in international development. It publishes an annual Corruption Perceptions Index, a comparative listing of corruption worldwide...