Culture of Mangalorean Catholics
Encyclopedia
The Culture of Mangalorean Catholics is a blend of Goan and Mangalorean cultures. After migration to Mangalore, they adopted the local Mangalorean culture, but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions. Their traditional houses, observed only in Mangalore, have spacious portico
s, red cement or terra cotta
floors and fruit trees around the house.
A German missionary Plebot
set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the Basel Mission tile factory
. In the course of time, Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles
and the Albuquerque tile factory
, the first Indian Mangalore tile
manufacturing factory was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque, a Mangalorean Catholic, at Pane Mangalore
in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing these red Mangalore tiles. After the opening of the Albuquerque tile factory, the Alvares tile factory
was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878. As of 1991—92, out of 12 tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, 6 were owned by Christians. These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle-East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India, and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterize its urban setting. Urban and rural housing follows the old traditional variety of laterite-brick structures with Mangalore tile
roofing with steep slopes. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house.
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Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries. Sanna-Dukra Maas (Sanna – idli fluffed with toddy or yeast; Dukra Maas – Pork) is one of the most popular dish of the Mangalorean Catholic community. Rosachi Kadi (Ros Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (ros), is a traditional curry served during the Ros ceremony. Patrode
, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, dal
, jaggery, coconut, and spices is also popular. Kuswar
are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and includes around 22 varieties of sweets. Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics. Par-boiled rice, also known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten and preferred over raw rice.
s, having variants in both Konkani and English, like Zuãuñ (John) and Mornel (Magdalene
) are common among Mangalorean Catholics. Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension
. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension. The Mangalorean Catholic variant of many first names is the Mangalorean Catholic Konkani version of its Portuguese counterpart which was borrowed from the Portuguese language
(examples include Zâbel from the Portuguese Isabel, Zuãuñ from the Portuguese João, Pedru from the Portuguese Pedro, and Zoze from the Portuguese José). Portuguese surnames like D'Souza and Pinto
are abundant among Mangalorean Catholics, and generally follow the second declension. Some families use their original Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames such as Prabhu
, Kamat
, Pai
, and Shenoy
. Other European surnames are also found.
Mangalorean Catholics speak the Konkani language
, which they retained as their mother tongue despite the migration. The Konkani language is central to the community's identity. Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European
family of languages, which is spoken predominantly on the west coast of India. They speak a dialect of Konkani, known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the Ethnologue
identifies as the Mangalore dialect. It is largely derived from the Bardeskaar (North Goa
n) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar Christian dialect and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect. This dialect has a significant infusion of Tulu
and Kannada
loanwords. Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon. It is significantly different from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara. The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is much closer to the dialects of the
Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics. 350-400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect.
The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first English-Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore. In 1912, the first Konkani periodical, Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas. Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno (1938) by Mons Sylvester Menezes, Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958), and Kannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda. In Bombay
, periodicals like Sukh-Dukh (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, Konknni Yuvak (1949) by George Fernandes
, Poinnari (1950) by V.J.P. Saldanha, and Divo (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published. Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian Politics
in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes, historical awakening, in books such as Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu, and sexual desires, in The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta.
The Mangalorean genealogist
Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopaedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical Encyclopaedia, currently exceeding 6000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include Mangaloreans Worldwide — An International Directory (1999), Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), and The Mangalorean Catholic Community — A Professional History / Directory (2002). In 2000, the Diocese of Mangalore released the first Konkani Bible in Kannada script, which was made available online on 26 July 2007.
Roman Catholic traditions include the Sakrament (Seven Sacraments
) and include Povitr-Snan (Baptism
), Thiravnni (Confirmation
), Krist-Prasad (Eucharist), Prachit (Penance
), Piddestanchi Makhnni (Anointing of the Sick
), Iazokanchi Sonskornni (Holy Orders
) and Logn (Matrimony
).
Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions and reveal their existence especially during the celebration of a marriage. Their culture is more traditional and Indian. Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the region were Portuguese, there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture. They have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non-Brahmin stock. It were mainly these Pagan marriage rites which the Portuguese during the Goan Inquisition found objectionable and prohibited it in a Manual of Rules and Regulations of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in the Kingdoms of Portugal, published in 1640 by Bishop D. Franciscode Castro.
Ros (anointing
) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents' blessing of the bride and groom, who are anointed with ros, a mixture of coconut milk
and coconut oil
, while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead. Later, it is followed by the Resper (Nuptial Blessing in Church) and finally the Vordik (wedding) and Voran (wedding party). Other traditions include Soirik or Sairikecho Malo (betrothal), Voulik (wedding invitation
) and exchange of Paan Pod or Bido (betel leaves) during marriage ceremonies, which was called badalchen (changing hands). Indian traditions include adorning the bride with the Sado (wedding sari
) and Pirduk (wedding necklace), the wearing of which indicates her Ayaponn (destiny), the Onpnni or Opsun divnchen (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride), Porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house), and singing of Honvious (hymns). Some other traditions include Novemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and Novem (blessing of new harvests).
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In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas
, Good Friday
, and Easter
, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. Monti Fest
is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem (new crops). The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church
at Farangipet in South Canara, and was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Though Tippu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali
with Father Miranda. Attur Jatre or Attur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast of St. Lawrence, celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine
on the outskirts of Karkala
in South Canara. This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. Eucharist
ic Procession (Evkaristic Purshanv in Konkani) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church
to Rosario Cathedral. The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.
Mangalorean Catholic men used to wear long loose frilled white or black coats (similar to the Maratha
loose coats) with buttons. The turbans were usually flattened like the Coorgi turban
s (Urmal). The Urmal is a long white piece of cloth with a golden hem and is tied around the head like a turban. In modern times, this mode has changed. Only a few old people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church going occasions.
Mangalorean Catholic men used to wear long loose frilled white or black coats (similar to the Maratha
loose coats) with buttons. The turbans were usually flattened like the Coorgi turban
s (Urmal). The Urmal is a long white piece of cloth with a golden hem and is tied around the head like a turban. In modern times, this mode has changed. Only a few old people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church going occasions. Before marriage, women used to wear white skirts over which sarees and blouses were worn. The dress was a sign of her virginity and she wore it on the day of Ros ceremony Gold ornaments in those days were absent. Married women used to wear sarees the general way.
The Mangalorean Catholic bride's sari
is known as an Sado. It is usually a red coloured Banarasi sari
, which are made of finely woven silk
and are decorated with elaborate engravings. The bride is also presented with a sari by her own people which is called Dharma sado, which was worn on other festive occasions. Some brides also wear a white sari during the nuptial blessing in church. Ornaments worn by the bride in ancient times included kanti, chakrasar, kap, karap, mugud, kanto, dantoni. Except datoni none of these ornaments are in use in the modern generation. Present-day brides wear a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings and at least two of the golden combs known as Dantoni that consisted of two ordinary combs and the upper part of each one was plate with gold, that are worn in the hair on both sides of the headover the ears. On the way to church she wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, a bang (gold chain) was placed with a pendant. A widow had to wear a black sari all her life, and was not allowed to wear ornaments.
Two more combs were worn by the bride, with a figure of a fish in gold inserted in each comb and were therefore called masli (fish). The hair is well combed and parted in the middle of the forehead. This fashion is strictly observed. A girl parting her hair in any other manner was regarded a loose girl. In the centre of the forehead where the hair is parted, a gold chain was placed with a pendant. This chain was called bang.None of these ornaments are worn on ordinary days. Every bride formerly wore three pairs of gold bangles; in addition she wore bangles of red glass.
The bridegroom's dress in the early times consisted of a short loincloth
of hand-woven cloth (Dhoti
), a shawl to cover his shoulders and a red handkerchief
on the head (leis). The groom's dress was gradually improved. Later, his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem
(todop), a shirt with gold buttons and a coat (kutav), a shawl on the shoulders and a towel on the head. The bridegroom wore a chakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks. In modern times however, some westernized Mangalorean Catholic couples have a White wedding
, were the bridegroom wears a suit
, while the bride wears a white gown
.
Mangalorean Catholics had retained the same caste system which their ancestors had in Goa. They were divided into four castes — Bāmaṇs
, Charodis
, Shudra
s, and Gaudis. The biggest group were the Bāmaṇs (the Konkani word for Brahmins). They were converts from the Brahmin
caste (priestly class), and especially included the Goud Saraswat Brahmin converts from Goa. The Charodis, the second largest group, were converts from the Kshatriya
(warrior class) and Vaishya
(merchant class) castes. The artisan converts formed the third biggest group and were known as Shudra
s (labour class). The converts from the fisher-caste residing around Ullal, Kuloor and other places around the sea coast were called Gaudis, and formed the fourth group. Other minor castes, included the Padvals, who the historian Severine Silva, in his book "The Marriage Customs of the Christians in South Canara, India", assumes to be local Jain
converts.
It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the gurkar system came into existence. Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted the work of social and religious supervision of the community. After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers. Every farmer practised carpentry but it was quite primitive and unskilled. Other crafts and industries were non-existent. By the later half of the 19th century Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the Mangalore tile industry, Coffee
plantations and trade in plantation products. The mass was celebrated in Latin; but the sermon
, the cathecism, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.
A widow had to remain indoors practically for the rest of her life. Canon Law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara, but few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast. No stigma was attached to her husband.
by a Mangalorean Catholic organization, Mandd Sobhann, entered the Guinness Book of World Records
for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns. Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo
) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil
(Lutheran University of Brazil). The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore
, is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore. The well known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest, during the 18th century, when he was held captive by Tippu Sultan, on his Canara mission. Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics as of today are Aika Cristanv Jana, Utha Utha Praniya, and Sorgim Thaun. The ghumat was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings. The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open. The tradition Of Voviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during a Ros, is important to this community. The procedure is that one of the elderly lady, usually the yejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as yejmani) who knows the voviyos leads the song while the rest of the women sing along with her. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.
Portico
A portico is a porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade, with a roof structure over a walkway, supported by columns or enclosed by walls...
s, red cement or terra cotta
Terra cotta
Terracotta, Terra cotta or Terra-cotta is a clay-based unglazed ceramic, although the term can also be applied to glazed ceramics where the fired body is porous and red in color...
floors and fruit trees around the house.
Architecture and cuisine
Plebot
Plebot was a German missionary that established one of the first tile making factories known as Basel Mission tile factory in 1860, after they found large deposits of clay by the banks Gurupura and Nethravathi rivers. It was located near Morgan's Gate on the banks of the river Nethravathi....
set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the Basel Mission tile factory
Basel Mission tile factory
Basel Mission tile factory ran by the German missionary Plebot, was the first Mangalore tile manufacturing factory to be set up in India in 1860 on bank of the Nethravathi river near Morgan's Gate, about 10 km from the Ullal bridge....
. In the course of time, Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles
Mangalore Tiles
Mangalore tiles are a type of tiles native to the city of Mangalore, India. The tiles were first introduced to India in 1860 by a German missionary. Since then the industry flourished in India...
and the Albuquerque tile factory
Albuquerque tile factory
Albuquerque tile factory is a tile factory located at Pani-Mangalore in Mangalore. It is the only tile factory whose tiles are recommended for Government buildings.-History:...
, the first Indian Mangalore tile
Mangalore Tiles
Mangalore tiles are a type of tiles native to the city of Mangalore, India. The tiles were first introduced to India in 1860 by a German missionary. Since then the industry flourished in India...
manufacturing factory was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque, a Mangalorean Catholic, at Pane Mangalore
Pane mangalore
Pane mangalore is a village on the banks of Netravati river near B.C.Road. It lies in Bantwal taluk of Dakshina Kannada district.The National Highway-48 passes through this village.-External links:**...
in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing these red Mangalore tiles. After the opening of the Albuquerque tile factory, the Alvares tile factory
Alvares tile factory
Alvares tile factory is a Mangalore tile factory located at in Mangalore. The tiles produced by this factory were in great demand throughout the Indian subcontinent and East Africa....
was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878. As of 1991—92, out of 12 tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, 6 were owned by Christians. These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle-East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India, and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterize its urban setting. Urban and rural housing follows the old traditional variety of laterite-brick structures with Mangalore tile
Mangalore Tiles
Mangalore tiles are a type of tiles native to the city of Mangalore, India. The tiles were first introduced to India in 1860 by a German missionary. Since then the industry flourished in India...
roofing with steep slopes. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house.
Patrode
Patrode is a dish made in the Konkan region of the western coast of India. It is a popular dish for festive occasions among Konkanis. Regional variations of Patrode are Aluwadi made by the Marathis and Patra made by the Gujaratis, both of which are normally deep fried rather than steamed as in the...
, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, dal
Dal
Dal is a preparation of pulses which have been stripped of their outer hulls and split. It also refers to the thick stew prepared from these, an important part of Indian, Nepali, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, and Bangladeshi cuisine...
, jaggery, coconut, and spices is also popular. Kuswar
Kuswar
Kuswar is a term often used to mention a set of unique Christmas goodies which are part of the cuisine of the Goan Catholic community of Goa and the Mangalorean Catholic community of Karnataka, India. There are as many as 22 different traditional recipes that form this distinct flavour of Christmas...
are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and includes around 22 varieties of sweets. Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics. Par-boiled rice, also known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten and preferred over raw rice.
Names and surnames
Bilingual nameBilingual name
A bilingual name is a name of a person that is spelled, if not pronounced, exactly the same in two languages. The speakers of a certain language usually have names that do not exist in another language. Even when the name has a common root or refers to the same historic or religious figure,...
s, having variants in both Konkani and English, like Zuãuñ (John) and Mornel (Magdalene
Magdalene (given name)
Magdalene, Magdalen, or Magdalena is a female name used in many countries including Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Romania, Germany, Greece, Poland, Spain, Scandinavia, Slovakia and Slovenia and may refer to:...
) are common among Mangalorean Catholics. Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension
Declension
In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and articles to indicate number , case , and gender...
. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension. The Mangalorean Catholic variant of many first names is the Mangalorean Catholic Konkani version of its Portuguese counterpart which was borrowed from the Portuguese language
Portuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
(examples include Zâbel from the Portuguese Isabel, Zuãuñ from the Portuguese João, Pedru from the Portuguese Pedro, and Zoze from the Portuguese José). Portuguese surnames like D'Souza and Pinto
Pinto
-General:*Conspiracy of the Pintos, a rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa, India in 1787*Ford Pinto , a subcompact car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company for the North American market...
are abundant among Mangalorean Catholics, and generally follow the second declension. Some families use their original Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames such as Prabhu
Prabhu
Prabhu means master or the supreme lord in Sanskrit and many of the Indian languages; it is a name sometimes applied to God.The term is also used by male devotees of the hindu deity Lord Krishna/Vishnu as a title and form of address. If a man sees another male devotee whom he does not know, he will...
, Kamat
Kamat
Kamath or Kamat is a common surname amongst the Goud Saraswat Brahmins of the Konkan and Malabar coasts of India in the states of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra. They usually speak Konkani and is considered as their mother tongue. And most often Marathi or Kannada as their secondary language...
, Pai
Pai (surname)
Pai is a common surname amongst the Gowd Saraswat Brahmins of India. Pai is known to be a prakrit of Pati or "Lord". An unlikely source is leg or foot or one amassed wealth. Pai may have come from Appaya meaning elderbrother according to Poet B.B. Borkar.Families with the surname Pai, are...
, and Shenoy
Shenoy
Shenoy is a common surname amongst the Goud Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins. It is the most common surname among the Goud Saraswat Brahmins.-Etymology:...
. Other European surnames are also found.
| Mangalorean Catholic variant | English variant | Portuguese variant | Meaning | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mâri | Mary Mary (given name) Mary is a feminine given name, the English form of the name Maria, which was in turn a Latin form of the Greek names Μαριαμ, or Mariam, and Μαρια, or Maria, found in the New Testament. Both New Testament names were forms of the Hebrew name מִרְיָם or Miryam.The usual meaning given by various... |
Maria | Beloved | Female |
| Monku | Monica Monica (given name) Monica is a female given name with many variant forms, including Monca, Monicka, Monika, Monike, Moniqua, Monique, Moneca, Mónika and Monnica.- History :... |
Mónica | To advise | Female |
| Motes | Matthew Matthew (name) Matthew is a given name that ultimately comes from the Hebrew name Matityahu. It was first named to Saint Matthew, who was one of the twelve disciples and credited with the authorship of the Gospel of Matthew... |
Mateus | Gift from God | Male |
| Nâtu | Natalia Natalia Natalia is a female given name. It is the Latin form of Natalie used also in Italian, Spanish and Polish. Other spellings include Natália Nathália , Natalya , Nataliya , Natalija .-People with the given name Natalia:* Natalia ,... |
Natalia | Birthday | Female |
| Pedru | Peter | Pedro | Stone | Male |
| Šila | Sylvester Sylvester Sylvester is a name derived from the Latin adjective silvestris meaning "wooded" or "wild", which derives from the noun silva meaning "woodland". Classical Latin spells this with i. In Classical Latin y represented a separate sound distinct from i, not a native Latin sound but one used in... |
Silas | Wooded | Male |
| Zâbel | Elizabeth Elizabeth (given name) Elizabeth is a feminine given name derived from the Greek Elisávet , which is a form of the Hebrew name Elisheva , meaning "My God is an oath" or"My God is abundance."... |
Isabel | My God is my oath | Female |
| Zoze | Joseph Joseph (name) Joseph is a name originating from Hebrew, recorded in the Hebrew Bible, as יוֹסֵף, Standard Hebrew Yosef, Tiberian Hebrew and Aramaic Yôsēp̄. In Arabic, including in the Qur'an, the name is spelled يوسف or Yūsuf. The name can be translated from Hebrew יהוה להוסיף Yihoh Lhosif as signifying "YHWH... |
José | The Lord will add | Male |
| Sources: English-Konkani Dictionary (2001) and A Konkani Grammar (2003) | ||||
Language and literature
Mangalorean Catholics speak the Konkani language
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
, which they retained as their mother tongue despite the migration. The Konkani language is central to the community's identity. Konkani is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-European
Indo-European languages
The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia and also historically predominant in Anatolia...
family of languages, which is spoken predominantly on the west coast of India. They speak a dialect of Konkani, known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the Ethnologue
Ethnologue
Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
identifies as the Mangalore dialect. It is largely derived from the Bardeskaar (North Goa
North Goa
North Goa is one of the two districts that make up the state of Goa, India. The district has an area of 1736 km², and is bounded by Sindhudurg and Kolhapur districts of Maharashtra state to the north and east respectively, by South Goa District to the south, and by the Arabian Sea to the...
n) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar Christian dialect and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect. This dialect has a significant infusion of Tulu
Tulu language
The Tulu language |?]]]) is a Dravidian language spoken by 1.95 million native speakers mainly in the southwest part of Indian state Karnataka known as Tulu Nadu. In India, 1.72 million people speak it as their mother tongue , increased by 10 percent over the 1991 census...
and Kannada
Kannada language
Kannada or , is a language spoken in India predominantly in the state of Karnataka. Kannada, whose native speakers are called Kannadigas and number roughly 50 million, is one of the 30 most spoken languages in the world...
loanwords. Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon. It is significantly different from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara. The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is much closer to the dialects of the
Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics. 350-400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect.
The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first English-Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore. In 1912, the first Konkani periodical, Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas. Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno (1938) by Mons Sylvester Menezes, Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958), and Kannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda. In Bombay
Mumbai
Mumbai , formerly known as Bombay in English, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million...
, periodicals like Sukh-Dukh (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, Konknni Yuvak (1949) by George Fernandes
George Fernandes
George Mathew Fernandes is an Indian trade unionist, politician, journalist, agriculturist, and member of Rajya Sabha from Bihar. He is a key member of the Janata Dal , and was the founder of the Samata Party...
, Poinnari (1950) by V.J.P. Saldanha, and Divo (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published. Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian Politics
Politics of India
The politics of India takes place within the framework of a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of India is head of state and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the President and is independent of the legislature...
in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes, historical awakening, in books such as Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu, and sexual desires, in The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta.
The Mangalorean genealogist
Genealogy
Genealogy is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral traditions, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship and pedigrees of its members...
Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopaedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical Encyclopaedia, currently exceeding 6000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include Mangaloreans Worldwide — An International Directory (1999), Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), and The Mangalorean Catholic Community — A Professional History / Directory (2002). In 2000, the Diocese of Mangalore released the first Konkani Bible in Kannada script, which was made available online on 26 July 2007.
Traditions and festivals
Sacraments of the Catholic Church
The Sacraments of the Catholic Church are, the Roman Catholic Church teaches, "efficacious signs of grace, instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church, by which divine life is dispensed to us. The visible rites by which the sacraments are celebrated signify and make present the graces proper...
) and include Povitr-Snan (Baptism
Baptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
), Thiravnni (Confirmation
Confirmation (Catholic Church)
Confirmation is one of the seven sacraments through which Catholics pass in the process of their religious upbringing. According to Catholic doctrine, in this sacrament they receive the Holy Spirit and become adult members of the Catholic Church....
), Krist-Prasad (Eucharist), Prachit (Penance
Sacrament of Penance (Catholic Church)
In the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, the Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation is the method by which individual men and women may be freed from sins committed after receiving the sacrament of Baptism...
), Piddestanchi Makhnni (Anointing of the Sick
Anointing of the Sick (Catholic Church)
Anointing of the Sick is a sacrament of the Catholic Church that is administered to Catholics who because of sickness or old age are in danger of death, even if the danger is not proximate...
), Iazokanchi Sonskornni (Holy Orders
Holy Orders (Catholic Church)
Holy Orders in the Catholic Church includes three orders: bishop, priest, and deacon. The Church regards ordination as a Sacrament. In the phrase "Holy Orders", the word "holy" simply means "set apart for some purpose." The word order designates an established civil body or corporation with a...
) and Logn (Matrimony
Catholic marriage
Catholic marriage, also called matrimony, is a "covenant by which a man and a woman establish between themselves a partnership of the whole of life and which is ordered by its nature to the good of the spouses and the procreation and education of offspring...
).
Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions and reveal their existence especially during the celebration of a marriage. Their culture is more traditional and Indian. Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the region were Portuguese, there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture. They have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non-Brahmin stock. It were mainly these Pagan marriage rites which the Portuguese during the Goan Inquisition found objectionable and prohibited it in a Manual of Rules and Regulations of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in the Kingdoms of Portugal, published in 1640 by Bishop D. Franciscode Castro.
Ros (anointing
Anointing
To anoint is to pour or smear with perfumed oil, milk, water, melted butter or other substances, a process employed ritually by many religions. People and things are anointed to symbolize the introduction of a sacramental or divine influence, a holy emanation, spirit, power or God...
) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents' blessing of the bride and groom, who are anointed with ros, a mixture of coconut milk
Coconut milk
Coconut milk is the water that comes from the grated meat of a coconut. The colour and rich taste of the milk can be attributed to the high oil content. In many parts of the world, the term coconut milk is also used to refer to coconut water, the naturally occurring liquid found inside the hollow...
and coconut oil
Coconut oil
Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts harvested from the coconut palm . Throughout the tropical world, it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry...
, while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead. Later, it is followed by the Resper (Nuptial Blessing in Church) and finally the Vordik (wedding) and Voran (wedding party). Other traditions include Soirik or Sairikecho Malo (betrothal), Voulik (wedding invitation
Wedding invitation
A wedding invitation is a letter asking the recipient to attend a wedding. It is typically written in formal, third-person language and mailed five to eight weeks before the wedding date....
) and exchange of Paan Pod or Bido (betel leaves) during marriage ceremonies, which was called badalchen (changing hands). Indian traditions include adorning the bride with the Sado (wedding sari
Sari
A sari or sareeThe name of the garment in various regional languages include: , , , , , , , , , , , , , is a strip of unstitched cloth, worn by females, ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles. It is popular in India, Bangladesh, Nepal,...
) and Pirduk (wedding necklace), the wearing of which indicates her Ayaponn (destiny), the Onpnni or Opsun divnchen (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride), Porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house), and singing of Honvious (hymns). Some other traditions include Novemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and Novem (blessing of new harvests).
Christmas
Christmas or Christmas Day is an annual holiday generally celebrated on December 25 by billions of people around the world. It is a Christian feast that commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ, liturgically closing the Advent season and initiating the season of Christmastide, which lasts twelve days...
, Good Friday
Good Friday
Good Friday , is a religious holiday observed primarily by Christians commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and his death at Calvary. The holiday is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum on the Friday preceding Easter Sunday, and may coincide with the Jewish observance of...
, and Easter
Easter
Easter is the central feast in the Christian liturgical year. According to the Canonical gospels, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. His resurrection is celebrated on Easter Day or Easter Sunday...
, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. Monti Fest
Monti Fest
Monti Fest is one of the major festivals of Goan, Mangalorean Catholic and other Konkani Catholic communities celebrated on September 8 every year...
is one of the major festivals, celebrated on 8 September. It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem (new crops). The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church
Monte Mariano Church
Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet in South Canara, is a church where the Roman Catholic festival Monti Fest was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Though Tippu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the...
at Farangipet in South Canara, and was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Though Tippu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born Hyder Naik, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers...
with Father Miranda. Attur Jatre or Attur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast of St. Lawrence, celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine
St. Lawrence Shrine
St. Lawrence Shrine or Attur Church is a Church in the erstwhile South Canara in existence from 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. It is by characterized its Attur Jatre or Attur Fest ....
on the outskirts of Karkala
Karkala
Karkala is a town and the headquarters of Karkala taluk in the Udupi district of Karnataka, India. Located about 380 km from Bangalore, it lies near the Western Ghats....
in South Canara. This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. Eucharist
Eucharist
The Eucharist , also called Holy Communion, the Sacrament of the Altar, the Blessed Sacrament, the Lord's Supper, and other names, is a Christian sacrament or ordinance...
ic Procession (Evkaristic Purshanv in Konkani) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church
Milagres Church
The Milagres Church is a historic Roman Catholic Church situated in the Hampankatta locality of Mangalore. The church was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas de Castro, a Theatine from Divar, Goa. The original structure was constructed at the site of the present-day cemetery...
to Rosario Cathedral. The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.
Costumes and Ornaments
Marathi people
The Marathi people or Maharashtrians are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, that inhabit the Maharashtra region and state of western India. Their language Marathi is part of the southern group of Indo-Aryan languages...
loose coats) with buttons. The turbans were usually flattened like the Coorgi turban
Turban
In English, Turban refers to several types of headwear popularly worn in the Middle East, North Africa, Punjab, Jamaica and Southwest Asia. A commonly used synonym is Pagri, the Indian word for turban.-Styles:...
s (Urmal). The Urmal is a long white piece of cloth with a golden hem and is tied around the head like a turban. In modern times, this mode has changed. Only a few old people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church going occasions.
Mangalorean Catholic men used to wear long loose frilled white or black coats (similar to the Maratha
Marathi people
The Marathi people or Maharashtrians are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group, that inhabit the Maharashtra region and state of western India. Their language Marathi is part of the southern group of Indo-Aryan languages...
loose coats) with buttons. The turbans were usually flattened like the Coorgi turban
Turban
In English, Turban refers to several types of headwear popularly worn in the Middle East, North Africa, Punjab, Jamaica and Southwest Asia. A commonly used synonym is Pagri, the Indian word for turban.-Styles:...
s (Urmal). The Urmal is a long white piece of cloth with a golden hem and is tied around the head like a turban. In modern times, this mode has changed. Only a few old people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church going occasions. Before marriage, women used to wear white skirts over which sarees and blouses were worn. The dress was a sign of her virginity and she wore it on the day of Ros ceremony Gold ornaments in those days were absent. Married women used to wear sarees the general way.
The Mangalorean Catholic bride's sari
Sari
A sari or sareeThe name of the garment in various regional languages include: , , , , , , , , , , , , , is a strip of unstitched cloth, worn by females, ranging from four to nine metres in length that is draped over the body in various styles. It is popular in India, Bangladesh, Nepal,...
is known as an Sado. It is usually a red coloured Banarasi sari
Banarasi
Banarasi saris are saris made in Varanasi, a city which is also called "Benares." These saris are historically considered to be among the finest saris in India and are known for their gold and silver brocade, fine silk and opulent embroidery, and being highly sought after...
, which are made of finely woven silk
Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity...
and are decorated with elaborate engravings. The bride is also presented with a sari by her own people which is called Dharma sado, which was worn on other festive occasions. Some brides also wear a white sari during the nuptial blessing in church. Ornaments worn by the bride in ancient times included kanti, chakrasar, kap, karap, mugud, kanto, dantoni. Except datoni none of these ornaments are in use in the modern generation. Present-day brides wear a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings and at least two of the golden combs known as Dantoni that consisted of two ordinary combs and the upper part of each one was plate with gold, that are worn in the hair on both sides of the headover the ears. On the way to church she wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, a bang (gold chain) was placed with a pendant. A widow had to wear a black sari all her life, and was not allowed to wear ornaments.
Two more combs were worn by the bride, with a figure of a fish in gold inserted in each comb and were therefore called masli (fish). The hair is well combed and parted in the middle of the forehead. This fashion is strictly observed. A girl parting her hair in any other manner was regarded a loose girl. In the centre of the forehead where the hair is parted, a gold chain was placed with a pendant. This chain was called bang.None of these ornaments are worn on ordinary days. Every bride formerly wore three pairs of gold bangles; in addition she wore bangles of red glass.
The bridegroom's dress in the early times consisted of a short loincloth
Loincloth
A loincloth is a one-piece male garment, sometimes kept in place by a belt, which covers the genitals and, at least partially, the buttocks.-History and types:Loincloths are being and have been worn:*in societies where no other clothing is needed or wanted...
of hand-woven cloth (Dhoti
Dhoti
The dhoti or pancha is the traditional men's garment in the in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. A similar garment is worn in some rural areas of Punjab province in Pakistan, but the use is fast declining...
), a shawl to cover his shoulders and a red handkerchief
Handkerchief
A handkerchief , also called a handkercher or hanky, is a form of a kerchief, typically a hemmed square of thin fabric that can be carried in the pocket or purse, and which is intended for personal hygiene purposes such as wiping one's hands or face, or blowing one's nose...
on the head (leis). The groom's dress was gradually improved. Later, his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem
Hem
To hem a piece of cloth is to sew a cut edge in such a way as to prevent unraveling of the fabric.There are many different styles of hems of varying complexities. The most common hem...
(todop), a shirt with gold buttons and a coat (kutav), a shawl on the shoulders and a towel on the head. The bridegroom wore a chakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks. In modern times however, some westernized Mangalorean Catholic couples have a White wedding
White wedding
A white wedding is a traditional formal or semi-formal wedding originating in Europe.The term originates from the white color of the wedding dress, which first became popular with Victorian era elites, after Queen Victoria wore a white lace dress at her wedding; however, the term now also...
, were the bridegroom wears a suit
Suit (clothing)
In clothing, a suit is a set of garments made from the same cloth, consisting of at least a jacket and trousers. Lounge suits are the most common style of Western suit, originating in the United Kingdom as country wear...
, while the bride wears a white gown
Gown
A gown is a loose outer garment from knee- to full-length worn by men and women in Europe from the early Middle Ages to the 17th century ; later, gown was applied to any woman's garment consisting of a bodice and attached skirt.A long, loosely-fitted gown called a Banyan was worn by men in the 18th...
.
Historical Society
Roman Catholic Brahmin
The Roman Catholic Brahmin, also referred to asBamonn in Konkani, is a caste among the Goan and Mangalorean Catholics, of modern-day descendants of Konkani Brahmin converts to Roman Catholicism.-Origins:In Goa, the Brahmins were originally engaged in the priestly occupation, but had taken up...
, Charodis
Roman Catholic Kshatriya
The Roman Catholic Kshatriya is a caste among the Goan and Mangalorean Catholics, of modern-day descendants of Goan Kshatriya and a few Vaishya converts to Roman Catholicism. They are respectively known as Chardo in the Goan Catholic dialects of Konkani The Roman Catholic Kshatriya is a caste among...
, Shudra
Shudra
Shudra is the fourth Varna, as prescribed in the Purusha Sukta of the Rig veda, which constitutes society into four varnas or Chaturvarna. The other three varnas are Brahmans - priests, Kshatriya - those with governing functions, Vaishya - agriculturalists, cattle rearers and traders...
s, and Gaudis. The biggest group were the Bāmaṇs (the Konkani word for Brahmins). They were converts from the Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
caste (priestly class), and especially included the Goud Saraswat Brahmin converts from Goa. The Charodis, the second largest group, were converts from the Kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
(warrior class) and Vaishya
Vaishya
Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order. According to Vedic tradition, this caste primarily comprises merchants, farmers, cattle-herders and artisans.-Duties of Vaishyas:...
(merchant class) castes. The artisan converts formed the third biggest group and were known as Shudra
Shudra
Shudra is the fourth Varna, as prescribed in the Purusha Sukta of the Rig veda, which constitutes society into four varnas or Chaturvarna. The other three varnas are Brahmans - priests, Kshatriya - those with governing functions, Vaishya - agriculturalists, cattle rearers and traders...
s (labour class). The converts from the fisher-caste residing around Ullal, Kuloor and other places around the sea coast were called Gaudis, and formed the fourth group. Other minor castes, included the Padvals, who the historian Severine Silva, in his book "The Marriage Customs of the Christians in South Canara, India", assumes to be local Jain
Tulu Jains
The Jain Bunt are a Jain community of erstwhile nobility and gentry from the region of Tulu Nadu in the southwest of India which comprises the districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada in the Indian state of Karnataka and the Kasaragod taluk of Kerala. The Jain Bunts are traditionally defined as a...
converts.
It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the gurkar system came into existence. Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted the work of social and religious supervision of the community. After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers. Every farmer practised carpentry but it was quite primitive and unskilled. Other crafts and industries were non-existent. By the later half of the 19th century Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the Mangalore tile industry, Coffee
Coffee
Coffee is a brewed beverage with a dark,init brooo acidic flavor prepared from the roasted seeds of the coffee plant, colloquially called coffee beans. The beans are found in coffee cherries, which grow on trees cultivated in over 70 countries, primarily in equatorial Latin America, Southeast Asia,...
plantations and trade in plantation products. The mass was celebrated in Latin; but the sermon
Sermon
A sermon is an oration by a prophet or member of the clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, religious, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law or behavior within both past and present contexts...
, the cathecism, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.
A widow had to remain indoors practically for the rest of her life. Canon Law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara, but few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast. No stigma was attached to her husband.
Songs and music
On 26–27 January 2008, a Konkani cultural event, Konkani Nirantari, held in MangaloreMangalore
Mangalore is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located about west of the state capital, Bangalore. Mangalore lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghat mountain ranges, and is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district in south western...
by a Mangalorean Catholic organization, Mandd Sobhann, entered the Guinness Book of World Records
Guinness World Records
Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records , is a reference book published annually, containing a collection of world records, both human achievements and the extremes of the natural world...
for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns. Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among...
) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil
Universidade Luterana do Brasil
The Universidade Luterana do Brasil is a university located in the city of Canoas, in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil...
(Lutheran University of Brazil). The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore
Mangalore
Mangalore is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located about west of the state capital, Bangalore. Mangalore lies between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghat mountain ranges, and is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district in south western...
, is one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore. The well known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest, during the 18th century, when he was held captive by Tippu Sultan, on his Canara mission. Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics as of today are Aika Cristanv Jana, Utha Utha Praniya, and Sorgim Thaun. The ghumat was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings. The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open. The tradition Of Voviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during a Ros, is important to this community. The procedure is that one of the elderly lady, usually the yejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as yejmani) who knows the voviyos leads the song while the rest of the women sing along with her. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families, invoking the blessing of God on them.