Costoboci
Encyclopedia
The Costoboci were an ancient people located, during the Roman imperial era, between the Carpathian Mountains
and the river Dniester.
The Costoboci invaded the Roman empire
in AD 170 or 171, pillaging its Balkan provinces as far as central Greece, until they were driven out by Romans. Shortly afterwards, their own territory was invaded and occupied by Vandal Astingi and the Costoboci disappeared from history.
.
Some scholars considered this tribe is first mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder
, published ca. AD 77, as a Sarmatian tribe named the Cotobacchi living in the lower Don
valley.. Other scholars have challenged this identification and have recognised the "Cotobacchi" as a distinct tribe.
Ammianus Marcellinus
, writing in ca. 400, according to some scholars, locates the Costoboci between the Dniester and Danube
rivers, probably north-east of former Roman province of Dacia. But Batty interprets the passage as referring to the Pontic steppes in general, and suggests that groups of Costoboci may still have been present in the steppes in Ammianus' day.
In his Geographia (published between 135 and 143 AD), the Greek geographer Ptolemy
seems to indicate that the Costoboci inhabited northwestern or northeastern Dacia. In addition, some scholars identify the people called Transmontanoi (literally: "people beyond the mountains") by Ptolemy, located North of the Carpathians, as Dacian
Costoboci. These Costoboci transmontani, according to Gudmund Schütte
, inhabited also the Dacian town of Setidava
mentioned by Ptolemy, located by Schütte in modern SE Poland.
. However Roger Batty, who considers the sedentary Lipiţa culture a poor match for the Costoboci, argues that it belonged either to a subgroup of the Costoboci or to some sedentary population they ruled over. This culture developed on the northern side of the Carpathians in the Upper Dniester
and Prut
basins in the Late La Tène period. Batty points out that this region was also populated, during the Roman imperial era, by the Bastarnae
, Sarmatian groups and quite possibly smaller Germanic groups.
The bearers of this culture had a sedentary lifestyle, practicing agriculture, cattle-breeding, iron-working and pottery
. The settlements were not fortified and contained sunken floored buildings, surface buildings, storage pits, hearth
s, oven
s and kiln
s. There are numerous pottery finds of various types, both wheel and hand-made, with analogies in shape and decoration in the pre-Roman Dacia
. The pottery of the northern Lipiţa sites from the upper Zolota Lypa basin is similar to that of the Zarubintsy culture
.
The cemeteries were found close to settlements. The predominant funeral rite was cremation
, with urns containing ashes buried in plain graves, but several inhumation graves were also excavated.
The culture disappeared during the 3rd century AD.
scholar Mariangelus Accursius
in the 16th century, but it is now lost.
The name of the tribe is attested in a variety of spellings in and in . According to Ion I. Russu, this is a Thracian compound
name meaning "the shining ones". The first element is the perfect passive participle Cos-to-, derived from the Proto-Indo-European root
kʷek̂-, kʷōk̂- "to seem, see, show", and the second element is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root bhā-, bhō- "to shine", extended by the suffix -k-. Ivan Duridanov considered it a Dacian name with unclear etymology.
" not subjected to Roman rule. However some scholars suggested they were Sarmatian, Slavic, Germanic, Celtic, or Dacian with a Celtic superstratum.
fought the Marcomannic Wars
, a vast and protracted struggle against Marcomanni
, Quadi
, and other tribes along the middle Danube. The Costoboci also joined the anti-Roman coalition.
, returning from the Parthian War
, moved its headquarters from Troesmis
in Moesia Inferior to Potaissa in Dacia Porolissensis, to defend the Dacian provinces against the Marcomannic attacks. Other auxiliary units from Moesia Inferior participated in the middle Danube campaigns, leaving the lower Danube frontier defenses weakened. Taking the opportunity, in 170 or 171, the Costoboci invaded Roman territory. Meeting little opposition, they swept through and raided the provinces of Moesia Inferior, Moesia Superior, Thracia
, Macedonia
and Achaea
.
which was thus abandoned. Their attacks also affected Callatis and the walls of the city required reparations. Two funerary inscriptions discovered at Tropaeum Traiani
in Moesia Inferior commemorate Romans killed during the attacks: Lucius Fufidius Iulianus, a decurion
and duumvir of the city and a man named Daizus, son of Comozous. A vexillatio
made of detachments of the legions I Italica
and V Macedonica was deployed at Tropaeum in this period, perhaps to defend against these attacks. The raiders then moved west reaching Dardania. A tombstone found at Scupi
in Moesia Superior was dedicated to Timonius Dassus, a decurion from the Roman auxiliary cohort
II Aurelia Dardanorum, who fell in combat against the Costoboci. Their offensive continued southwards, through Macedonia into Greece
.
in central Greece, the contemporary travel-writer Pausanias mentioned also an episode of the local resistance against the Costoboci:
Thereafter, the barbarians reached near Athens
where they sacked the famous shrine of the Mysteries
at Eleusis. In May or June 171, the orator Aelius Aristides
delivered a public speech in Smyrna
, lamenting the damage recently inflicted to the sacred site. The extent of damage was limited. Three local inscriptions praise an Eleusinian priest for saving the ritual's secrets. On one of these inscriptions there is mention of the "crimes of the Sarmatians" which has been variously interpreted by scholars: that the name of the Sarmatians was used as an umbrella term
for raiders crossing the lower Danube, that it shows that the Costoboci were a Sarmatian tribe, or that it attests a joint invasion by Costoboci and Sarmatians.
Even though much of the invasion force was spent, the local resistance was insufficient and the procurator Lucius Iulius Vehilius Gratus Iulianus was sent to Greece with a vexillatio to clear out the remnants of the invaders. The Costoboci were thus defeated.
by a soldier from a cohort stationed in Dacia was found at Myszków
in Western Ukraine
. It has been suggested that this may have been loot from a Costobocan raid.
Some scholars suggest that it was during this turbulent period that members of the family of king Pieporus were sent to Rome, as hostages.
. Both Astingi and Lacringi eventually became Roman allies, allowing the Romans to focus on the middle Danube in the Marcomannic wars.
Scholars variously suggest that the remnants of this tribe were subdued by the Vandals or fled, seeking refuge in the neighbouring territories of the Carpi
or in the Roman province of Dacia.
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
and the river Dniester.
The Costoboci invaded the Roman empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
in AD 170 or 171, pillaging its Balkan provinces as far as central Greece, until they were driven out by Romans. Shortly afterwards, their own territory was invaded and occupied by Vandal Astingi and the Costoboci disappeared from history.
Territory
Mainstream modern scholarship locates this tribe north or north-east of Roman DaciaRoman Dacia
The Roman province of Dacia on the Balkans included the modern Romanian regions of Transylvania, Banat and Oltenia, and temporarily Muntenia and southern Moldova, but not the nearby regions of Moesia...
.
Some scholars considered this tribe is first mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
, published ca. AD 77, as a Sarmatian tribe named the Cotobacchi living in the lower Don
Don
- People :* Don , a short form of the masculine given name Donald in English, also a masculine given name in Irish* Don , a Spanish, Portuguese and Italian title, given as a mark of respect* Don, a crime boss...
valley.. Other scholars have challenged this identification and have recognised the "Cotobacchi" as a distinct tribe.
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity...
, writing in ca. 400, according to some scholars, locates the Costoboci between the Dniester and Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
rivers, probably north-east of former Roman province of Dacia. But Batty interprets the passage as referring to the Pontic steppes in general, and suggests that groups of Costoboci may still have been present in the steppes in Ammianus' day.
In his Geographia (published between 135 and 143 AD), the Greek geographer Ptolemy
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy , was a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in Egypt under Roman rule, and is believed to have been born in the town of Ptolemais Hermiou in the...
seems to indicate that the Costoboci inhabited northwestern or northeastern Dacia. In addition, some scholars identify the people called Transmontanoi (literally: "people beyond the mountains") by Ptolemy, located North of the Carpathians, as Dacian
Dacians
The Dacians were an Indo-European people, very close or part of the Thracians. Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia...
Costoboci. These Costoboci transmontani, according to Gudmund Schütte
Gudmund Schütte
Gudmund Schütte was aDanish philologist and historian specialized inthe Danish prehistory.-Bibliography :...
, inhabited also the Dacian town of Setidava
Setidava
Setidava, mentioned by Ptolemy in his Geography, was an outpost of Dacian nationality in northern regions. This town, with the typical Dacian name on -dava, was placed in Ptolemy's Germania, beyond Kalisia, e.g. north of the present Kalisz in Poland...
mentioned by Ptolemy, located by Schütte in modern SE Poland.
Material culture
Some scholars associate the Costoboci with the Lipiţa cultureLipiţa culture
Lipiţa culture is the archaeological material culture representative of a Dacian tribe. It took its name from the Ukrainian village of Verkhnya Lypytsya Lipiţa culture (Romanian Lipiţa, Polish Lipica other spellings: Lipitsa, Lipitza) is the archaeological material culture representative of a...
. However Roger Batty, who considers the sedentary Lipiţa culture a poor match for the Costoboci, argues that it belonged either to a subgroup of the Costoboci or to some sedentary population they ruled over. This culture developed on the northern side of the Carpathians in the Upper Dniester
Dniester
The Dniester is a river in Eastern Europe. It runs through Ukraine and Moldova and separates most of Moldova's territory from the breakaway de facto state of Transnistria.-Names:...
and Prut
Prut
The Prut is a long river in Eastern Europe. In part of its course it forms the border between Romania and Moldova.-Overview:...
basins in the Late La Tène period. Batty points out that this region was also populated, during the Roman imperial era, by the Bastarnae
Bastarnae
The Bastarnae or Basternae were an ancient Germanic tribe,, who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited the region between the eastern Carpathian mountains and the Dnieper river...
, Sarmatian groups and quite possibly smaller Germanic groups.
The bearers of this culture had a sedentary lifestyle, practicing agriculture, cattle-breeding, iron-working and pottery
Pottery
Pottery is the material from which the potteryware is made, of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. The place where such wares are made is also called a pottery . Pottery also refers to the art or craft of the potter or the manufacture of pottery...
. The settlements were not fortified and contained sunken floored buildings, surface buildings, storage pits, hearth
Hearth
In common historic and modern usage, a hearth is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or oven often used for cooking and/or heating. For centuries, the hearth was considered an integral part of a home, often its central or most important feature...
s, oven
Oven
An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for the heating, baking or drying of a substance. It is most commonly used for cooking. Kilns, and furnaces are special-purpose ovens...
s and kiln
Kiln
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, or oven, in which a controlled temperature regime is produced. Uses include the hardening, burning or drying of materials...
s. There are numerous pottery finds of various types, both wheel and hand-made, with analogies in shape and decoration in the pre-Roman Dacia
Dacia
In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians or Getae as they were known by the Greeks—the branch of the Thracians north of the Haemus range...
. The pottery of the northern Lipiţa sites from the upper Zolota Lypa basin is similar to that of the Zarubintsy culture
Zarubintsy culture
The Zarubintsy culture was a culture that from the 3rd century BC until 1st century AD flourished in the area north of the Black Sea along the upper and middle Dnieper and Pripyat Rivers, stretching west towards the Southern Bug river. Zarubintsy sites were particularly dense between the Rivers...
.
The cemeteries were found close to settlements. The predominant funeral rite was cremation
Cremation
Cremation is the process of reducing bodies to basic chemical compounds such as gasses and bone fragments. This is accomplished through high-temperature burning, vaporization and oxidation....
, with urns containing ashes buried in plain graves, but several inhumation graves were also excavated.
The culture disappeared during the 3rd century AD.
Onomastics
An imperial-era funerary inscription in Rome was dedicated to Zia or Ziais the Dacian, the daughter of Tiatus and the wife of Pieporus, a king of the Costoboci. The monument was set up by Natoporus and Drilgisa, Zia's grandsons. The inscription was first published by the ItalianItalian people
The Italian people are an ethnic group that share a common Italian culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a mother tongue. Within Italy, Italians are defined by citizenship, regardless of ancestry or country of residence , and are distinguished from people...
scholar Mariangelus Accursius
Mariangelo Accorso
Mariangelo Accorso was an Italian writer and critic.-Biography:He was born at L'Aquila , then part of the kingdom of Naples.He was a great favourite with Charles V, at whose court he resided for thirty-three years, and by whom he was employed on various foreign missions...
in the 16th century, but it is now lost.
- Drilgisa: a Thracian or Dacian name. It is considered a variant with the infixInfixAn infix is an affix inserted inside a word stem . It contrasts with adfix, a rare term for an affix attached to the end of a stem, such as a prefix or suffix.-Indonesian:...
-l- of the name Drigis(s)a, the name of the Roman veteranVeteranA veteran is a person who has had long service or experience in a particular occupation or field; " A veteran of ..."...
Aurelius Drigisa from Moesia Inferior and of the legionaryLegionaryThe Roman legionary was a professional soldier of the Roman army after the Marian reforms of 107 BC. Legionaries had to be Roman citizens under the age of 45. They enlisted in a legion for twenty-five years of service, a change from the early practice of enlisting only for a campaign...
Titus Aurelius Drigissa from Moesia Superior. The final element -gis(s)a is frequent in Dacian onomastics. - Natoporus: a Thracian or Dacian name. A soldier Natopor is known from several ostraca found at Mons ClaudianusMons ClaudianusMons Claudianus was a Roman quarry in the eastern desert of Egypt. It consisted of a garrison, a quarrying site and civilian and workers quarters.Granodiorite was mined for the Roman Empire where it was used as a building material...
in eastern EgyptEgyptEgypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. A Roman military diploma was issued in 127 in Mauretania CaesariensisMauretania CaesariensisMauretania Caesariensis was a Roman province located in northwestern Africa. It was the easternmost of the North African Roman provinces, mainly in present Algeria, with its capital at Caesarea , now Cherchell.-Historical background:In the first century AD, Roman...
for a Dacian soldier and his two children, a son Nattoporis and a daughter Duccidava. It is a name ending in -por, a frequent Thracian and Dacian onomastic element. On a military diploma issued in 127 in Germania InferiorGermania InferiorGermania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in today's Luxembourg, southern Netherlands, parts of Belgium, and North Rhine-Westphalia left of the Rhine....
, a Dacian soldier's father is named Natusis, a name formed with the same first element nat- and a suffixSuffixIn linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns or adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs...
-zi-/-si-. - Pieporus: a Thracian or Dacian name. It is a name ending in -por, a frequent Thracian and Dacian onomastic element.
- Tiatus: a Thracian or Dacian name. Tiatus is maybe a name starting in thia-, typical for Dacians. A name Tiato is attested on a fragmentary dipinto found at Maximianon, a Roman fort in eastern Egypt.
- Zia or Ziais: a Thracian or Dacian name. Zia is a female name attested in Moesia Inferior.
The name of the tribe is attested in a variety of spellings in and in . According to Ion I. Russu, this is a Thracian compound
Compound (linguistics)
In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the word formation that creates compound lexemes...
name meaning "the shining ones". The first element is the perfect passive participle Cos-to-, derived from the Proto-Indo-European root
Proto-Indo-European root
The roots of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language are basic parts of words that carry a lexical meaning, so-called morphemes. PIE roots always have verbal meaning like "to eat" or "to run", as opposed to nouns , adjectives , or other parts of speech. Roots never occur alone in the language...
kʷek̂-, kʷōk̂- "to seem, see, show", and the second element is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root bhā-, bhō- "to shine", extended by the suffix -k-. Ivan Duridanov considered it a Dacian name with unclear etymology.
Origin and tribal identity
The origin of the Costoboci is uncertain. The mainstream view is that they were a Dacian tribe, among the so-called "Free DaciansFree Dacians
The "Free Dacians" is the name given by some modern historians to Dacians who putatively remained outside the Roman empire after the emperor Trajan's Dacian wars...
" not subjected to Roman rule. However some scholars suggested they were Sarmatian, Slavic, Germanic, Celtic, or Dacian with a Celtic superstratum.
- Onomastics: The royal family of the Costoboci at the time of king Pieporus (2nd c) had Dacian or Thracian names.
- The rubric Dacpetoporiani on the Tabula PeutingerianaTabula PeutingerianaThe Tabula Peutingeriana is an itinerarium showing the cursus publicus, the road network in the Roman Empire. The original map of which this is a unique copy was last revised in the fourth or early fifth century. It covers Europe, parts of Asia and North Africa...
. This has been interpreted by some scholars as an elision of "Daci Petoporiani" referring to the Dacians of king Petoporus. Schütte argued Petoporus is one and the same with Pieporus, the king of the Costoboci. - Archaeology: The Costoboci have been linked, on the basis of their geographical location, with the Lipiţa cultureLipiţa cultureLipiţa culture is the archaeological material culture representative of a Dacian tribe. It took its name from the Ukrainian village of Verkhnya Lypytsya Lipiţa culture (Romanian Lipiţa, Polish Lipica other spellings: Lipitsa, Lipitza) is the archaeological material culture representative of a...
. This culture's features, especially its pottery styles and burial customs, have been identified as Dacian by scholars, leading to the conclusion that the Costoboci were an ethnic-Dacian tribe. According to Jazdewski, in the early Roman period, on the Upper Dniestr, the features of the Lipita culture indicate ethnic Thracians under strong Celtic cultural influence, or who had simply absorbed Celtic ethnic components. - Name analogies: According to Schütte, the Dacian element -bokoi is also occurring in the name of another Dacian tribe, the Sabokoi.
Conflict with Rome
During the rule of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman EmpireRoman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
fought the Marcomannic Wars
Marcomannic Wars
The Marcomannic Wars were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against the Marcomanni, Quadi and other Germanic peoples, along both sides of the upper and middle Danube...
, a vast and protracted struggle against Marcomanni
Marcomanni
The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi.-Origin:Scholars believe their name derives possibly from Proto-Germanic forms of "march" and "men"....
, Quadi
Quadi
The Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little is definitively known. We only know the Germanic tribe the Romans called the 'Quadi' through reports of the Romans themselves...
, and other tribes along the middle Danube. The Costoboci also joined the anti-Roman coalition.
The invasion of 170/1
In AD 167 the Roman legion V MacedonicaLegio V Macedonica
Legio quinta Macedonica was a Roman legion. It was probably originally levied by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Octavian in 43 BC, and it was stationed in Moesia at least until 5th century. Its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well...
, returning from the Parthian War
Roman–Parthian War of 161–66
The Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 was fought between the Roman and Parthian Empires over Armenia and upper Mesopotamia...
, moved its headquarters from Troesmis
Troesmis
Troesmis was an ancient town in Scythia Minor. It was situated in what is now Romania near Igliţa-Turcoaia.Between 107 and 161, it was the home of the Roman Legio V Macedonica. Notitia Dignitatum shows that during 337-361, it was the headquarters of Legio II Herculia.-Destruction of the site:The...
in Moesia Inferior to Potaissa in Dacia Porolissensis, to defend the Dacian provinces against the Marcomannic attacks. Other auxiliary units from Moesia Inferior participated in the middle Danube campaigns, leaving the lower Danube frontier defenses weakened. Taking the opportunity, in 170 or 171, the Costoboci invaded Roman territory. Meeting little opposition, they swept through and raided the provinces of Moesia Inferior, Moesia Superior, Thracia
Thracia (Roman province)
Thracia was the name of a province of the Roman empire. It was established in AD 46, when the former Roman client state of Thrace was annexed by order of emperor Claudius ....
, Macedonia
Macedonia (Roman province)
The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon, the last Ancient King of Macedon in 148 BC, and after the four client republics established by Rome in the region were dissolved...
and Achaea
Achaea (Roman province)
Achaea, or Achaia, was a province of the Roman Empire, consisting of the Peloponnese, eastern Central Greece and parts of Thessaly. It bordered on the north by the provinces of Epirus vetus and Macedonia...
.
Northern Balkans
Crossing the Danube, the Costoboci burnt down a district of HistriaHistria
Histria may refer to:* Histria, the ancient name of the Istrian Peninsula* Histria , a Greek colony on the western shore of the Black Sea* Venetia et Histria, a regio of Roman Italia...
which was thus abandoned. Their attacks also affected Callatis and the walls of the city required reparations. Two funerary inscriptions discovered at Tropaeum Traiani
Civitas Tropaensium
Civitas Tropaensium was a Roman castrum situated in Scythia Minor in modern Constanţa County, Romania. Its site is now the modern settlement of Adamclisi...
in Moesia Inferior commemorate Romans killed during the attacks: Lucius Fufidius Iulianus, a decurion
Decurion (administrative)
A decurion was a member of a city senate in the Roman Empire. Decurions were drawn from the curiales class, which was made up of the wealthy middle class citizens of a town society....
and duumvir of the city and a man named Daizus, son of Comozous. A vexillatio
Vexillatio
A vexillatio was a detachment of a Roman legion formed as a temporary task force created by the Roman Army of the Principate. It was named from the standards carried by legionary detachments, vexillum , which bore the emblem and name of the parent legion...
made of detachments of the legions I Italica
Legio I Italica
Legio prima Italica was a Roman legion levied by emperor Nero on September 22, 66 . There are still records of the I Italica in the Danube border in the beginning of the 5th century...
and V Macedonica was deployed at Tropaeum in this period, perhaps to defend against these attacks. The raiders then moved west reaching Dardania. A tombstone found at Scupi
Scupi
Scupi is an archaeological site located between Zajčev Rid and the Vardar River, several kilometers from the center of Skopje, in the Republic of Macedonia. A Roman military camp was founded here in the second decade BC on the site of an older Dardanian settlement...
in Moesia Superior was dedicated to Timonius Dassus, a decurion from the Roman auxiliary cohort
Cohort (military unit)
A cohort was the basic tactical unit of a Roman legion following the reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC.-Legionary cohort:...
II Aurelia Dardanorum, who fell in combat against the Costoboci. Their offensive continued southwards, through Macedonia into Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
.
Greece
In his description of the city of ElateiaElateia
Elateia was an ancient Greek city of Phocis, and the most important place in that region after Delphi. It is also a modern-day town that is a former municipality in the southeastern part of Phthiotis. Since the 2011 local government reform, it is a municipal unit of the municipality...
in central Greece, the contemporary travel-writer Pausanias mentioned also an episode of the local resistance against the Costoboci:
Thereafter, the barbarians reached near Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
where they sacked the famous shrine of the Mysteries
Eleusinian Mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries were initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at Eleusis in ancient Greece. Of all the mysteries celebrated in ancient times, these were held to be the ones of greatest importance...
at Eleusis. In May or June 171, the orator Aelius Aristides
Aelius Aristides
Aelius Aristides was a popular Greek orator , who lived during the Roman Empire. He is considered to be a prime example of the Second Sophistic, a group of showpiece orators who flourished from the reign of Nero until ca. 230 AD. His surname was Theodorus...
delivered a public speech in Smyrna
Smyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
, lamenting the damage recently inflicted to the sacred site. The extent of damage was limited. Three local inscriptions praise an Eleusinian priest for saving the ritual's secrets. On one of these inscriptions there is mention of the "crimes of the Sarmatians" which has been variously interpreted by scholars: that the name of the Sarmatians was used as an umbrella term
Umbrella term
An umbrella term is a word that provides a superset or grouping of concepts that all fall under a single common category. Umbrella term is also called a hypernym. For example, cryptology is an umbrella term that encompasses cryptography and cryptanalysis, among other fields...
for raiders crossing the lower Danube, that it shows that the Costoboci were a Sarmatian tribe, or that it attests a joint invasion by Costoboci and Sarmatians.
Even though much of the invasion force was spent, the local resistance was insufficient and the procurator Lucius Iulius Vehilius Gratus Iulianus was sent to Greece with a vexillatio to clear out the remnants of the invaders. The Costoboci were thus defeated.
Dacia
In the same period the Costoboci may have attacked Dacia. A bronze hand dedicated to Jupiter DolichenusJupiter Dolichenus
Jupiter Dolichenus was a Roman god created from the syncretization of Jupiter, the Roman 'King of the gods', and a Baal cult of Commagene in Asia Minor. The Baal gods were themselves king gods and the combination was intended to form a powerful mixture of eastern and western regal traditions...
by a soldier from a cohort stationed in Dacia was found at Myszków
Zalishchytskyi Raion
The Zalischyky Raion is a sub-division of the Ternopil Oblast. The administrative centre and largest town is Zalischyky. The rest of the district's population lives in one of 35 village councils or 53 rural settlements.- Demographics :...
in Western Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
. It has been suggested that this may have been loot from a Costobocan raid.
Some scholars suggest that it was during this turbulent period that members of the family of king Pieporus were sent to Rome, as hostages.
The coming of the Vandals
Soon after AD 170, the Vandal Astingi, under their two kings, Raus and Raptus, reached the northern borders of Roman Dacia and offered the Romans their alliance in return for subsidies and land. Sextus Cornelius Clemens, the governor of the province, refused their demands, but he encourged them to attack the troublesome Costoboci, while offering protection for their women and children. The Astingi occupied the territory of the Costoboci but they were soon attacked by another Vandal tribe, the LacringiLacringi
The Lacringi were a Germanic peoples mentioned in ancient history for their role in the border wars conducted by the peoples along the Danube against the emperor, Marcus Aurelius. Julius Capitolinus in his Life of Marcus Antoninus tells us that the Lacringes were part of the general invasion over...
. Both Astingi and Lacringi eventually became Roman allies, allowing the Romans to focus on the middle Danube in the Marcomannic wars.
Scholars variously suggest that the remnants of this tribe were subdued by the Vandals or fled, seeking refuge in the neighbouring territories of the Carpi
Carpi (people)
The Carpi or Carpiani were an ancient people that resided, between not later than ca. AD 140 and until at least AD 318, in the former Principality of Moldavia ....
or in the Roman province of Dacia.