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Combined operations
Encyclopedia
In military
use, combined operations , also known as joint operations, or interoperability capability, are either operations conducted by forces of two or more allied nations acting together for the accomplishment of a common strategy, a strategic
and operational
and sometimes tactical
cooperation and interaction between units and formations of the land, naval and air forces, or the cooperation between military and civilian authorities in peacekeeping
or disaster relief operations
.
that can be traced to the Sea Peoples
. In its basic form it involved raiding
coastal regions by land forces arriving from the naval vessels
. The raiding tactics were expanded into more complex operations by the Alexander the Great who used naval vessels for both troop transporting and logistics in his campaigns. The next exponents of combined operations in the ancient world of the Mediterranean Basin
were the Carthaginians
who introduced two entirely new dimensions to the use of naval forces by staging not only operations that combined naval and land troops, but also eventuated in combining strategic
multi-national forces during the land phase of the operation when Hannibal in his most famous achievement at the outbreak of the Second Punic War
marched an army that included war elephant
s, from Iberia
over the Pyrenees
and the Alps
into northern Italy
. Following the example of Carthage, the Romans
used combined operations extensively to expand their Empire and influence in the Mediterranean and beyond, including the Roman conquest of Britain
, which was not only a temporary expeditionary operation but included long term occupation
and Roman settlement of the territories.
The next development of combined operations came from environmental pressures
in the Scandinavian region during the Middle Ages
, and the emergence of the Viking migrations that combined raiding, longer term inland operations, occupation and settlement. These operations were conducted as sea
, coastal and riverine
operations, and sometimes were strategic in nature, reaching as far as Constantinople.
In South East Asia, the development of combined operations proceeded along the same developmental path as in Europe with the raids by the Wokou
, or so called Japanese pirates. Because the Wokou
were weakly resisted by the Ming Dynasty
, the raiding eventually developed into fully fledged expeditionary warfare with the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).
The development in combined operations reached a new level during the Crusades
, when the element of political alliance was introduced as an influence on the military strategy, for example in the Sixth Crusade (1228 CE).
Although all combined operations until the invention of the combustion engine were largely dependent on the sailing vessels
, it was with the creation of sophisticated rigging
systems of the European Renaissance
that the Age of Sail
allowed a significant expansion in the scale of combined operations, notably by the European colonial empires. Some have argued that this was the first revolution in military affairs
that changed national strategies
, operational methods
and tactics
both at sea and on the land. One notable example of this evolution was the French Invasion of Egypt (1798).
was the first example of a planned combined operations campaign that was directed as part of a multinational coalition strategy. Aside from being the first modern expeditionary operation that used steam powered
warships and telegraph
communications—which made it the departing point for the rest of the 19th and 20th century developments—it was also the first used as a military theatre instrument to force decision in the conflict.
The next development in the evolution of combined operations was made during the expansion of the European Empires
and the era of colonialism
that also led to the inclusion of the combined operations methods into the direct expression of national strategies to avoid full scale conflicts in the shape of the gunboat diplomacy
approach. It was at this time that naval troops previously used almost exclusively for defence of vessels or minor beach operations
were expanded to enable extended littoral
operations. The colonial experience, though largely confined to the period before the First World War, persisted well into the 20th century.
The period of the First World War that prolonged well past its completion into the 1920s saw combined operations established as a systematic and planned operations with larger scope then simple transportations
of troops, and the beginnings of development in true combined operations at strategic, operational and tactical levels with the unsuccessful amphibious
landing at Gallipoli
. Not only did this operation combine the elements of overall war planning context, multinational deployment of forces as part fo the same operation, and use of troops prepared for the landings (as opposed to disembarkation), as well as naval gunfire support
that was only limited during the era of sailing ships, but also included extensive use of combat engineering
in support of the infantry
.
One of the most extensive and complex of combined operations that followed the war was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
that saw forces deployed in the Baltic region
, the Arctic region, along the Black Sea
coast and in the Russian Far East
, which for the first time saw the use of aircraft
used in cooperation with the naval and land components of the deployed forces.
The phrase "combined operations" was first introduced by the British War Office in World War II
to denote multi-service activities, those that involved air, land or naval forces acting together, and coordinated by the Combined Operations Headquarters.
Given U.S. usage of the word 'joint' meaning such activities, the British usage faded relatively quickly. Post World War II, the United States Department of Defense
began using the phrase to denote multi-national operations, which might mean land forces of several countries, for example Combined Forces Land Component Command, or 'Combined Joint,' multi-national, multi-service activities and operations.
The phrase 'Combined Joint Task Force' then took on an extra meaning, beyond that of a multi-national, multi-service grouping, when it became a term used to describe a particular type of NATO deployment planning, outside the NATO Treaty area, in the late 1990s.
Since the early 1980s the concept of combined operations had been referred to by NATO and in particular by the United States Department of Defence as joint operations, as exemplified by the NATO Joint Operations Centre previously located in Kanne
(Belgium
) north of Fort Eben-Emael
. The centre served to ensure interoperability and cooperation between the then 16 member states that has, since 2008, expanded to 26.
Regardless of the use of combined, joined or interoperability terms the concept is used to ensure that different military organisations maintain the ability to conduct combat and non-combat military operations regardless of the national and service (ground, naval and air forces) differences.
The ability to conduct combined operations allows national forces, their subordinated formations, units or systems to perform tasks and complete missions and operations together. The overriding requirement is that they share common doctrine
and procedures, utilise each others' infrastructure and bases
, and to be able to communicate
with each other. These abilities reduce duplication of effort and increase economies of scale
in a strategic alliance
of its members, allow pooling of resources, and produces synergies among its commands.
In the NATO concept, interoperability does not necessarily require common military equipment. What is important is that this equipment can share common facilities and is able to communicate with other equipment. NATO militaries claim to have achieved interoperability because of decades of joint planning
, training and exercises during the Cold War
.
Military
A military is an organization authorized by its greater society to use lethal force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military may have additional functions of use to its greater society, such as advancing a political agenda e.g...
use, combined operations , also known as joint operations, or interoperability capability, are either operations conducted by forces of two or more allied nations acting together for the accomplishment of a common strategy, a strategic
Military strategy
Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...
and operational
Operational warfare
Operational mobility, beginning as a military theory concept during the period of mechanisation of armed forces, became a method of managing movement of forces by strategic commanders from the staging area to their Tactical Area of Responsibility....
and sometimes tactical
Military tactics
Military tactics, the science and art of organizing an army or an air force, are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating an enemy in battle. Changes in philosophy and technology over time have been reflected in changes to military tactics. In...
cooperation and interaction between units and formations of the land, naval and air forces, or the cooperation between military and civilian authorities in peacekeeping
Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping is an activity that aims to create the conditions for lasting peace. It is distinguished from both peacebuilding and peacemaking....
or disaster relief operations
Emergency management
Emergency management is the generic name of an interdisciplinary field dealing with the strategic organizational management processes used to protect critical assets of an organization from hazard risks that can cause events like disasters or catastrophes and to ensure the continuance of the...
.
Pre-modern history
The concept of combined operations evolved largely as a result of expeditionary warfareExpeditionary warfare
Expeditionary warfare is used to describe the organization of a state's military to fight abroad, especially when deployed to fight away from its established bases at home or abroad. Expeditionary forces were in part the antecedent of the modern concept of Rapid Deployment Forces...
that can be traced to the Sea Peoples
Sea Peoples
The Sea Peoples were a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during the late 19th dynasty and especially during year 8 of Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty...
. In its basic form it involved raiding
Raid (military)
Raid, also known as depredation, is a military tactic or operational warfare mission which has a specific purpose and is not normally intended to capture and hold terrain, but instead finish with the raiding force quickly retreating to a previous defended position prior to the enemy forces being...
coastal regions by land forces arriving from the naval vessels
Sealift
Sealift is a term used predominantly in military logistics and refers to the use of cargo ships for the deployment of military assets, such as weaponry, vehicles, military personnel, and supplies...
. The raiding tactics were expanded into more complex operations by the Alexander the Great who used naval vessels for both troop transporting and logistics in his campaigns. The next exponents of combined operations in the ancient world of the Mediterranean Basin
Mediterranean Basin
In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have a Mediterranean climate, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, which supports characteristic Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub vegetation...
were the Carthaginians
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
who introduced two entirely new dimensions to the use of naval forces by staging not only operations that combined naval and land troops, but also eventuated in combining strategic
Military strategy
Military strategy is a set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals. Derived from the Greek strategos, strategy when it appeared in use during the 18th century, was seen in its narrow sense as the "art of the general", 'the art of arrangement' of troops...
multi-national forces during the land phase of the operation when Hannibal in his most famous achievement at the outbreak of the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
marched an army that included war elephant
War elephant
A war elephant was an elephant trained and guided by humans for combat. Their main use was to charge the enemy, trampling them and breaking their ranks. A division of war elephants is known as elephantry....
s, from Iberia
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
over the Pyrenees
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees is a range of mountains in southwest Europe that forms a natural border between France and Spain...
and the Alps
Alps
The Alps is one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west....
into northern Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
. Following the example of Carthage, the Romans
Structural history of the Roman military
The structural history of the Roman military concerns the major transformations in the organization and constitution of ancient Rome's armed forces, "the most effective and long-lived military institution known to history." From its origins around 800 BC to its final dissolution in AD 476...
used combined operations extensively to expand their Empire and influence in the Mediterranean and beyond, including the Roman conquest of Britain
Roman conquest of Britain
The Roman conquest of Britain was a gradual process, beginning effectively in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius, whose general Aulus Plautius served as first governor of Britannia. Great Britain had already frequently been the target of invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and...
, which was not only a temporary expeditionary operation but included long term occupation
Military occupation
Military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. The territory then becomes occupied territory.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
and Roman settlement of the territories.
The next development of combined operations came from environmental pressures
Medieval Warm Period
The Medieval Warm Period , Medieval Climate Optimum, or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region, that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time, including in China, New Zealand, and other countries lasting from...
in the Scandinavian region during the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
, and the emergence of the Viking migrations that combined raiding, longer term inland operations, occupation and settlement. These operations were conducted as sea
Settlement of Iceland
The settlement of Iceland is generally believed to have begun in the second half of the 9th century, when Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic. The reasons for the migration may be traced to a shortage of arable land in Scandinavia, and civil strife brought about by the ambitions of...
, coastal and riverine
Varangians
The Varangians or Varyags , sometimes referred to as Variagians, were people from the Baltic region, most often associated with Vikings, who from the 9th to 11th centuries ventured eastwards and southwards along the rivers of Eastern Europe, through what is now Russia, Belarus and Ukraine.According...
operations, and sometimes were strategic in nature, reaching as far as Constantinople.
In South East Asia, the development of combined operations proceeded along the same developmental path as in Europe with the raids by the Wokou
Wokou
Wokou , which literally translates as "Japanese pirates" in English, were pirates of varying origins who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century onwards...
, or so called Japanese pirates. Because the Wokou
Wokou
Wokou , which literally translates as "Japanese pirates" in English, were pirates of varying origins who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century onwards...
were weakly resisted by the Ming Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
, the raiding eventually developed into fully fledged expeditionary warfare with the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).
The development in combined operations reached a new level during the Crusades
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
, when the element of political alliance was introduced as an influence on the military strategy, for example in the Sixth Crusade (1228 CE).
Although all combined operations until the invention of the combustion engine were largely dependent on the sailing vessels
Sailing ship
The term sailing ship is now used to refer to any large wind-powered vessel. In technical terms, a ship was a sailing vessel with a specific rig of at least three masts, square rigged on all of them, making the sailing adjective redundant. In popular usage "ship" became associated with all large...
, it was with the creation of sophisticated rigging
Square rig
Square rig is a generic type of sail and rigging arrangement in which the primary driving sails are carried on horizontal spars which are perpendicular, or square, to the keel of the vessel and to the masts. These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms...
systems of the European Renaissance
Renaissance
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not...
that the Age of Sail
Age of Sail
The Age of Sail was the period in which international trade and naval warfare were dominated by sailing ships, lasting from the 16th to the mid 19th century...
allowed a significant expansion in the scale of combined operations, notably by the European colonial empires. Some have argued that this was the first revolution in military affairs
Revolution in Military Affairs
The military concept of Revolution in Military Affairs is a theory about the future of warfare, often connected to technological and organizational recommendations for change in the United States military and others....
that changed national strategies
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
, operational methods
Colony
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception....
and tactics
Naval tactics in the Age of Sail
Naval tactics in the Age of Sail were used from the early 17th century onward when sailing ships replaced oared galleys. These were used until the 1860s when steam-powered ironclad warships rendered sailing line of battle ships obsolete.-Early history:...
both at sea and on the land. One notable example of this evolution was the French Invasion of Egypt (1798).
Modern history
Though a significantly expanded combined operation, the Crimean WarCrimean War
The Crimean War was a conflict fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the French Empire, the British Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining...
was the first example of a planned combined operations campaign that was directed as part of a multinational coalition strategy. Aside from being the first modern expeditionary operation that used steam powered
Steamboat
A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels...
warships and telegraph
Telegraphy
Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages via some form of signalling technology. Telegraphy requires messages to be converted to a code which is known to both sender and receiver...
communications—which made it the departing point for the rest of the 19th and 20th century developments—it was also the first used as a military theatre instrument to force decision in the conflict.
The next development in the evolution of combined operations was made during the expansion of the European Empires
History of colonialism
The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time, including such disparate peoples as the Hittites, the Incas and the British. European colonialism, or imperialism, began in the 15th century with the "Age of Discovery", led by Portuguese and Spanish...
and the era of colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
that also led to the inclusion of the combined operations methods into the direct expression of national strategies to avoid full scale conflicts in the shape of the gunboat diplomacy
Gunboat diplomacy
In international politics, gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of military power — implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare, should terms not be agreeable to the superior force....
approach. It was at this time that naval troops previously used almost exclusively for defence of vessels or minor beach operations
Amphibious warfare
Amphibious warfare is the use of naval firepower, logistics and strategy to project military power ashore. In previous eras it stood as the primary method of delivering troops to non-contiguous enemy-held terrain...
were expanded to enable extended littoral
Littoral (military)
Littoral combat is a term in military and naval warfare. It refers to operations in and around the littoral zone, within a certain distance of shore, including surveillance, mine-clearing and support for landing operations and other types of combat shifting from water to ground, and back.The...
operations. The colonial experience, though largely confined to the period before the First World War, persisted well into the 20th century.
The period of the First World War that prolonged well past its completion into the 1920s saw combined operations established as a systematic and planned operations with larger scope then simple transportations
Troopship
A troopship is a ship used to carry soldiers, either in peacetime or wartime...
of troops, and the beginnings of development in true combined operations at strategic, operational and tactical levels with the unsuccessful amphibious
Amphibious warfare
Amphibious warfare is the use of naval firepower, logistics and strategy to project military power ashore. In previous eras it stood as the primary method of delivering troops to non-contiguous enemy-held terrain...
landing at Gallipoli
Battle of Gallipoli
The Gallipoli Campaign, also known as the Dardanelles Campaign or the Battle of Gallipoli, took place at the peninsula of Gallipoli in the Ottoman Empire between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916, during the First World War...
. Not only did this operation combine the elements of overall war planning context, multinational deployment of forces as part fo the same operation, and use of troops prepared for the landings (as opposed to disembarkation), as well as naval gunfire support
Naval gunfire support
Naval gunfire support is the use of naval artillery to provide fire support for amphibious assault and other troops operating within their range. NGFS is one of a number of disciplines encompassed by the term Naval Fires...
that was only limited during the era of sailing ships, but also included extensive use of combat engineering
Combat engineering
A combat engineer, also called pioneer or sapper in many armies, is a soldier who performs a variety of construction and demolition tasks under combat conditions...
in support of the infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
.
One of the most extensive and complex of combined operations that followed the war was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War
The Allied intervention was a multi-national military expedition launched in 1918 during World War I which continued into the Russian Civil War. Its operations included forces from 14 nations and were conducted over a vast territory...
that saw forces deployed in the Baltic region
Baltic region
The terms Baltic region, Baltic Rim countries, and Baltic Rim refer to slightly different combinations of countries in the general area surrounding the Baltic Sea.- Etymology :...
, the Arctic region, along the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
coast and in the Russian Far East
Russian Far East
Russian Far East is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i.e., extreme east parts of Russia, between Lake Baikal in Eastern Siberia and the Pacific Ocean...
, which for the first time saw the use of aircraft
Aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air, or, in general, the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines.Although...
used in cooperation with the naval and land components of the deployed forces.
The phrase "combined operations" was first introduced by the British War Office in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
to denote multi-service activities, those that involved air, land or naval forces acting together, and coordinated by the Combined Operations Headquarters.
Given U.S. usage of the word 'joint' meaning such activities, the British usage faded relatively quickly. Post World War II, the United States Department of Defense
United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense is the U.S...
began using the phrase to denote multi-national operations, which might mean land forces of several countries, for example Combined Forces Land Component Command, or 'Combined Joint,' multi-national, multi-service activities and operations.
The phrase 'Combined Joint Task Force' then took on an extra meaning, beyond that of a multi-national, multi-service grouping, when it became a term used to describe a particular type of NATO deployment planning, outside the NATO Treaty area, in the late 1990s.
Since the early 1980s the concept of combined operations had been referred to by NATO and in particular by the United States Department of Defence as joint operations, as exemplified by the NATO Joint Operations Centre previously located in Kanne
Kanne
Kanne is a small town in the southeastern part of the Belgian province of Limburg right on the border with the city of Maastricht in the Dutch province of Limburg. The town has 1156 inhabitants of which a significant part have the Dutch nationality....
(Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
) north of Fort Eben-Emael
Fort Eben-Emael
Fort Eben-Emael is an inactive Belgian fortress located between Liège and Maastricht, on the Belgian-Dutch border, near the Albert Canal, and designed to defend Belgium from a German attack across the narrow belt of Dutch territory in the region. Constructed in 1931–1935, it was reputed to be...
. The centre served to ensure interoperability and cooperation between the then 16 member states that has, since 2008, expanded to 26.
Regardless of the use of combined, joined or interoperability terms the concept is used to ensure that different military organisations maintain the ability to conduct combat and non-combat military operations regardless of the national and service (ground, naval and air forces) differences.
The ability to conduct combined operations allows national forces, their subordinated formations, units or systems to perform tasks and complete missions and operations together. The overriding requirement is that they share common doctrine
Military doctrine
Military doctrine is the concise expression of how military forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements.It is a guide to action, not hard and fast rules. Doctrine provides a common frame of reference across the military...
and procedures, utilise each others' infrastructure and bases
Military base
A military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or for the military or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations. In general, a military base provides accommodations for one or more units, but it may also be used as a...
, and to be able to communicate
Military communications
Historically, the first military communications had the form of sending/receiving simple signals . Respectively, the first distinctive tactics of military communications were called Signals, while units specializing in those tactics received the Signal Corps name...
with each other. These abilities reduce duplication of effort and increase economies of scale
Economies of scale
Economies of scale, in microeconomics, refers to the cost advantages that an enterprise obtains due to expansion. There are factors that cause a producer’s average cost per unit to fall as the scale of output is increased. "Economies of scale" is a long run concept and refers to reductions in unit...
in a strategic alliance
Strategic alliance
A Strategic Alliance is a relationship between two or more parties to pursue a set of agreed upon goals or to meet a critical business need while remaining independent organizations...
of its members, allow pooling of resources, and produces synergies among its commands.
In the NATO concept, interoperability does not necessarily require common military equipment. What is important is that this equipment can share common facilities and is able to communicate with other equipment. NATO militaries claim to have achieved interoperability because of decades of joint planning
Joint Planning Document
The Joint Planning Document, issued by the Joint Staff, generates specific programming recommendations for the Defense Planning Guidance and provides the first concrete basis for the National Military Strategy.-See also:* Joint Requirements Oversight Council...
, training and exercises during the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
.
Further reading
- Symonds, Craig L., ed. Union Combined Operations in the Civil War (Fordham University Press, 2010) 240 pages. Scholarly studies of the thrusts up the York and James rivers during the Peninsular campaign.
Sources
- Combined Operations Command dedication site http://www.combinedops.com/index.htm
- Williams, Darryl A. Maj., Facilitating Joint Operations: The Evolving Battlefield Coordination Element., School of Advanced Military Studies Monographs, Command and General Staff College (CGSC), Fort Leavenworth, KS : US Army Command and General Staff College, 1996
External sources
- Joint Operations (RN, Army, RAF, NATO) http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/server/show/nav.3655
- NATO Joint Warfare Centre, Stavanger, Norway http://jwc.nato.int/