Amanita abrupta
Encyclopedia
Amanita abrupta, commonly known as the abrupt-bulbed Lepidella, is a species of fungus
in the Amanitaceae
family of mushroom
s. Named for the characteristic shape of its fruit bodies
, this white Amanita has a slender stem
, a cap
covered with conical white warts, and an "abruptly enlarged" swollen base. This terrestrial species grows in mixed woods in eastern North America and eastern Asia, where it is thought to exist in a mycorrhiza
l relationship with a variety of both coniferous and deciduous
tree species.
The fruit bodies of Amanita abrupta are poisonous, and ingestion damages the liver; the toxicity is thought to be largely due to a rare amino acid
. Although not considered as toxic as its infamous relatives the death cap and the destroying angel
, A. abrupta is blamed for the deaths of two Japanese women in 1978. Poisoning symptoms included the abrupt appearance of violent vomiting, diarrhea and dehydration after a delay of 10–20 hours.
in 1897, based on a specimen he found in Auburn, Alabama
. Because the remains of the volva
are not present on the bulb in dried, mature, specimens, Peck thought that the species should be grouped with Amanita rubescens and A. spissa. A. abrupta is the type species
of the section
Lepidella of the genus Amanita
, in the subgenus
Lepidella, a grouping of related Amanita mushrooms characterized by their amyloid
spores
. Other North American species in this subgenus include A. atkinsoniana
, A. chlorinosma, A. cokeri
, A. daucipes
, A. mutabilis, A. onusta
, A. pelioma, A. polypyramis, A. ravenelii
, and A. rhopalopus. European and Asian species (also in section Lepidella) that are phylogenetically
related—close to it in the evolutionary family tree—include A. solitaria, A. virgineoides, and A. japonica.
The specific epithet abrupta refers to the shape of the swollen base, which is abruptly enlarged rather than gradually tapering. The species' common name
is the "abrupt-bulbed Lepidella".
s, the bulk of the organism lies unseen beneath the ground as an aggregation of fungal cells called hypha
e; under appropriate environmental conditions, the visible reproductive structure (fruit body
) is formed. The cap
has a diameter of 4 to 10 cm (1.6 to 3.9 in), and has a broadly convex shape when young, but eventually flattens. The central portion of the cap becomes depressed in mature specimens. The cap surface is verrucose—covered with small angular or pyramidal erect warts (1–2 mm tall by 1–2 mm wide at the base); the warts are smaller and more numerous near the margin of the cap, and small fragments of tissue may be hanging from the margin of the cap. The cap surface, the warts, and the flesh
are white. The warts can be easily separated from the cap, and in mature specimens they have often completely or partly disappeared. The white gills are placed moderately close together, reaching the stem but not directly attached to it.
The stem
is 6.5 to 12.5 cm (2.6 to 4.9 in) tall, and slender, with a diameter of 0.5 to 1.5 cm (0.196850393700787 to 0.590551181102362 in). It is white, smooth (glabrous), solid (that is, not hollow internally), and has an abruptly bulbous base with the shape of a flattened sphere; it may develop longitudinal splits on the sides. The base is often attached to a copious white mycelium
—a visual reminder that the bulk of the organism lies unseen below the surface. The ring
is membranous, and persistent—not weathering away with time; the ring may be attached to the stem with white fibers. The mushroom has no distinct odor.
, the spores appear white. Viewed with a microscope, the spores
are broadly elliptical or roughly spherical, smooth, thin-walled, and have dimensions of 6.5–9.5 by 5.5 by 8.5 µm
. Spores are amyloid
(meaning they take up iodine
when stained with Melzer's reagent
) The bases of the basidia (the spore-bearing cells on the edges of gills) have clamp connection
s—short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division.
) on the cap surface, and pale yellow gills. A. polypyramis fruit bodies have also been noted to be similar to A. abrupta; however, it tends to have larger caps, up to 21 cm (8.3 in) in diameter, a fragile ring that soons withers away, and somewhat larger spores that typically measure 9–14 by 5–10 µm. The amyloid
ity and size of the spores are reliable characteristics to help distinguish A. abrupta specimens with less prominently bulbous bases from other lookalike species.
Mycologists Tsuguo Hongo
and Rokuya Imazeki suggested in the 1980s that the Japanese mushroom A. sphaerobulbosa was synonymous with the North American A. abrupta. However, a 1999 study of Amanita specimens in Japanese herbaria
concluded that they were closely related but distinct species, due to differences in spore shape and in the microstructure of the volval remnants. Another similar species, A. magniverrucata, is differentiated from A. abrupta by a number of characteristics: the universal veil is clearly separated from the flesh of the cap; the volval warts disappear more quickly because the surface of the cap cuticle
gelatinizes; the partial veil is more persistent; the spores are smaller and roughly spherical; on the underside of the partial veil, the stem has surface fibrils that are drawn upward so as to somewhat resemble a cortina (a cobweb-like protective covering over the immature spore bearing surfaces); A. magniverrucata has a distribution limited to the eastern US.
, usually during autumn. The frequency with which fruit bodies appear depends on several factors, such as season, location, temperature, and rainfall. The mushroom has been described as common in the Southeastern United States; in Texas
, it has been called both infrequent, and common in the Big Thicket National Preserve. Like most other Amanita species, A. abrupta is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, enabling the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients. Amanita abrupta is widely distributed throughout eastern North America, where it has been found as far North as Quebec, Canada, and as far south as Mexico
. It has also been collected in Korea
, and Japan
. One author claims to have found it in the Dominican Republic
where it appeared to be growing in mycorrizhal association with pine
trees. Kuo also mentions a mycorrhizal relationship with both hardwood
s and conifers, while Tulloss lists additional preferred tree hosts such as beech
, birch
, fir
, tsuga
, oak
, and poplar
. However, A. abrupta has been shown experimentally to not form mycorrhiza with Pinus virginiana.
. Laboratory experiments have shown that mice that ingested A. abrupta mushroom extract
s developed cholera
-like symptoms. A minimum single lethal dose
of mushroom extract (equivalent to 4.5 grams of fruiting body per kilogram of mouse body weight) caused mice to become prostrate 6 hours after injection; shortly after the mice had diarrhea, then ultimately died between 24 and 48 hours after administration of the extract. In Nagano, Japan in 1978, two women died from mushroom poisoning
suspected to be caused by this species. The symptoms were characterized by the abrupt appearance of violent vomiting, diarrhea and dehydration after a delay of 10–20 hours. Although not as toxic as the destroying angel
(A. virosa) or the death cap (A. phalloides), A. abrupta causes changes in liver function similar to these species. Effects include a decrease in blood sugar
levels, depletion of stored carbohydrate reserves (liver glycogen
), and an increase in transaminases
—enzymes that break down muscle protein
.
amino acid
s have been isolated from Amanita abrupta, including (2S,4Z)-2-amino-5-chloro-6-hydroxy-4-hexenoic acid; D,L-2-amino-4-pentynoic acid (0.257% w/w); and L-2-amino-4,5-hexadienoic acid (0.911% w/w). This last chemical is suspected to be largely responsible for the toxic effects of the mushroom; the latter two compounds have also been found in A. solitaria and A. pseudoporphyria. The chemical 2-amino-4-pentynoic acid (also known as propargylglycine) inhibits
enzyme
s involved in the metabolism
of the amino acids methionine
and cystathionine
in the liver; it was also shown to have mild inhibitory effects on the glycogenolysis
metabolic pathway
in rat liver cells.
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the Amanitaceae
Amanitaceae
Amanitaceae are a family of fungi or mushrooms. The family, also commonly called the Amanita family, is in order Agaricales, gilled mushrooms...
family of mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s. Named for the characteristic shape of its fruit bodies
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
, this white Amanita has a slender stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
, a cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
covered with conical white warts, and an "abruptly enlarged" swollen base. This terrestrial species grows in mixed woods in eastern North America and eastern Asia, where it is thought to exist in a mycorrhiza
Mycorrhiza
A mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant....
l relationship with a variety of both coniferous and deciduous
Deciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
tree species.
The fruit bodies of Amanita abrupta are poisonous, and ingestion damages the liver; the toxicity is thought to be largely due to a rare amino acid
Amino acid
Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side-chain that varies between different amino acids. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen...
. Although not considered as toxic as its infamous relatives the death cap and the destroying angel
Amanita virosa
Amanita virosa, commonly known as the European destroying angel, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Occurring in Europe, A. virosa associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees...
, A. abrupta is blamed for the deaths of two Japanese women in 1978. Poisoning symptoms included the abrupt appearance of violent vomiting, diarrhea and dehydration after a delay of 10–20 hours.
Taxonomy
Amanita abrupta was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton PeckCharles Horton Peck
Charles Horton Peck, born March 30, 1833 in Sand Lake, New York, died 1917 in Albany, New York, was an American mycologist of the 19th and early 20th centuries...
in 1897, based on a specimen he found in Auburn, Alabama
Auburn, Alabama
Auburn is a city in Lee County, Alabama, United States. It is the largest city in eastern Alabama with a 2010 population of 53,380. It is a principal city of the Auburn-Opelika Metropolitan Area...
. Because the remains of the volva
Volva (mycology)
The volva is a mycological term to describe a cup-like structure at the base of a mushroom that is a remnant of the universal veil. This macrofeature is important in wild mushroom identification due to it being an easily observed, taxonomically significant feature which frequently signifies a...
are not present on the bulb in dried, mature, specimens, Peck thought that the species should be grouped with Amanita rubescens and A. spissa. A. abrupta is the type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of the section
Section (botany)
In botany, a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections are typically used to help organise very large genera, which may have hundreds of species...
Lepidella of the genus Amanita
Amanita
The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning, with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own...
, in the subgenus
Subgenus
In biology, a subgenus is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.In zoology, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic name and the specific epithet: e.g. the Tiger Cowry of the Indo-Pacific, Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, which...
Lepidella, a grouping of related Amanita mushrooms characterized by their amyloid
Amyloid
Amyloids are insoluble fibrous protein aggregates sharing specific structural traits. Abnormal accumulation of amyloid in organs may lead to amyloidosis, and may play a role in various neurodegenerative diseases.-Definition:...
spores
Basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia. In grills under a cap of one common species in the phylum of...
. Other North American species in this subgenus include A. atkinsoniana
Amanita atkinsoniana
Amanita atkinsoniana is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family. It is found in the northeastern, southeastern, and southern United States as well as southern Canada, where it grows solitarily or in small groups on the ground in mixed woods. The fruit body is white to brownish, with caps that...
, A. chlorinosma, A. cokeri
Amanita cokeri
Amanita cokeri, commonly known as Coker's Amanita, is a mushroom in the Amanitaceae family. The mushroom is poisonous. First described as Lepidella cokeri in 1928, it was transferred to the genus Amanita in 1940.-Description:...
, A. daucipes
Amanita daucipes
Amanita daucipes is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family of the Agaricales order of mushrooms. Found exclusively in North America, the mushroom may be recognized in the field by the medium to large white caps with pale orange tints, and the dense covering of pale orange or reddish-brown...
, A. mutabilis, A. onusta
Amanita onusta
Amanita onusta, commonly known as the loaded Lepidella or the gunpowder Lepidella, is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family of mushrooms. It is characterized by its small to medium-sized fruit bodies that have white to pale gray caps crowded with roughly conical, pyramidal, or irregular...
, A. pelioma, A. polypyramis, A. ravenelii
Amanita ravenelii
Amanita ravenelii, commonly known as the pinecone Lepidella, is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family. The fruit bodies are medium to large, with caps up to wide, and a stem up to long and thick. The warts on the whitish cap surface are large—up to wide and high...
, and A. rhopalopus. European and Asian species (also in section Lepidella) that are phylogenetically
Phylogenetics
In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms , which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices...
related—close to it in the evolutionary family tree—include A. solitaria, A. virgineoides, and A. japonica.
The specific epithet abrupta refers to the shape of the swollen base, which is abruptly enlarged rather than gradually tapering. The species' common name
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
is the "abrupt-bulbed Lepidella".
Description
In Amanita abrupta, as with most mushroomMushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s, the bulk of the organism lies unseen beneath the ground as an aggregation of fungal cells called hypha
Hypha
A hypha is a long, branching filamentous structure of a fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium; yeasts are unicellular fungi that do not grow as hyphae.-Structure:A hypha consists of one or...
e; under appropriate environmental conditions, the visible reproductive structure (fruit body
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
) is formed. The cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
has a diameter of 4 to 10 cm (1.6 to 3.9 in), and has a broadly convex shape when young, but eventually flattens. The central portion of the cap becomes depressed in mature specimens. The cap surface is verrucose—covered with small angular or pyramidal erect warts (1–2 mm tall by 1–2 mm wide at the base); the warts are smaller and more numerous near the margin of the cap, and small fragments of tissue may be hanging from the margin of the cap. The cap surface, the warts, and the flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
are white. The warts can be easily separated from the cap, and in mature specimens they have often completely or partly disappeared. The white gills are placed moderately close together, reaching the stem but not directly attached to it.
The stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is 6.5 to 12.5 cm (2.6 to 4.9 in) tall, and slender, with a diameter of 0.5 to 1.5 cm (0.196850393700787 to 0.590551181102362 in). It is white, smooth (glabrous), solid (that is, not hollow internally), and has an abruptly bulbous base with the shape of a flattened sphere; it may develop longitudinal splits on the sides. The base is often attached to a copious white mycelium
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
—a visual reminder that the bulk of the organism lies unseen below the surface. The ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
is membranous, and persistent—not weathering away with time; the ring may be attached to the stem with white fibers. The mushroom has no distinct odor.
Microscopic characteristics
When collected in deposit, such as with a spore printSpore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
, the spores appear white. Viewed with a microscope, the spores
Basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia. In grills under a cap of one common species in the phylum of...
are broadly elliptical or roughly spherical, smooth, thin-walled, and have dimensions of 6.5–9.5 by 5.5 by 8.5 µm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
. Spores are amyloid
Amyloid
Amyloids are insoluble fibrous protein aggregates sharing specific structural traits. Abnormal accumulation of amyloid in organs may lead to amyloidosis, and may play a role in various neurodegenerative diseases.-Definition:...
(meaning they take up iodine
Iodine
Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The name is pronounced , , or . The name is from the , meaning violet or purple, due to the color of elemental iodine vapor....
when stained with Melzer's reagent
Melzer's Reagent
Melzer's reagent is a chemical reagent used by mycologists to assist with the identification of fungi.-Composition:...
) The bases of the basidia (the spore-bearing cells on the edges of gills) have clamp connection
Clamp connection
A clamp connection is a structure formed by growing hyphal cells of certain fungi. It is created to ensure each septum, or segment of hypha separated by crossed walls, receives a set of differing nuclei, which are obtained through mating of hyphae of differing sexual types...
s—short branches connecting one cell to the previous cell to allow passage of the products of nuclear division.
Similar species
The fruit bodies of Amanita kotohiraensis, a species known only from Japan, bears a superficial resemblance to A. abrupta, but A. kotohiraensis differs in having scattered floccose patches (tufts of soft woolly hairs that are the remains of the volvaVolva (mycology)
The volva is a mycological term to describe a cup-like structure at the base of a mushroom that is a remnant of the universal veil. This macrofeature is important in wild mushroom identification due to it being an easily observed, taxonomically significant feature which frequently signifies a...
) on the cap surface, and pale yellow gills. A. polypyramis fruit bodies have also been noted to be similar to A. abrupta; however, it tends to have larger caps, up to 21 cm (8.3 in) in diameter, a fragile ring that soons withers away, and somewhat larger spores that typically measure 9–14 by 5–10 µm. The amyloid
Amyloid
Amyloids are insoluble fibrous protein aggregates sharing specific structural traits. Abnormal accumulation of amyloid in organs may lead to amyloidosis, and may play a role in various neurodegenerative diseases.-Definition:...
ity and size of the spores are reliable characteristics to help distinguish A. abrupta specimens with less prominently bulbous bases from other lookalike species.
Mycologists Tsuguo Hongo
Tsuguo Hongo
was a Japanese mycologist who specialized in the biogeography and taxonomy of Agaricales.Hongo entered the Department of Biology at what is now Hiroshima University in 1943, where he studied botany until graduating in 1946 with a B.Sc....
and Rokuya Imazeki suggested in the 1980s that the Japanese mushroom A. sphaerobulbosa was synonymous with the North American A. abrupta. However, a 1999 study of Amanita specimens in Japanese herbaria
Herbarium
In botany, a herbarium – sometimes known by the Anglicized term herbar – is a collection of preserved plant specimens. These specimens may be whole plants or plant parts: these will usually be in a dried form, mounted on a sheet, but depending upon the material may also be kept in...
concluded that they were closely related but distinct species, due to differences in spore shape and in the microstructure of the volval remnants. Another similar species, A. magniverrucata, is differentiated from A. abrupta by a number of characteristics: the universal veil is clearly separated from the flesh of the cap; the volval warts disappear more quickly because the surface of the cap cuticle
Pileipellis
thumb|300px||right|The cuticle of some mushrooms, such as [[Russula mustelina]] shown here, can be peeled from the cap, and may be useful as an identification feature....
gelatinizes; the partial veil is more persistent; the spores are smaller and roughly spherical; on the underside of the partial veil, the stem has surface fibrils that are drawn upward so as to somewhat resemble a cortina (a cobweb-like protective covering over the immature spore bearing surfaces); A. magniverrucata has a distribution limited to the eastern US.
Habitat, distribution, and ecology
The fruit bodies of A. abrupta grow on the ground, typically solitary, in mixed conifer and deciduous forestsDeciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
, usually during autumn. The frequency with which fruit bodies appear depends on several factors, such as season, location, temperature, and rainfall. The mushroom has been described as common in the Southeastern United States; in Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
, it has been called both infrequent, and common in the Big Thicket National Preserve. Like most other Amanita species, A. abrupta is thought to form mycorrhizal relationships with trees. This is a mutually beneficial relationship where the hyphae of the fungus grow around the roots of trees, enabling the fungus to receive moisture, protection and nutritive byproducts of the tree, and affording the tree greater access to soil nutrients. Amanita abrupta is widely distributed throughout eastern North America, where it has been found as far North as Quebec, Canada, and as far south as Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
. It has also been collected in Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
, and Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
. One author claims to have found it in the Dominican Republic
Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
where it appeared to be growing in mycorrizhal association with pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
trees. Kuo also mentions a mycorrhizal relationship with both hardwood
Hardwood
Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees . It may also be used for those trees themselves: these are usually broad-leaved; in temperate and boreal latitudes they are mostly deciduous, but in tropics and subtropics mostly evergreen.Hardwood contrasts with softwood...
s and conifers, while Tulloss lists additional preferred tree hosts such as beech
Beech
Beech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America.-Habit:...
, birch
Birch
Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
, fir
Fir
Firs are a genus of 48–55 species of evergreen conifers in the family Pinaceae. They are found through much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occurring in mountains over most of the range...
, tsuga
Tsuga
Tsuga is a genus of conifers in the family Pinaceae. The common name hemlock is derived from a perceived similarity in the smell of its crushed foliage to that of the unrelated plant poison hemlock....
, oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
, and poplar
Poplar
Populus is a genus of 25–35 species of deciduous flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. English names variously applied to different species include poplar , aspen, and cottonwood....
. However, A. abrupta has been shown experimentally to not form mycorrhiza with Pinus virginiana.
Toxicity
Ingestion of Amanita abrupta fruit bodies is toxic to the liverHepatotoxicity
Hepatotoxicity implies chemical-driven liver damage.The liver plays a central role in transforming and clearing chemicals and is susceptible to the toxicity from these agents. Certain medicinal agents, when taken in overdoses and sometimes even when introduced within therapeutic ranges, may injure...
. Laboratory experiments have shown that mice that ingested A. abrupta mushroom extract
Extract
An extract is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or in powder form....
s developed cholera
Cholera
Cholera is an infection of the small intestine that is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The main symptoms are profuse watery diarrhea and vomiting. Transmission occurs primarily by drinking or eating water or food that has been contaminated by the diarrhea of an infected person or the feces...
-like symptoms. A minimum single lethal dose
Lethal dose
A lethal dose is an indication of the lethality of a given substance or type of radiation. Because resistance varies from one individual to another, the 'lethal dose' represents a dose at which a given percentage of subjects will die...
of mushroom extract (equivalent to 4.5 grams of fruiting body per kilogram of mouse body weight) caused mice to become prostrate 6 hours after injection; shortly after the mice had diarrhea, then ultimately died between 24 and 48 hours after administration of the extract. In Nagano, Japan in 1978, two women died from mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning refers to harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells...
suspected to be caused by this species. The symptoms were characterized by the abrupt appearance of violent vomiting, diarrhea and dehydration after a delay of 10–20 hours. Although not as toxic as the destroying angel
Amanita virosa
Amanita virosa, commonly known as the European destroying angel, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus, one of many in the genus Amanita. Occurring in Europe, A. virosa associates with various deciduous and coniferous trees...
(A. virosa) or the death cap (A. phalloides), A. abrupta causes changes in liver function similar to these species. Effects include a decrease in blood sugar
Blood sugar
The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of a human or animal. Normally in mammals, the body maintains the blood glucose level at a reference range between about 3.6 and 5.8 mM , or 64.8 and 104.4 mg/dL...
levels, depletion of stored carbohydrate reserves (liver glycogen
Glycogen
Glycogen is a molecule that serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue...
), and an increase in transaminases
Elevated transaminases
In medicine, the presence of elevated transaminases, commonly the transaminases alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase , may be an indicator of liver damage...
—enzymes that break down muscle protein
Muscle
Muscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
.
Bioactive compounds
Several novel non-proteinProteinogenic amino acid
Proteinogenic amino acids are those amino acids that can be found in proteins and require cellular machinery coded for in the genetic code of any organism for their isolated production. There are 22 standard amino acids, but only 21 are found in eukaryotes. Of the 22, 20 are directly encoded by...
amino acid
Amino acid
Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side-chain that varies between different amino acids. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen...
s have been isolated from Amanita abrupta, including (2S,4Z)-2-amino-5-chloro-6-hydroxy-4-hexenoic acid; D,L-2-amino-4-pentynoic acid (0.257% w/w); and L-2-amino-4,5-hexadienoic acid (0.911% w/w). This last chemical is suspected to be largely responsible for the toxic effects of the mushroom; the latter two compounds have also been found in A. solitaria and A. pseudoporphyria. The chemical 2-amino-4-pentynoic acid (also known as propargylglycine) inhibits
Enzyme inhibitor
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to enzymes and decreases their activity. Since blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance, many drugs are enzyme inhibitors. They are also used as herbicides and pesticides...
enzyme
Enzyme
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process, called substrates, are converted into different molecules, called products. Almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates...
s involved in the metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
of the amino acids methionine
Methionine
Methionine is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCHCH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. This amino-acid is coded by the codon AUG, also known as the initiation codon, since it indicates mRNA's coding region where translation into protein...
and cystathionine
Cystathionine
Cystathionine is an intermediate in the synthesis of cysteine.It is generated from homocysteine and serine by cystathionine beta synthase.It is cleaved into cysteine and α-ketobutyrate by cystathionine gamma-lyase....
in the liver; it was also shown to have mild inhibitory effects on the glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis is the conversion of glycogen polymers to glucose monomers. Glycogen is catabolized by removal of a glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate...
metabolic pathway
Metabolic pathway
In biochemistry, metabolic pathways are series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by a series of chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function...
in rat liver cells.