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Warsaw Uprising (1794)
Encyclopedia
The Warsaw Uprising of 1794 (otherwise the "Warsaw Insurrection"; ) was an armed Polish insurrection by the city's populace early in the Kościuszko Uprising
. Supported by the Polish Army, it aimed to throw off Russia
n control of the Polish
capital city
. It began April 17, 1794, soon after Tadeusz Kościuszko
's victory at Racławice.
Although the Russian forces were more numerous and better equipped, the Polish regular forces and militia
, armed with rifles and sabers from the Warsaw Arsenal
, inflicted heavy losses on the surprised enemy garrison. Russian soldiers found themselves under crossfire, shot at from all sides and from buildings, and several units broke early and suffered heavy casualties in their retreat.
Kościuszko's envoy, Tomasz Maruszewski
, and Ignacy Działyński and others had been laying the groundwork for the uprising since the spring of 1793. They succeeded in winning popular support: a National Militia was formed from several thousand volunteers, led by Jan Kiliński
, a master shoemaker and one of Warsaw's notable residents. Apart from the militia, the most famous units to take part in the liberation of Warsaw were formed of Poles who had previously been forcibly conscripted into the Russian service. A witness to the fighting was Jan Piotr Norblin
, a French-born Polish painter who created a set of sketches and paintings of the struggle.
Within hours, the fighting had spread from a single street at the western outskirts of Warsaw's Old Town to the entire city. Part of the Russian garrison was able to retreat to Powązki under the cover of Prussia
n cavalry, but most were trapped inside the city. The isolated Russian forces resisted in several areas for two more days.
of 1793, the presence of Prussian
and Imperial Russian garrisons on Polish soil was almost continuous. Although foreign influence at the Polish court, often in the form of Russian ambassador Nikolai Repnin, had been strong for many years, it was not until the partitions of Poland
that it started to influence not only the Polish government and szlachta
(nobility), but the entire people. The presence of foreign occupation forces contributed both to economic collapse of the already-weakened state and to growing radicalisation of the population of Warsaw.
Upon receiving news of Kościuszko's proclamation
in Kraków
(March 24) and his subsequent victory at Racławice (April 4), the tension in Warsaw grew rapidly. Polish king Stanisław August Poniatowski was opposed to the idea of Kościuszko's uprising, and together with the Permanent Council
issued a declaration on April 2, condemning it. The King dispatched Hetman
Piotr Ożarowski
and the Marshal of the Permanent Council, Józef Ankwicz
, to Iosif Igelström
, Russian ambassador and commander of all Russian occupation forces in Poland, with a proposal to evacuate both the Russian troops and Polish troops loyal to the King to a military encampment at Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki
. There the King and his court, as well as the members of the pro-Russian faction and the leaders of the Targowica Confederation
, could safely wait for tensions to dissipate.
Igelström, however, rejected the plan and saw no need for the Russians to evacuate Warsaw. He sent a corps under Gen. Aleksandr Khrushchev to intercept Kościuszko and prevent him from approaching Warsaw. He also ordered increased surveillance of suspected supporters of the uprising, and imposed censorship
on all mail passing through Warsaw. Finally, Igelström issued orders for the arrest of persons whom he suspected of any connection with the insurrection. These included Gen. Ignacy Działyński, King's Chamberlain Jan Walenty Węgierski
and Stanisław Potocki, some of the more prominent political leaders. At the same time Russian forces started preparations to disarm the weak Polish garrison of Warsaw under General Stanisław Mokronowski by seizing the Warsaw Arsenal at Miodowa
Street. However, these orders only made the situation worse as they were leaked to the Poles.
The Russian forces prepared a plan to seize the most important buildings in the city and secure it until further reinforcements could arrive from Russia. General Johann Jakob Pistor
suggested that the barracks of "unsafe" Polish units be surrounded and the units disarmed, and the Warsaw Arsenal captured to prevent the revolutionaries from seizing arms. At the same time bishop Józef Kossakowski
, known for his pro-Russian stance, suggested that on April 19, that is the Holy Saturday
, the churches be surrounded with troops and all suspects attending the mass be arrested.
On the Polish side, weakened by the arrests of some of its leaders, both the radical Polish Jacobins
and the centrist supporters of King Stanisław August Poniatowski began preparing plans for an all-out attack on the Russian forces to drive them from Warsaw, still, in theory, the capital of an independent state. Kościuszko already had supporters in Warsaw, including Tomasz Maruszewski
, his envoy who was sent to Warsaw with a specific mission to prepare the uprising. Maruszewski created the Revolution Association (Związek Rewolucyjny), organizing the previously independent anti-Russian factions. The Association included among its members various high-ranking officers from the Polish forces stationed in Warsaw. Among them were Michał Chomentowski, Gen. Krystian Godfryd Deybel de Hammerau
, Józef Górski, Capt. Stanisław Kosmowski, Fryderyk Melfort, Dionizy Poniatowski
, Lt. Grzegorz Ropp and Józef Zeydlitz
. Among the most influential partisans of the uprising was General Jan August Cichowski, the military commander of the Warsaw's garrison. Together with General Stepan Stepanovich Apraksin
he devised a plan of defence of the city against the revolutionaries, but managed to convince the Russians to leave the Arsenal, the Royal Castle and the Gunpowder Depot
defended by the Polish units. Cichowski also managed to undermine the Russian plan to reduce the number of soldiers serving in the Polish units, which also added to the later Polish successes. Also, a prominent burgher
, shoemaking master Jan Kiliński
, started gathering support from other townsfolk. The King, however, remained passive, and subsequent events unfolded without any support — or opposition — from him.
The Polish force consisted of roughly 3000 men at arms and 150 horses, most of them from the 10th Regiment of Foot
and the 4th Regiment of Front Guard
. In addition, in the eastern borough of Praga
there were 680 men and 337 horses of the royal uhlan squadrons. The latter units crossed the Vistula
and took part in the fights, but served as a standard infantry as their horses had to be left on the other side of the river.
According to the Russian payroll found after the uprising in the Russian embassy and published soon after in the Gazeta Wolna Warszawska newspaper, the Russian garrison had 7,948 men, 1,041 horses and 34 guns. In addition, Igelström could request assistance from a Prussian unit of Gen. Friedrich von Wölcky stationed west of the city in the fields between Powązki and Marymont
. The latter unit had roughly 1,500 men and 4 guns.
the Polish garrison was secretly provided with volleys and artillery charges and overnight was dispatched to various parts of the city. The Russians were conscious of the preparations for the uprising as their troops were also equipped with additional ammunition. Half past 3 o'clock some 20 Polish dragoon
s left the Mirów barracks and headed for the Saxon Garden
. Encountered by a small Russian force equipped with two cannons guarding the Iron Gate
, the squadron charged the Russian positions and captured the guns. Soon afterwards the remainder of the Royal Horse Guard regiment left the barracks on foot and headed in two directions: towards the outer gates of the city at Wola
and towards the Warsaw Arsenal, where the Russian forces were preparing an assault. The latter force was also joined by a small troop of National Cavalry under Col. Gizler, who crossed the Vistula
overnight.
At 5 o'clock the planned Russian assault on the Arsenal was indeed started, but was repelled by unexpected opposition from Polish forces. After the first shots, the crew of the Arsenal started giving out arms to the civilian volunteers, who quickly joined the fights. The arsenal was secured, but the Polish plan to catch most of the Russian soldiers on the streets rather than in buildings and barracks failed. One of such groups armed with a cannon broke through the Warsaw's Old Town to Krasiński
Sq., two additional started marching along the Długa Street. Their action spread the uprising to all parts of the city. Until half past 6 o'clock the regular units and the militia clashed with the Russian outposts at Nalewki
, Bonifraterska, Kłopot and Leszno streets.
The initial clashes caused much confusion as not all forces involved had been notified of the plans of both sides. Among such units was the Royal Foot Guard unit, which broke through to the Castle Square
, where it was to await further orders. The small troop pledged to defend the monarch as soon as he appeared at the Castle's courtyard, however, on hearing the sounds of a battle nearby, the unit left the king and joined the fights at Miodowa Street; The Russian forces, pushed back after their initial failure at the gates of the Arsenal, withdrew towards Miodowa Street, where they amassed in front of Igelström's palace. There they were shelled by a small Polish force stationed in the gardens of the Krasiński Palace, but managed to destroy the Polish unit and successfully reorganize and rally. However, the chaos in the Russian ranks could not be eliminated as Igelström's headquarters had been cut out from the rest of the city and he could not send request for reinforcement to Russian units stationed outside of the city centre and the Russian chain of command had been practically paralysed. By 7 o'clock the confusion was partially cleared and heavy fights at Miodowa street turned into a regular battle in the vicinity of both the Arsenal and Igelström's headquarters, as both sides struggled to secure both buildings. Three Russian assault groups, each of them roughly battalion-strong, attacked the Arsenal from three sides: from Tłomackie, along Miodowa Street and from Franciszkańska
Street. However, all the Russian assaults were repelled with heavy losses on both sides and the Poles started a counter-attack towards the Russian positions at Miodowa, Senatorska, Leszno and Podwale Streets, but with little success.
The assault on Leszno Street was aimed at the Russian battalion occupying positions before the Carmelite Church
. After several hours' heavy close-quarters fighting, the Russian forces were forced to retreat to the church itself, where fighting continued. Finally the Russian soldiers surrendered, and only a small detachment, mostly of officers, continued the fight inside the church, where most of them perished. Also the Russian battalion under Major Titov, stationed at Bonifraterska Street, had been attacked around 7 o'clock by the Poles. After four hours' fighting, the Russians retreated toward the city's western outskirts.
Meanwhile, at 6 o'clock the Polish 10th Regiment of Foot
under Col. Filip Hauman left its barracks at Ujazdów
to the south of the city center, and started its march towards the Royal Castle. As an effect of the chaos in Russian ranks, it reached Nowy Świat Street
and Świętokrzyska Streets unopposed by Russian units stationed there, as the Russian commanders did not know what to do. It was finally stopped by a Russian force at Krakowskie Przedmieście
Street, consisting of no less than 600 men and 5 pieces of artillery, and commanded by Gen. Miłaszewicz. The Russian force was strategically dislocated on both sides of the street, in both the Kazimierz Palace (now the Warsaw University rectorate) and before Holy Cross Church
. Col. Hauman started lengthy negotiations with the Russian commander asking him to allow the Polish forces to pass. However, the negotiations were finally broken and at 8 o'clock the Polish regiment assaulted the Russian positions. After a skirmish that ensued the Polish unit was partially dispersed and had to retreat. Parts of the unit under Maj. Stanisław Lipnicki retreated to the Dominican Church, where the fights continued. Other troop under Lt. Sypniewski broke through to the Branicki Palace, yet others found their way farther toward the Old Town
, outflanking the Russians. Because of that, the Russian infantry under Gen. Miłaszewicz and a small cavalry force under Prince Gagarin, though victorious, found themselves under crossfire and surrounded. In addition, a small yet loud militia force under Jan Kiliński
appeared on their rear and all of the Polish units in the area assaulted the Russians from all directions, which resulted in almost complete destruction of the Russian units. General Miłaszewicz himself was wounded as he was trying to retreat with the remnants of his force toward the Kazimierz Palace, while Prince Gagarin retreated with some cavalrymen towards the Saxon Garden
, where they were ambushed by civilians and killed almost to a man. The 10th Regiment then proceeded towards the Castle Square, where it took part in the fights against smaller Russian forces in the Old Town.
church, they repelled Polish early attacks and captured the Krasiński Palace which Poles attempted to use to take them under crossfire. At the same time the palace's garden remained in Polish hands and heavy fights spread to that area as well. In other parts of the city smaller Russian forces defended themselves in isolated manors, as was the case of Szanowski's house at the Vistula
in the borough of Powiśle
, where a small Russian troop offered fierce resistance against the 10th Regiment until late afternoon. Nearby, a Russian force under Maj. Mayer, consisting of roughly two companies and armed with two cannons, fortified itself in the Kwieciński's Baths, where it defended itself for several hours. After repeated charges by the 10th Regiment, the Russian commander was left with no more than 80 men, with whom he retreated to the other side of the river.
In the meantime, the king, together with some members of the Targowica Confederation
took refuge in the Warsaw Castle (among them were Piotr Ożarowski
, Józef Ankwicz
, Great Crown Marshall Fryderyk Józef Moszyński
and king's brother Kazimierz Poniatowski
). From there they tried to restore peace, but without any success. Poniatowski nominated two trusted people to take command of the troops: Ignacy Wyssogota Zakrzewski
became the mayor of Warsaw, and general Stanisław Mokronowski became the commander-in-chief of the Warsaw troops, but both quickly decided to support the uprising.
At the same time more than half of the Russian forces were amassed by Gen. Ivan Novitskiy at the western end of the Jerusalem Avenue. Roughly 4,000 men were withdrawn there without a single shot fired. Among the units rallied there were units that were to secure the entire southern part of Warsaw, including forces under Lt. Col. Kasztoliński and von Klugen, parts of Igelström's personal guard and the remnants of the force to take part in the battle against the 10th Regiment, commanded by Maj. Bago. Novitskiy, after several hours of wavering, finally organized a relief force of roughly 3000 men and 10 cannons, and started a march towards the city centre. The column crossed Marszałkowska Street unopposed and reached the Saxon Square. There it was met by a negligible unit of not more than 100 civilians armed with a single 6 pounder cannon
, commanded by Captain of Artillery Jacek Drozdowski. The Polish unit opened fire from its single cannon and started gradually retreating across the square towards the Brühl's Palace
on its northern edge, firing all the way. At the same time the Russian commander did not issue any orders and his column simply stopped under fire. Although much inferior in both numbers, training and equipment, Drozdowski's unit was not attacked by the Russian force, as Novitskiy finally lost control over his troops. The Russian soldiers broke their ranks and seized the undefended Saxon Palace, where they seized the cellars full of alcohol. The Poles continued to shell them with artillery fire for almost 3 hours, without being attacked. Finally, when a company of the 10th Regiment returning from Powiśle appeared at Królewska Street, the Russians started a disorganized retreat towards the Jerusalem Avenue, leaving Igelström to his own fate.
The retreat of the Russian unit allowed the Poles to repel other assaults by Russian forces as well, including an attack by roughly a thousand men from Warsaw's New Town toward the northern gate of the Old Town
. Although the Russian force finally managed to break through to the Old Town, it had lost all its guns and more than fifty percent of its men. Also repelled were repeated assaults on the Arsenal from Miodowa Street, under the command of Gen. Tishchev. The Russians, approaching in three columns, did not coordinate their maneuvers, allowing the Poles to deal with them separately, one by one. The first column under Tishchev approached the Arsenal at 3 o'clock from Miodowa Street. Although one of the building's turrets exploded, the Poles managed to repel the assault within half an hour, before the Russians had gathered reinforcements. The second Russian column approached the Arsenal through the Krasiński Gardens, but was stopped by massed fire from several cannon concealed in the bushes. The third Russian battalion, commanded by Tishchev personally, approached the Arsenal from the west, along Leszno Street, where it was stopped by the Royal Guard. After a fierce fight, Tishchev was gravely wounded (a cannon ball ripped his leg off) and soon died, while the remainder of his force surrendered to the Poles.
In these circumstances the Poles began a counterattack aimed at capturing Igelström's palace and the positions of the forces that he had managed to gather about him. These included a battalion under Johann Jakob Pistor; a battalion drawn from Marywil
(commanded by Col. Parfyeniev); a battalion of the famed Siberian Regiment; and some cavalry under Brigadier Baur. All but Parfyeniev's men had previously been involved in the failed assaults at the Arsenal and toward the Royal Castle
, and all were battle-hardened. However, as the Poles managed to seize several buildings along Senatorska Street (opposite the palace) and proceeded to fire at the Russians from the windows, the Russians could not reorganize their ranks and had to hide in the palace and the nearby Capuchin
Church. Before 4 o'clock, Działyński's Regiment reached Senatorska Street and began a frontal assault on the palace, but was bloodily repelled by the Russian defenders. However, constant fire from the windows and roofs of nearby houses prevented them from mounting a counter-attack and both sides reached a stalemate. Because of that Igelström was left with little option but to await reinforcements from the outside, which however did not happen. After dark a small unit under Major Titov broke through to Igelström, but his force was not strong enough to break the stalemate.
Unable to reach the palace, the Poles assaulted the Russian positions in front of the Capuchin's church and monastery. The Russians withdrew to the courtyard, from where the fights spread to the entire monastery. The Poles managed to secure the courtyard and place a single cannon there, which allowed them to storm the monastery, but fierce hand to hand fights, with heavy losses on both sides, continued until late evening. In the coming night, some of smaller Russian units lost cohesion and attempted to retreat on their own. Many soldiers engaged in looting at that time, and Krasiński's Palace was among the most prominent buildings looted by the soldiers during the Uprising. This marked the first day of the uprising.
and Długa Streets, as well as the Krasiński Square
and palace. Believing further defence of his palace was futile, Igelström left there only a token force of roughly 400 men and withdrew to the Krasiński Palace. He planned to prepare a sortie in order to break through from the city centre, but all surrounding streets were filled with Polish troops and cannons.
Igelström, unable to command most his troops since the uprising started, requested permission to capitulate. After being granted a truce, he withdrew to the Prussia
n camp near Warsaw in Powązki, from where they retreated to Zakroczym
. The exact number of troops that managed to retreat with Igelström is unknown and varies from source to source, but most estimates place it at between 300 and 400 men and 8 cannons. As soon as Igelström's retreat was discovered, the assault on Russian positions was resumed. The remaining troops defending the embassy and covering Igelström's retreat eventually run out of ammunition and their positions were overrun by 5 o'clock in the evening by the forces of the 10th Regiment under Kalinowski, aided by Kiliński's militia. Polish forces released political prisoner
s held by Russians in the basement and were able to secure most of the embassy's secret archive, covering all of Russian secret operations in Poland since 1763. Among the prominent captives taken during the final fights for the embassy was Colonel Parfyeniev. Among the captured documents were the lists of various Polish officials on Russian payroll; many of them were later executed. This Polish victory marked an end of the uprising, with the last Russian units either routed or in retreat. The last small spots of Russian resistance were eliminated or surrendered on that day.
The uprising in Warsaw marked a significant victory for the entire cause of Kościuszko, as it proved that the Russian forces could be beaten. The echoes of the victory in Warsaw spread across the country. Mokronowski became military commander in Warsaw and Ignacy Zakrzewski became the city's president
. General Mokronowski repeatedly begged the King, who was at the same time his cousin, to support the uprising. However, the king refused and the power in the city was seized by the Provisional Temporary Council
composed of Zakrzewski, Mokronowski, Józef Wybicki
and Kiliński. Mokronowski was soon removed from the council for his opposition to Kościuszko. On May 27 the council was dissolved and passed the power to Kościuszko's Supreme National Council . On May 9 four prominent supporters of the Targowica Confederation
, including Józef Ankwicz
, Józef Kossakowski
, hetman Piotr Ożarowski
and hetman Józef Zabiełło, were sentenced to death by the Insurrectionary Court and were hanged in Warsaw. A few weeks later, on June 28, an angry mob stormed the prisons and hanged other supporters of Targowica, including bishop
Ignacy Jakub Massalski
, prince Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński-Światopełk, ambassador Karol Boscamp-Lasopolski and others. The National Militia of Warsaw grew to over 20,000 men at arms and constituted a large part of the Polish Army fighting against Russia.
The uprising was also openly commented upon in Russia. As a result of this defeat, Igelström was recalled in disgrace, although he would redeem himself in future fighting. In the 19th century the Uprising of 1794 was presented in a bad light in Imperial Russian
historiography
, as the fights in Warsaw were referred to as a "massacre" of unarmed Russian soldiers by the Warsaw's mob. Russian historian Platon Zhukovich marked his relation of the events with many horrific, yet counter-factual descriptions of unarmed Russian soldiers being slaughtered in an Orthodox church during the Eucharist, even though there was no Orthodox church in Warsaw at that time, the participation of Kiliński's militia was seriously overrated and no other source confirms the thesis that the Russian garrison was unarmed. The defeat in this battle is sometimes seen as one of the reasons for the massacre of Praga, in which the Russian forces murdered between 10,000 and 20,000 civilians of Warsaw upon their reconquest of the city
later that year.
Kosciuszko Uprising
The Kościuszko Uprising was an uprising against Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in Poland, Belarus and Lithuania in 1794...
. Supported by the Polish Army, it aimed to throw off Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n control of the Polish
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
capital city
Capital City
Capital City was a television show produced by Euston Films which focused on the lives of investment bankers in London living and working on the corporate trading floor for the fictional international bank Shane-Longman....
. It began April 17, 1794, soon after Tadeusz Kościuszko
Tadeusz Kosciuszko
Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko was a Polish–Lithuanian and American general and military leader during the Kościuszko Uprising. He is a national hero of Poland, Lithuania, the United States and Belarus...
's victory at Racławice.
Although the Russian forces were more numerous and better equipped, the Polish regular forces and militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
, armed with rifles and sabers from the Warsaw Arsenal
Warsaw Arsenal
Warsaw Arsenal is a building of a military arsenal in Warsaw, Poland. It is located at Długa street, in the proximity of the Warsaw's Old Town. Throughout the ages the building served a variety of roles. It was the scene of heavy fighting during the Warsaw Insurrection of 1794...
, inflicted heavy losses on the surprised enemy garrison. Russian soldiers found themselves under crossfire, shot at from all sides and from buildings, and several units broke early and suffered heavy casualties in their retreat.
Kościuszko's envoy, Tomasz Maruszewski
Tomasz Maruszewski
Tomasz Maruszewski was a prominent participant in the Kościuszko Uprising.A burgher and Polish Jacobin, he was a member of Kołłątaj's Forge and was ennobled by the Great Sejm in 1790....
, and Ignacy Działyński and others had been laying the groundwork for the uprising since the spring of 1793. They succeeded in winning popular support: a National Militia was formed from several thousand volunteers, led by Jan Kiliński
Jan Kilinski
Jan Kiliński was one of the commanders of the Kościuszko Uprising. A shoemaker by trade, he commanded the Warsaw Uprising of 1794, an uprising against the Russian garrison in Warsaw. He became a member of Polish provisional government as well.Jan Kiliński was born in Trzemeszno, a minor town in...
, a master shoemaker and one of Warsaw's notable residents. Apart from the militia, the most famous units to take part in the liberation of Warsaw were formed of Poles who had previously been forcibly conscripted into the Russian service. A witness to the fighting was Jan Piotr Norblin
Jan Piotr Norblin
Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine was a French-born painter, draughtsman, engraver, drawing artist and caricaturist. From 1774 to 1804 he resided in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where he obtained citizenship.He is considered one of the most important painters of the Polish Enlightenment...
, a French-born Polish painter who created a set of sketches and paintings of the struggle.
Within hours, the fighting had spread from a single street at the western outskirts of Warsaw's Old Town to the entire city. Part of the Russian garrison was able to retreat to Powązki under the cover of Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n cavalry, but most were trapped inside the city. The isolated Russian forces resisted in several areas for two more days.
Prelude
Following the Second Partition of PolandSecond Partition of Poland
The 1793 Second Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795. The second partition occurred in the aftermath of the War in Defense of the Constitution and the Targowica Confederation of 1792...
of 1793, the presence of Prussian
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
and Imperial Russian garrisons on Polish soil was almost continuous. Although foreign influence at the Polish court, often in the form of Russian ambassador Nikolai Repnin, had been strong for many years, it was not until the partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
that it started to influence not only the Polish government and szlachta
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
(nobility), but the entire people. The presence of foreign occupation forces contributed both to economic collapse of the already-weakened state and to growing radicalisation of the population of Warsaw.
Upon receiving news of Kościuszko's proclamation
Kosciuszko's proclamation
Kościuszko's proclamation refers to a speech given by Tadeusz Kościuszko in Kraków on March 24, 1794. The speech is considered the starting point of the Kościuszko's Uprising against the forces of Imperial Russia occupying Poland....
in Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
(March 24) and his subsequent victory at Racławice (April 4), the tension in Warsaw grew rapidly. Polish king Stanisław August Poniatowski was opposed to the idea of Kościuszko's uprising, and together with the Permanent Council
Permanent Council
The Permanent Council was the highest administrative authority in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between 1775 and 1789 and the first modern government in Europe...
issued a declaration on April 2, condemning it. The King dispatched Hetman
Hetman
Hetman was the title of the second-highest military commander in 15th- to 18th-century Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which together, from 1569 to 1795, comprised the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, or Rzeczpospolita....
Piotr Ożarowski
Piotr Ozarowski
Piotr Ożarowski was a Polish noble , politic and military commander. Member of the infamous Confederation of Targowica, he reached the offices of Great Crown Hetman and castellan of Wojnice....
and the Marshal of the Permanent Council, Józef Ankwicz
Józef Ankwicz
Józef Ankwicz , of Awdaniec coat of arms, also known as Józef z Posławic and Józef Awdaniec, was a politician and noble in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He held the office of castellan of Nowy Sącz from 1782. Deputy to the Great Sejm, and most infamously, the Grodno Sejm...
, to Iosif Igelström
Iosif Igelström
Count Otto Heinrich Igelström was a Russian general from the noble Swedish family of Igelström.Otto Heinrich Igelström, son of Landmarschall in the Governorate of Livonia freiherr Gustaf Henrik Igelström and Margarethe Elisabeth von Albedyll, got education in Riga and Germany...
, Russian ambassador and commander of all Russian occupation forces in Poland, with a proposal to evacuate both the Russian troops and Polish troops loyal to the King to a military encampment at Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki
Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki
Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki is a town in central Poland with ca. 42500 inhabitants . It is situated in the Masovian Voivodeship ; previously, it was in Warszawa Voivodeship...
. There the King and his court, as well as the members of the pro-Russian faction and the leaders of the Targowica Confederation
Targowica Confederation
The Targowica Confederation was a confederation established by Polish and Lithuanian magnates on 27 April 1792, in Saint Petersburg, with the backing of the Russian Empress Catherine II. The confederation opposed the Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, which had been adopted by the Great Sejm,...
, could safely wait for tensions to dissipate.
Igelström, however, rejected the plan and saw no need for the Russians to evacuate Warsaw. He sent a corps under Gen. Aleksandr Khrushchev to intercept Kościuszko and prevent him from approaching Warsaw. He also ordered increased surveillance of suspected supporters of the uprising, and imposed censorship
Censorship
thumb|[[Book burning]] following the [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|1973 coup]] that installed the [[Military government of Chile |Pinochet regime]] in Chile...
on all mail passing through Warsaw. Finally, Igelström issued orders for the arrest of persons whom he suspected of any connection with the insurrection. These included Gen. Ignacy Działyński, King's Chamberlain Jan Walenty Węgierski
Jan Walenty Wegierski
Jan Walenty Węgierski , of Wieniawa Coat of Arms, was a Deputy Chancellor and Chamberlain of last king of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski. He was supporter of Kościuszko Insurrection....
and Stanisław Potocki, some of the more prominent political leaders. At the same time Russian forces started preparations to disarm the weak Polish garrison of Warsaw under General Stanisław Mokronowski by seizing the Warsaw Arsenal at Miodowa
Miodowa
Miodowa is a street in Warsaw's Old Town. More precisely, it links the Freta Street in the New Town, with the Krasiński Square. It is also a street in the Kazimierz district in Kraków.-History:...
Street. However, these orders only made the situation worse as they were leaked to the Poles.
The Russian forces prepared a plan to seize the most important buildings in the city and secure it until further reinforcements could arrive from Russia. General Johann Jakob Pistor
Johann Jakob Pistor
Johann Jakob von Pistor was an 18th-century German general who served in the Imperial Russian Army. One of the most notable commanders of Russian forces in the Warsaw Uprising , he authored a memoir on both the fights in Warsaw and the entire Kościuszko's Uprising.-Bibliography:...
suggested that the barracks of "unsafe" Polish units be surrounded and the units disarmed, and the Warsaw Arsenal captured to prevent the revolutionaries from seizing arms. At the same time bishop Józef Kossakowski
Józef Kossakowski (bishop)
Józef Kazimierz Korwin Kossakowski , of Ślepowron Coat of Arms, was a Polish noble , bishop of Livonia from 1781, political activist, writer, and supporter of Russian Empire....
, known for his pro-Russian stance, suggested that on April 19, that is the Holy Saturday
Holy Saturday
Holy Saturday , sometimes known as Easter Eve or Black Saturday, is the day after Good Friday. It is the day before Easter and the last day of Holy Week in which Christians prepare for Easter...
, the churches be surrounded with troops and all suspects attending the mass be arrested.
Polish Jacobins
Polish Jacobins was the name given to a group of late 18th century radical Polish politicians by their opponents.Polish Jacobins formed during the Great Sejm as an offshoot of the "Kołłątaj's Forge" of Hugo Kołłątaj Polish Jacobins (or Hugenots) was the name given to a group of late 18th century...
and the centrist supporters of King Stanisław August Poniatowski began preparing plans for an all-out attack on the Russian forces to drive them from Warsaw, still, in theory, the capital of an independent state. Kościuszko already had supporters in Warsaw, including Tomasz Maruszewski
Tomasz Maruszewski
Tomasz Maruszewski was a prominent participant in the Kościuszko Uprising.A burgher and Polish Jacobin, he was a member of Kołłątaj's Forge and was ennobled by the Great Sejm in 1790....
, his envoy who was sent to Warsaw with a specific mission to prepare the uprising. Maruszewski created the Revolution Association (Związek Rewolucyjny), organizing the previously independent anti-Russian factions. The Association included among its members various high-ranking officers from the Polish forces stationed in Warsaw. Among them were Michał Chomentowski, Gen. Krystian Godfryd Deybel de Hammerau
Krystian Godfryd Deybel de Hammerau
Krystian Godfryd Deybel de Hammerau was a Polish military commander and a general of artillery. He fought during the Warsaw Uprising of 1794 and commanded the artillery of Kościuszko's Uprising....
, Józef Górski, Capt. Stanisław Kosmowski, Fryderyk Melfort, Dionizy Poniatowski
Dionizy Poniatowski
Dionizy Poniatowski was a Polish 18th century military commander and a high-ranking commander of the Polish Army during the Kościuszko's Uprising. A relative of the king Stanisław August Poniatowski, Dionizy Poniatowski served in the Royal Horse Guards Regiment since 1765. He passed all ranks from...
, Lt. Grzegorz Ropp and Józef Zeydlitz
Józef Zeydlitz
Józef Zeydlitz was a Polish military commander and a Colonel of the Polish Army....
. Among the most influential partisans of the uprising was General Jan August Cichowski, the military commander of the Warsaw's garrison. Together with General Stepan Stepanovich Apraksin
Stepan Stepanovich Apraksin
Stepan Stepanovich Apraksin was a Russian military commander and aristocrat, the only son of Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin, likewise a famed military commander and a high-ranking military commander in the Russian army....
he devised a plan of defence of the city against the revolutionaries, but managed to convince the Russians to leave the Arsenal, the Royal Castle and the Gunpowder Depot
Stara Prochownia
Stara Prochownia also known as the Bridge Gate is a historic building in Warsaw New Town. It is located on ulica Boleść, just below the New Town and the Barbican, on the Vistula River escarpment.-History:...
defended by the Polish units. Cichowski also managed to undermine the Russian plan to reduce the number of soldiers serving in the Polish units, which also added to the later Polish successes. Also, a prominent burgher
Bourgeoisie
In sociology and political science, bourgeoisie describes a range of groups across history. In the Western world, between the late 18th century and the present day, the bourgeoisie is a social class "characterized by their ownership of capital and their related culture." A member of the...
, shoemaking master Jan Kiliński
Jan Kilinski
Jan Kiliński was one of the commanders of the Kościuszko Uprising. A shoemaker by trade, he commanded the Warsaw Uprising of 1794, an uprising against the Russian garrison in Warsaw. He became a member of Polish provisional government as well.Jan Kiliński was born in Trzemeszno, a minor town in...
, started gathering support from other townsfolk. The King, however, remained passive, and subsequent events unfolded without any support — or opposition — from him.
Opposing forces
Due to the fact that a large part of the Polish forces consisted of irregular militia, the exact number of the troops fighting on Polish side is hard to estimate. However, there are pay rolls of the Russian garrison preserved, which give a fairly accurate number of regular soldiers available to Igelström.The Polish force consisted of roughly 3000 men at arms and 150 horses, most of them from the 10th Regiment of Foot
Polish 10th Regiment of Foot
The 10th Regiment of Foot was a Polish military unit. Initially formed in 1775 under the name of Regiment of Foot of the Land of Rydzyna, it was stationed in Rydzyna as a private unit of Col. Ignacy Działyński. Relocated to Warsaw, in 1789 it received the ordinal number of 11, and then 10 in 1794....
and the 4th Regiment of Front Guard
Polish 4th Regiment of Front Guard
The 4th Regiment of Front Guard was a military unit of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Poland. Initially formed in 1733 as a private cavalry unit of Potocki family, it was initially composed mostly of Tatars. Incorporated into the Saxon army during the reign of Wettin dynasty in Poland, in...
. In addition, in the eastern borough of Praga
Praga
Praga is a historical borough of Warsaw, the capital of Poland. It is located on the east bank of the river Vistula. First mentioned in 1432, until 1791 it formed a separate town with its own city charter.- History :...
there were 680 men and 337 horses of the royal uhlan squadrons. The latter units crossed the Vistula
Vistula
The Vistula is the longest and the most important river in Poland, at 1,047 km in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is , of which lies within Poland ....
and took part in the fights, but served as a standard infantry as their horses had to be left on the other side of the river.
According to the Russian payroll found after the uprising in the Russian embassy and published soon after in the Gazeta Wolna Warszawska newspaper, the Russian garrison had 7,948 men, 1,041 horses and 34 guns. In addition, Igelström could request assistance from a Prussian unit of Gen. Friedrich von Wölcky stationed west of the city in the fields between Powązki and Marymont
Marymont
Marymont is one of the northern neighbourhoods of Warsaw, Poland, administratively a part of the boroughs of Żoliborz and Bielany . Named after the queen of Poland Maria Kazimiera , wife of king John III Sobieski, it initially housed a small summer manor...
. The latter unit had roughly 1,500 men and 4 guns.
Opening moves
After the Russian plan of surrounding the churches on Saturday was discovered by the Poles, it was decided that the uprising start immediately. On Holy WednesdayHoly Wednesday
In Christianity, Holy Wednesday is the Wednesday of the Holy Week, the week before Easter...
the Polish garrison was secretly provided with volleys and artillery charges and overnight was dispatched to various parts of the city. The Russians were conscious of the preparations for the uprising as their troops were also equipped with additional ammunition. Half past 3 o'clock some 20 Polish dragoon
Dragoon
The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel...
s left the Mirów barracks and headed for the Saxon Garden
Saxon Garden
The Saxon Garden is a 15.5–hectare public garden in downtown Warsaw, Poland, facing Piłsudski Square. It is the oldest public park in the city...
. Encountered by a small Russian force equipped with two cannons guarding the Iron Gate
Plac Zelaznej Bramy
Plac Żelaznej Bramy is a large open space in the city center of Warsaw. The square took its name from a large iron gate that once secured the western boundary of the Saxon Garden.- History :...
, the squadron charged the Russian positions and captured the guns. Soon afterwards the remainder of the Royal Horse Guard regiment left the barracks on foot and headed in two directions: towards the outer gates of the city at Wola
Wola
Wola is a district in western Warsaw, Poland, formerly the village of Wielka Wola, incorporated into Warsaw in 1916. An industrial area with traditions reaching back to the early 19th century, it is slowly changing into an office and residential district...
and towards the Warsaw Arsenal, where the Russian forces were preparing an assault. The latter force was also joined by a small troop of National Cavalry under Col. Gizler, who crossed the Vistula
Vistula
The Vistula is the longest and the most important river in Poland, at 1,047 km in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is , of which lies within Poland ....
overnight.
At 5 o'clock the planned Russian assault on the Arsenal was indeed started, but was repelled by unexpected opposition from Polish forces. After the first shots, the crew of the Arsenal started giving out arms to the civilian volunteers, who quickly joined the fights. The arsenal was secured, but the Polish plan to catch most of the Russian soldiers on the streets rather than in buildings and barracks failed. One of such groups armed with a cannon broke through the Warsaw's Old Town to Krasiński
Krasinski
Krasiński is a surname of Polish, or generally Slavic, origin....
Sq., two additional started marching along the Długa Street. Their action spread the uprising to all parts of the city. Until half past 6 o'clock the regular units and the militia clashed with the Russian outposts at Nalewki
Nalewki
Nalewki is a former name of the Bohaterów Getta street in Warsaw, Poland, as well as a name applied to the entire borough around it. The street runs from the Długa Street in the New Town towards what was the northern outskirts of the city in 19th century, and the neighbourhood of Muranów...
, Bonifraterska, Kłopot and Leszno streets.
The initial clashes caused much confusion as not all forces involved had been notified of the plans of both sides. Among such units was the Royal Foot Guard unit, which broke through to the Castle Square
Plac Zamkowy
Warsaw's Castle Square is a square before the Royal Castle in Warsaw, Poland.-History:On the square is a column of King Sigismund III Vasa from 1644, the oldest and symbolic monument of the city...
, where it was to await further orders. The small troop pledged to defend the monarch as soon as he appeared at the Castle's courtyard, however, on hearing the sounds of a battle nearby, the unit left the king and joined the fights at Miodowa Street; The Russian forces, pushed back after their initial failure at the gates of the Arsenal, withdrew towards Miodowa Street, where they amassed in front of Igelström's palace. There they were shelled by a small Polish force stationed in the gardens of the Krasiński Palace, but managed to destroy the Polish unit and successfully reorganize and rally. However, the chaos in the Russian ranks could not be eliminated as Igelström's headquarters had been cut out from the rest of the city and he could not send request for reinforcement to Russian units stationed outside of the city centre and the Russian chain of command had been practically paralysed. By 7 o'clock the confusion was partially cleared and heavy fights at Miodowa street turned into a regular battle in the vicinity of both the Arsenal and Igelström's headquarters, as both sides struggled to secure both buildings. Three Russian assault groups, each of them roughly battalion-strong, attacked the Arsenal from three sides: from Tłomackie, along Miodowa Street and from Franciszkańska
Franciszkanska
Franciszkańska is a street in the centre of Warsaw, linking the New Town with Nalewki street. In the 19th century it was inhabited primarily by Jews, who converted the street into a large open-air marketplace...
Street. However, all the Russian assaults were repelled with heavy losses on both sides and the Poles started a counter-attack towards the Russian positions at Miodowa, Senatorska, Leszno and Podwale Streets, but with little success.
Carmelite Church, Warsaw
Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and of St. Joseph commonly known as the Carmelite Church is a Roman Catholic church at Krakowskie Przedmieście 52/54 in Warsaw, Poland....
. After several hours' heavy close-quarters fighting, the Russian forces were forced to retreat to the church itself, where fighting continued. Finally the Russian soldiers surrendered, and only a small detachment, mostly of officers, continued the fight inside the church, where most of them perished. Also the Russian battalion under Major Titov, stationed at Bonifraterska Street, had been attacked around 7 o'clock by the Poles. After four hours' fighting, the Russians retreated toward the city's western outskirts.
Meanwhile, at 6 o'clock the Polish 10th Regiment of Foot
Polish 10th Regiment of Foot
The 10th Regiment of Foot was a Polish military unit. Initially formed in 1775 under the name of Regiment of Foot of the Land of Rydzyna, it was stationed in Rydzyna as a private unit of Col. Ignacy Działyński. Relocated to Warsaw, in 1789 it received the ordinal number of 11, and then 10 in 1794....
under Col. Filip Hauman left its barracks at Ujazdów
Ujazdów
Ujazdów may refer to the following places in Poland:*Ujazdów Castle in Warsaw*Ujazdów Park in Warsaw*Ujazdów, Włodawa County in Lublin Voivodeship *Ujazdów, Zamość County in Lublin Voivodeship...
to the south of the city center, and started its march towards the Royal Castle. As an effect of the chaos in Russian ranks, it reached Nowy Świat Street
Nowy Swiat Street
Ulica Nowy Świat is one of the main historic thoroughfares of Warsaw.It comprises part of the Royal Route that runs from Warsaw's Royal Castle and Old Town, south to King Jan III Sobieski's 17th-century royal residence at Wilanów....
and Świętokrzyska Streets unopposed by Russian units stationed there, as the Russian commanders did not know what to do. It was finally stopped by a Russian force at Krakowskie Przedmieście
Krakowskie Przedmiescie
Krakowskie Przedmieście is one of the most impressive and prestigious streets of Poland's capital.Several other Polish cities also have streets named Krakowskie Przedmieście. In Lublin, it is the main and most elegant street...
Street, consisting of no less than 600 men and 5 pieces of artillery, and commanded by Gen. Miłaszewicz. The Russian force was strategically dislocated on both sides of the street, in both the Kazimierz Palace (now the Warsaw University rectorate) and before Holy Cross Church
Holy Cross Church, Warsaw
The Church of the Holy Cross is a Roman Catholic house of worship in downtown Warsaw, Poland. Located on Krakowskie Przedmieście opposite the main Warsaw University campus, it is one of the most notable Baroque churches in Poland's capital....
. Col. Hauman started lengthy negotiations with the Russian commander asking him to allow the Polish forces to pass. However, the negotiations were finally broken and at 8 o'clock the Polish regiment assaulted the Russian positions. After a skirmish that ensued the Polish unit was partially dispersed and had to retreat. Parts of the unit under Maj. Stanisław Lipnicki retreated to the Dominican Church, where the fights continued. Other troop under Lt. Sypniewski broke through to the Branicki Palace, yet others found their way farther toward the Old Town
Warsaw Old Town
Warsaw's Old Town is the oldest historic district of the city. It is bounded by Wybrzeże Gdańskie, along the bank of the Vistula, and by Grodzka, Mostowa and Podwale Streets. It is one of Warsaw's most prominent tourist attractions....
, outflanking the Russians. Because of that, the Russian infantry under Gen. Miłaszewicz and a small cavalry force under Prince Gagarin, though victorious, found themselves under crossfire and surrounded. In addition, a small yet loud militia force under Jan Kiliński
Jan Kilinski
Jan Kiliński was one of the commanders of the Kościuszko Uprising. A shoemaker by trade, he commanded the Warsaw Uprising of 1794, an uprising against the Russian garrison in Warsaw. He became a member of Polish provisional government as well.Jan Kiliński was born in Trzemeszno, a minor town in...
appeared on their rear and all of the Polish units in the area assaulted the Russians from all directions, which resulted in almost complete destruction of the Russian units. General Miłaszewicz himself was wounded as he was trying to retreat with the remnants of his force toward the Kazimierz Palace, while Prince Gagarin retreated with some cavalrymen towards the Saxon Garden
Saxon Garden
The Saxon Garden is a 15.5–hectare public garden in downtown Warsaw, Poland, facing Piłsudski Square. It is the oldest public park in the city...
, where they were ambushed by civilians and killed almost to a man. The 10th Regiment then proceeded towards the Castle Square, where it took part in the fights against smaller Russian forces in the Old Town.
City center
The victory of the 10th Regiment marked a turning point of the uprising, as it broke the morale of the Russian forces. After noon the fights in front of Igelström's headquarters, at Miodowa Street and for the Arsenal continued as both sides drew reinforcements from all parts of the town. Russian units there put up the strongest defense and although they were forced to retreat in the direction of the FranciscanFranciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
church, they repelled Polish early attacks and captured the Krasiński Palace which Poles attempted to use to take them under crossfire. At the same time the palace's garden remained in Polish hands and heavy fights spread to that area as well. In other parts of the city smaller Russian forces defended themselves in isolated manors, as was the case of Szanowski's house at the Vistula
Vistula
The Vistula is the longest and the most important river in Poland, at 1,047 km in length. The watershed area of the Vistula is , of which lies within Poland ....
in the borough of Powiśle
Powisle
Powiśle is a neighbourhood in Warsaw's borough of Śródmieście . It is located between the Vistula river and its escarpment...
, where a small Russian troop offered fierce resistance against the 10th Regiment until late afternoon. Nearby, a Russian force under Maj. Mayer, consisting of roughly two companies and armed with two cannons, fortified itself in the Kwieciński's Baths, where it defended itself for several hours. After repeated charges by the 10th Regiment, the Russian commander was left with no more than 80 men, with whom he retreated to the other side of the river.
In the meantime, the king, together with some members of the Targowica Confederation
Targowica Confederation
The Targowica Confederation was a confederation established by Polish and Lithuanian magnates on 27 April 1792, in Saint Petersburg, with the backing of the Russian Empress Catherine II. The confederation opposed the Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, which had been adopted by the Great Sejm,...
took refuge in the Warsaw Castle (among them were Piotr Ożarowski
Piotr Ozarowski
Piotr Ożarowski was a Polish noble , politic and military commander. Member of the infamous Confederation of Targowica, he reached the offices of Great Crown Hetman and castellan of Wojnice....
, Józef Ankwicz
Józef Ankwicz
Józef Ankwicz , of Awdaniec coat of arms, also known as Józef z Posławic and Józef Awdaniec, was a politician and noble in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He held the office of castellan of Nowy Sącz from 1782. Deputy to the Great Sejm, and most infamously, the Grodno Sejm...
, Great Crown Marshall Fryderyk Józef Moszyński
Fryderyk Józef Moszynski
Fryderyk Józef Jan Kanty Moszyński of Nałęcz Coat of Arms was a noble in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He held the offices of Referendary of Lithuania, Great Secretary of Lithuania and Great Marshal of the Crown.A grandson of former king of Poland, August II the Strong, he was educated in...
and king's brother Kazimierz Poniatowski
Kazimierz Poniatowski
Prince Kazimierz Poniatowski, born Count Kazimierz Poniatowski was a Polish Szlachcic, podkomorzy wielki koronny , generał wojsk koronnych. Knight of the Order of the White Eagle, awarded on August 3, 1744 in Warsaw.He was Great Podkomorzy of the Crown in 1742-1773 and General of the Crown Army...
). From there they tried to restore peace, but without any success. Poniatowski nominated two trusted people to take command of the troops: Ignacy Wyssogota Zakrzewski
Ignacy Wyssogota Zakrzewski
Ignacy Wyssogota Zakrzewski was a notable Polish nobleman and politician during the last years of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, shortly before the Partitions of Poland....
became the mayor of Warsaw, and general Stanisław Mokronowski became the commander-in-chief of the Warsaw troops, but both quickly decided to support the uprising.
At the same time more than half of the Russian forces were amassed by Gen. Ivan Novitskiy at the western end of the Jerusalem Avenue. Roughly 4,000 men were withdrawn there without a single shot fired. Among the units rallied there were units that were to secure the entire southern part of Warsaw, including forces under Lt. Col. Kasztoliński and von Klugen, parts of Igelström's personal guard and the remnants of the force to take part in the battle against the 10th Regiment, commanded by Maj. Bago. Novitskiy, after several hours of wavering, finally organized a relief force of roughly 3000 men and 10 cannons, and started a march towards the city centre. The column crossed Marszałkowska Street unopposed and reached the Saxon Square. There it was met by a negligible unit of not more than 100 civilians armed with a single 6 pounder cannon
6-pounder gun
6-pounder gun or 6-pdr, usually denotes a gun which fired a projectile of approximately 6 pounds.Guns of this type include:*QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss, a 57 mm naval gun of the 1880s*QF 6 pounder 6 cwt Hotchkiss, a British 57 mm tank gun of 1917...
, commanded by Captain of Artillery Jacek Drozdowski. The Polish unit opened fire from its single cannon and started gradually retreating across the square towards the Brühl's Palace
Brühl Palace, Warsaw
The Brühl Palace , otherwise known as Sandomierski Palace standing at Piłsudski Square. It was a large palace and one of the most beautiful rococo buildings in pre-World War II Warsaw.-History:...
on its northern edge, firing all the way. At the same time the Russian commander did not issue any orders and his column simply stopped under fire. Although much inferior in both numbers, training and equipment, Drozdowski's unit was not attacked by the Russian force, as Novitskiy finally lost control over his troops. The Russian soldiers broke their ranks and seized the undefended Saxon Palace, where they seized the cellars full of alcohol. The Poles continued to shell them with artillery fire for almost 3 hours, without being attacked. Finally, when a company of the 10th Regiment returning from Powiśle appeared at Królewska Street, the Russians started a disorganized retreat towards the Jerusalem Avenue, leaving Igelström to his own fate.
Warsaw Old Town
Warsaw's Old Town is the oldest historic district of the city. It is bounded by Wybrzeże Gdańskie, along the bank of the Vistula, and by Grodzka, Mostowa and Podwale Streets. It is one of Warsaw's most prominent tourist attractions....
. Although the Russian force finally managed to break through to the Old Town, it had lost all its guns and more than fifty percent of its men. Also repelled were repeated assaults on the Arsenal from Miodowa Street, under the command of Gen. Tishchev. The Russians, approaching in three columns, did not coordinate their maneuvers, allowing the Poles to deal with them separately, one by one. The first column under Tishchev approached the Arsenal at 3 o'clock from Miodowa Street. Although one of the building's turrets exploded, the Poles managed to repel the assault within half an hour, before the Russians had gathered reinforcements. The second Russian column approached the Arsenal through the Krasiński Gardens, but was stopped by massed fire from several cannon concealed in the bushes. The third Russian battalion, commanded by Tishchev personally, approached the Arsenal from the west, along Leszno Street, where it was stopped by the Royal Guard. After a fierce fight, Tishchev was gravely wounded (a cannon ball ripped his leg off) and soon died, while the remainder of his force surrendered to the Poles.
In these circumstances the Poles began a counterattack aimed at capturing Igelström's palace and the positions of the forces that he had managed to gather about him. These included a battalion under Johann Jakob Pistor; a battalion drawn from Marywil
Marywil
Marywil was a large commercial centre and a palace in Warsaw, occupying roughly the place where the Grand Theatre stands today.-History:...
(commanded by Col. Parfyeniev); a battalion of the famed Siberian Regiment; and some cavalry under Brigadier Baur. All but Parfyeniev's men had previously been involved in the failed assaults at the Arsenal and toward the Royal Castle
Royal Castle, Warsaw
The Royal Castle in Warsaw is a castle residency and was the official residence of the Polish monarchs. It is located in the Castle Square, at the entrance to the Warsaw Old Town. The personal offices of the king and the administrative offices of the Royal Court of Poland were located there from...
, and all were battle-hardened. However, as the Poles managed to seize several buildings along Senatorska Street (opposite the palace) and proceeded to fire at the Russians from the windows, the Russians could not reorganize their ranks and had to hide in the palace and the nearby Capuchin
Order of Friars Minor Capuchin
The Order of Friars Minor Capuchin is an Order of friars in the Catholic Church, among the chief offshoots of the Franciscans. The worldwide head of the Order, called the Minister General, is currently Father Mauro Jöhri.-Origins :...
Church. Before 4 o'clock, Działyński's Regiment reached Senatorska Street and began a frontal assault on the palace, but was bloodily repelled by the Russian defenders. However, constant fire from the windows and roofs of nearby houses prevented them from mounting a counter-attack and both sides reached a stalemate. Because of that Igelström was left with little option but to await reinforcements from the outside, which however did not happen. After dark a small unit under Major Titov broke through to Igelström, but his force was not strong enough to break the stalemate.
Unable to reach the palace, the Poles assaulted the Russian positions in front of the Capuchin's church and monastery. The Russians withdrew to the courtyard, from where the fights spread to the entire monastery. The Poles managed to secure the courtyard and place a single cannon there, which allowed them to storm the monastery, but fierce hand to hand fights, with heavy losses on both sides, continued until late evening. In the coming night, some of smaller Russian units lost cohesion and attempted to retreat on their own. Many soldiers engaged in looting at that time, and Krasiński's Palace was among the most prominent buildings looted by the soldiers during the Uprising. This marked the first day of the uprising.
Second day
Overnight the fights in various parts of the city continued. The isolated Russian units defended themselves in houses in various parts of the city. In the early morning of April 18, Mokronowski decided to concentrate on the main remaining Russian stronghold in the city — the embassy at Miodowa street. The Polish units, reinforced with the civilian volunteers, continued the repeated assaults on the building's courtyard. Although all were bloodily repelled, the Russians suffered significant losses as well, particularly from constant fire from buildings located to the other side of the street. The Russians managed to hold a small area delimited by MiodowaMiodowa
Miodowa is a street in Warsaw's Old Town. More precisely, it links the Freta Street in the New Town, with the Krasiński Square. It is also a street in the Kazimierz district in Kraków.-History:...
and Długa Streets, as well as the Krasiński Square
Krasiński Square
Krasiński Square is a square in the Śródmieście district of Warsaw, Poland.It was formed at the end of the 18th century from the former courtyard of the Krasiński Palace. During the Congress Poland era, it served as a market place for wool. As a result, two iron wells were built in 1823. In 1838...
and palace. Believing further defence of his palace was futile, Igelström left there only a token force of roughly 400 men and withdrew to the Krasiński Palace. He planned to prepare a sortie in order to break through from the city centre, but all surrounding streets were filled with Polish troops and cannons.
Igelström, unable to command most his troops since the uprising started, requested permission to capitulate. After being granted a truce, he withdrew to the Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n camp near Warsaw in Powązki, from where they retreated to Zakroczym
Zakroczym
Zakroczym is a small town in the Masovian Voivodeship, Poland. It is located at around . The Vistula River flows through the town....
. The exact number of troops that managed to retreat with Igelström is unknown and varies from source to source, but most estimates place it at between 300 and 400 men and 8 cannons. As soon as Igelström's retreat was discovered, the assault on Russian positions was resumed. The remaining troops defending the embassy and covering Igelström's retreat eventually run out of ammunition and their positions were overrun by 5 o'clock in the evening by the forces of the 10th Regiment under Kalinowski, aided by Kiliński's militia. Polish forces released political prisoner
Political prisoner
According to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, a political prisoner is ‘someone who is in prison because they have opposed or criticized the government of their own country’....
s held by Russians in the basement and were able to secure most of the embassy's secret archive, covering all of Russian secret operations in Poland since 1763. Among the prominent captives taken during the final fights for the embassy was Colonel Parfyeniev. Among the captured documents were the lists of various Polish officials on Russian payroll; many of them were later executed. This Polish victory marked an end of the uprising, with the last Russian units either routed or in retreat. The last small spots of Russian resistance were eliminated or surrendered on that day.
Aftermath
Several factors contributed to the Russian defeat and losses. Igelström had reduced the size of the garrison, sending some of units to deal with Kościuszko's main forces, and posted his remaining regiments so incompetently that they were easily cut off from each other and overwhelmed by the Polish forces. Finally, from the onset of the insurrection, the Polish forces were aided by the civilian population and had surprise on their side and, as the crowd captured the city Arsenal, Russian soldiers found themselves under attack throughout the city.President of Warsaw
The Mayor of Warsaw, or more properly the President of Warsaw is the head of the capital of Poland....
. General Mokronowski repeatedly begged the King, who was at the same time his cousin, to support the uprising. However, the king refused and the power in the city was seized by the Provisional Temporary Council
Provisional Temporary Council
The Provisional Council of the Duchy of Masovia was a government ad interim of Warsaw and the Masovian Voivodeship, liberated in the Warsaw Insurrection during the Kościuszko Uprising...
composed of Zakrzewski, Mokronowski, Józef Wybicki
Józef Wybicki
Józef Rufin Wybicki was a Polish general, poet and political figure.-Life:He was a close friend of General Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, and in 1797 he wrote Mazurek Dąbrowskiego , which in 1927 was adopted as the Polish national anthem.During the Kościuszko Uprising, he was counselor of the Military...
and Kiliński. Mokronowski was soon removed from the council for his opposition to Kościuszko. On May 27 the council was dissolved and passed the power to Kościuszko's Supreme National Council . On May 9 four prominent supporters of the Targowica Confederation
Targowica Confederation
The Targowica Confederation was a confederation established by Polish and Lithuanian magnates on 27 April 1792, in Saint Petersburg, with the backing of the Russian Empress Catherine II. The confederation opposed the Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, which had been adopted by the Great Sejm,...
, including Józef Ankwicz
Józef Ankwicz
Józef Ankwicz , of Awdaniec coat of arms, also known as Józef z Posławic and Józef Awdaniec, was a politician and noble in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He held the office of castellan of Nowy Sącz from 1782. Deputy to the Great Sejm, and most infamously, the Grodno Sejm...
, Józef Kossakowski
Józef Kossakowski (bishop)
Józef Kazimierz Korwin Kossakowski , of Ślepowron Coat of Arms, was a Polish noble , bishop of Livonia from 1781, political activist, writer, and supporter of Russian Empire....
, hetman Piotr Ożarowski
Piotr Ozarowski
Piotr Ożarowski was a Polish noble , politic and military commander. Member of the infamous Confederation of Targowica, he reached the offices of Great Crown Hetman and castellan of Wojnice....
and hetman Józef Zabiełło, were sentenced to death by the Insurrectionary Court and were hanged in Warsaw. A few weeks later, on June 28, an angry mob stormed the prisons and hanged other supporters of Targowica, including bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
Ignacy Jakub Massalski
Ignacy Jakub Massalski
Prince Ignacy Massalski was a Polish-Lithuanian nobleman.Ignacy was Bishop of Vilnius and one of the initiators of the Commission for National Education. After few years he was removed from the Commission for embezzlement of public funds...
, prince Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński-Światopełk, ambassador Karol Boscamp-Lasopolski and others. The National Militia of Warsaw grew to over 20,000 men at arms and constituted a large part of the Polish Army fighting against Russia.
The uprising was also openly commented upon in Russia. As a result of this defeat, Igelström was recalled in disgrace, although he would redeem himself in future fighting. In the 19th century the Uprising of 1794 was presented in a bad light in Imperial Russian
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
historiography
Historiography
Historiography refers either to the study of the history and methodology of history as a discipline, or to a body of historical work on a specialized topic...
, as the fights in Warsaw were referred to as a "massacre" of unarmed Russian soldiers by the Warsaw's mob. Russian historian Platon Zhukovich marked his relation of the events with many horrific, yet counter-factual descriptions of unarmed Russian soldiers being slaughtered in an Orthodox church during the Eucharist, even though there was no Orthodox church in Warsaw at that time, the participation of Kiliński's militia was seriously overrated and no other source confirms the thesis that the Russian garrison was unarmed. The defeat in this battle is sometimes seen as one of the reasons for the massacre of Praga, in which the Russian forces murdered between 10,000 and 20,000 civilians of Warsaw upon their reconquest of the city
Battle of Praga
The Battle of Praga or Battle of Warsaw of 1794 was a Russian assault of Praga, the easternmost suburb of Warsaw, during the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794. It was followed by a massacre of the civilian population of Praga.-Eve of the battle:After the Battle of Maciejowice General Tadeusz Kościuszko...
later that year.