Union between Brittany and France
Encyclopedia
In August 1532, King Francis I of France
absorbed the independent Duchy of Brittany into the Kingdom of France
. The union of Brittany and France was a step toward the unification of modern-day France.
of Brittany was a major independent principality
with the prerogatives of a state, though the dukes of Brittany rendered homage to the French king, Francis II, Duke of Brittany desired greater independence. This was a common trend among the great principalities of France during the Hundred Years War; after the conclusion of the war, it manifested itself in direct conflicts between the king and the great princes of the kingdom. Francis II sought alliances and established diplomatic relations with England
, Holy See
, and the Holy Roman Empire
. The French ambassadors contested some of the duchy's moves toward independence and sovereignty
.
States neighbouring Brittany had tried to control it, either for its own sake or as a staging post in the context of another conflict:
The territorial expansion of France brought it to the borders of Brittany. From then on, the goal of overlordship or direct control of the peninsula dominated French policy toward the duchy. This was a constant goal from 1341, the start of the Breton War of Succession
. France never willingly accepted the victory of the opposing prince, and battles or wars followed one another until the final French success in 1491, 1532 or 1598, according to different views and different sources.
, Brittany (fr. Bretagne) was historically part of Celtic Gaul as Armorica
(Gaulic for "Place by the Sea"). On the fall of the Roman Empire, it was integrated into the Gallo-Roman domain of Syagrius
, with the support of Ambrosius Aurelius, leader of the Breton immigrants from Great Britain, although the latter had not concluded any treaty with the Roman Empire permitting their settlement in Brittany. Syagrius proclaimed himself king. The territory was liberated from imperial control and was awarded by the emperor to Clovis I
after his victory at Soissons
. Clovis received the titles of Honorary Consul and Patricius, thus assuring the legitimacy of his authority over the ancient Gallo-Roman domain. Brittany was immediately incorporated into the kingdom of Childebert I
.
With chaos spreading over Brittany, the Frankish kings, following their policy of partial delegation of power to local representatives (a precursor of the feudal system), nominated administrators of Brittany. Thus Nominoë was designated as Missus Imperatoris (emissary of the emperor) by King Louis the Pious
, and then as Ducatus Ipsius Gentismissus of the Bretons, before he rebelled against royal power and obtained a degree of autonomy for Brittany.
The French Chancery
justified its sovereignty over Brittany based on historical precedent:
The Breton chroniclers and the Breton Chancellery of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries defended the opposite view, arguing mainly from settlement of the territory by Bretons at an earlier date than by the Franks; but conveniently forgetting the lack of a treaty with the Roman Empire permitting the settlement in Brittany and the settlement of the Franks in the Vannes region, as well as agreements with the Frankish kings in authority following the advent of Clovis. They also argued for the sovereignty of Brittany based on its status as an ancient kingdom, although Nominoe, who had won considerable autonomy for the administration of Britain, never had the title of king, and the fact that the homage paid by the dukes to the kings was one of alliance rather than as lieges. This last point was not recognized by the King of France.
. Following the Battle of Saint-Aubin du Cormier
, the Treaty of Sablé
, or "treaty of the orchard", concluded with King Charles VIII of France
on 19 August 1488, required the agreement of the French king to any marriage of the daughters of Francis II.
Louis XI
felt a great hatred for the Duke of Brittany following the latter's involvement in a number of great conspiracies. He and his successors, the regent Anne de Beaujeu and Charles VIII, wished to:
in Saint-Malo
did not identify with the interests of the Dukes of Brittany.
Some members of the parliament (the States of Brittany) were intimidated into co-operation with the union or bought off, with the demand for union in fact being inspired by Francis I. (Louis Melennec has argued that the legal validity of the union is doubtful on such grounds.)
s between Breton duchesses and French kings, Francis I formally invited the Duchy of Brittany to join the French crown. On August 13, 1532, an edict of union was signed by the Estates of Brittany
in Nantes.
Regardless of the validity of the edict, four years later in 1536, Henry II
, Duke of Brittany, son of Francis I of France and Claude of Brittany, assumed the French throne, thereby lawfully incorporating the Duchy of Brittany into the Kingdom of France.
Francis I of France
Francis I was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France and he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch...
absorbed the independent Duchy of Brittany into the Kingdom of France
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France was one of the most powerful states to exist in Europe during the second millennium.It originated from the Western portion of the Frankish empire, and consolidated significant power and influence over the next thousand years. Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, developed a...
. The union of Brittany and France was a step toward the unification of modern-day France.
Context
In the 15th century, the DuchyDuchy
A duchy is a territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess.Some duchies were sovereign in areas that would become unified realms only during the Modern era . In contrast, others were subordinate districts of those kingdoms that unified either partially or completely during the Medieval era...
of Brittany was a major independent principality
Principality
A principality is a monarchical feudatory or sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a monarch with the title of prince or princess, or by a monarch with another title within the generic use of the term prince....
with the prerogatives of a state, though the dukes of Brittany rendered homage to the French king, Francis II, Duke of Brittany desired greater independence. This was a common trend among the great principalities of France during the Hundred Years War; after the conclusion of the war, it manifested itself in direct conflicts between the king and the great princes of the kingdom. Francis II sought alliances and established diplomatic relations with England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
, and the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
. The French ambassadors contested some of the duchy's moves toward independence and sovereignty
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area, such as a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided...
.
States neighbouring Brittany had tried to control it, either for its own sake or as a staging post in the context of another conflict:
- Henry II of EnglandHenry II of EnglandHenry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
(ruled 1154–1189) had conquered a Brittany which was surrounded on all sides by his possessions. - In the 14th century, the Breton War of SuccessionBreton War of SuccessionThe Breton War of Succession was a conflict between the Houses of Blois and Montfort for control of the Duchy of Brittany. It was fought between 1341 and 1364. It formed an integral part of the early Hundred Years War due to the involvement of the French and English governments in the conflict; the...
was an episode of the Hundred Years' War between the House of Valois (founded by Charles of ValoisCharles of ValoisCharles of Valois was the fourth son of Philip III of France and Isabella of Aragon. His mother was a daughter of James I of Aragon and Yolande of Hungary. He was a member of the House of Capet and founded the House of Valois...
, the fourth son of Philip III of FrancePhilip III of FrancePhilip III , called the Bold , was the King of France, succeeding his father, Louis IX, and reigning from 1270 to 1285. He was a member of the House of Capet.-Biography:...
) and the House of PlantagenetHouse of PlantagenetThe House of Plantagenet , a branch of the Angevins, was a royal house founded by Geoffrey V of Anjou, father of Henry II of England. Plantagenet kings first ruled the Kingdom of England in the 12th century. Their paternal ancestors originated in the French province of Gâtinais and gained the...
(founded by Henry II of EnglandHenry II of EnglandHenry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the...
). - At the end of the 16th century, during the Dutch RevoltDutch RevoltThe Dutch Revolt or the Revolt of the Netherlands This article adopts 1568 as the starting date of the war, as this was the year of the first battles between armies. However, since there is a long period of Protestant vs...
, the Spaniards tried to gain control Brittany as part of the sea route to their Netherlands, also providing a Catholic base adjacent to the territories of the Protestant Henry IV of FranceHenry IV of FranceHenry IV , Henri-Quatre, was King of France from 1589 to 1610 and King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610. He was the first monarch of the Bourbon branch of the Capetian dynasty in France....
and a dukedom for Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of SpainInfanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of SpainIsabella Clara Eugenia of Austria was sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands in the Low Countries and the north of modern France, together with her husband Albert. In some sources, she is referred to as Clara Isabella Eugenia...
.
The territorial expansion of France brought it to the borders of Brittany. From then on, the goal of overlordship or direct control of the peninsula dominated French policy toward the duchy. This was a constant goal from 1341, the start of the Breton War of Succession
Breton War of Succession
The Breton War of Succession was a conflict between the Houses of Blois and Montfort for control of the Duchy of Brittany. It was fought between 1341 and 1364. It formed an integral part of the early Hundred Years War due to the involvement of the French and English governments in the conflict; the...
. France never willingly accepted the victory of the opposing prince, and battles or wars followed one another until the final French success in 1491, 1532 or 1598, according to different views and different sources.
Roman and post Roman times
According to Julius CaesarJulius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
, Brittany (fr. Bretagne) was historically part of Celtic Gaul as Armorica
Armorica
Armorica or Aremorica is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul that includes the Brittany peninsula and the territory between the Seine and Loire rivers, extending inland to an indeterminate point and down the Atlantic coast...
(Gaulic for "Place by the Sea"). On the fall of the Roman Empire, it was integrated into the Gallo-Roman domain of Syagrius
Syagrius
Syagrius was the last Roman official in Gaul, whose defeat by king Clovis I of the Franks is considered the end of Roman rule outside of Italy. He came to this position through inheritance, for his father was Aegidius, the last Roman magister militum per Gallias...
, with the support of Ambrosius Aurelius, leader of the Breton immigrants from Great Britain, although the latter had not concluded any treaty with the Roman Empire permitting their settlement in Brittany. Syagrius proclaimed himself king. The territory was liberated from imperial control and was awarded by the emperor to Clovis I
Clovis I
Clovis Leuthwig was the first King of the Franks to unite all the Frankish tribes under one ruler, changing the leadership from a group of royal chieftains, to rule by kings, ensuring that the kingship was held by his heirs. He was also the first Catholic King to rule over Gaul . He was the son...
after his victory at Soissons
Battle of Soissons (486)
The Battle of Soissons in the year 486 was fought between the Frankish forces under Clovis I, and the Gallo-Roman Kingdom of Soissons under Syagrius...
. Clovis received the titles of Honorary Consul and Patricius, thus assuring the legitimacy of his authority over the ancient Gallo-Roman domain. Brittany was immediately incorporated into the kingdom of Childebert I
Childebert I
Childebert I was the Frankish king of Paris, a Merovingian dynast, one of the four sons of Clovis I who shared the kingdom of the Franks upon their father's death in 511...
.
With chaos spreading over Brittany, the Frankish kings, following their policy of partial delegation of power to local representatives (a precursor of the feudal system), nominated administrators of Brittany. Thus Nominoë was designated as Missus Imperatoris (emissary of the emperor) by King Louis the Pious
Louis the Pious
Louis the Pious , also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781. He was also King of the Franks and co-Emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813...
, and then as Ducatus Ipsius Gentismissus of the Bretons, before he rebelled against royal power and obtained a degree of autonomy for Brittany.
The French Chancery
Chancery (medieval office)
Chancery is a general term for a medieval writing office, responsible for the production of official documents. The title of chancellor, for the head of the office, came to be held by important ministers in a number of states, and remains the title of the heads of government in modern Germany,...
justified its sovereignty over Brittany based on historical precedent:
- In 497, Clovis I united the FranksFranksThe Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
into a single kingdom. - In the late 8th century, CharlemagneCharlemagneCharlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800...
incorporated Brittany into the Carolingian EmpireCarolingian EmpireCarolingian Empire is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty in the Early Middle Ages. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany, and its beginning date is based on the crowning of Charlemagne, or Charles the...
. - In the 11th century, William the Conqueror expanded into Brittany.
The Breton chroniclers and the Breton Chancellery of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries defended the opposite view, arguing mainly from settlement of the territory by Bretons at an earlier date than by the Franks; but conveniently forgetting the lack of a treaty with the Roman Empire permitting the settlement in Brittany and the settlement of the Franks in the Vannes region, as well as agreements with the Frankish kings in authority following the advent of Clovis. They also argued for the sovereignty of Brittany based on its status as an ancient kingdom, although Nominoe, who had won considerable autonomy for the administration of Britain, never had the title of king, and the fact that the homage paid by the dukes to the kings was one of alliance rather than as lieges. This last point was not recognized by the King of France.
England
In continuing this traditional policy, the kings of France found around 1600 the means of returning the duchy to their bosom:- England, a traditional ally of the Counts of Montfort-l'AmauryMontfort-l'AmauryMontfort-l'Amaury is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the south-western suburbs of Paris N of Rambouillet....
, was unable to act in force on the continent after she was expelled in 1450-52 and while she was embroiled in the Wars of the RosesWars of the RosesThe Wars of the Roses were a series of dynastic civil wars for the throne of England fought between supporters of two rival branches of the royal House of Plantagenet: the houses of Lancaster and York...
. Following the war, the new Tudor dynastyTudor dynastyThe Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor was a European royal house of Welsh origin that ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including the Lordship of Ireland, later the Kingdom of Ireland, from 1485 until 1603. Its first monarch was Henry Tudor, a descendant through his mother of a legitimised...
did not yet have the resources within England to permit a risky attempt to expand overseas. - Brittany lost another important ally with the 1477 death of the Duke of BurgundyDuke of BurgundyDuke of Burgundy was a title borne by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, a small portion of traditional lands of Burgundians west of river Saône which in 843 was allotted to Charles the Bald's kingdom of West Franks...
, Charles the Bold, who was succeeded by a daughter. - The end of the dynasty of Anjou in 1482 gave the king control of the border between Anjou and Brittany.
- The Breton nobility had many interests in the kingdom and, like other nobles, those concerning pensions related to their titles. In addition, the nobles envied the influence of the Valois and of the treasurer of the Landes (an administrative divisionDépartements of FranceThe departments of France are French administrative divisions. The 101 departments form one of the three levels of local government, together with the 22 metropolitan and 5 overseas regions above them and more than 36 000 communes beneath them...
in southern France), who was a simple commoner. - Francis II, Duke of Brittany, had irritated the nobility of Brittany when, as Prince of the Loire ValleyLoire ValleyThe Loire Valley , spanning , is located in the middle stretch of the Loire River in central France. Its area comprises approximately . It is referred to as the Cradle of the French Language, and the Garden of France due to the abundance of vineyards, fruit orchards, and artichoke, asparagus, and...
, he had from his childhood retained strong ties with the princes of ValoisEarly Modern FranceKingdom of France is the early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century...
at the French court (hence the unfortunate coalitions during the feudal revolts against the king). - This lack of authority over his upper aristocracy and his government in general deprived Francis II, and later Anne of FranceAnne of FranceAnne of France was the eldest daughter of Louis XI of France and his second wife, Charlotte of Savoy. Anne was the sister of King Charles VIII of France, for whom she acted as regent during his minority; and of Joan of France, who was briefly queen consort to Louis XII...
, of support. The nobility preferred to respect royal power, and only associated themselves weakly with the revolt of the great feudal lords during the Mad WarMad WarThe Mad War , also known as the War of the Public Weal, was a late Medieval conflict between a coalition of feudal lords and the French monarchy. It occurred during the regency of Anne of Beaujeu in the period after the death of Louis XI and before the majority of the young king Charles VIII...
(La Guerre Folle) revolt against Anne's regencyRegentA regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
. - Francis II had no legitimate male heir, so his two daughters, Anne and Isabeau, were proclaimed heirs before the States of Brittany (the Breton Council) in conformity with the Duchy's semi-Salic lawSalic lawSalic law was a body of traditional law codified for governing the Salian Franks in the early Middle Ages during the reign of King Clovis I in the 6th century...
of inheritance. However, there were other potential claimants: the Viscount of Rohan, the Prince of OrangePrince of OrangePrince of Orange is a title of nobility, originally associated with the Principality of Orange, in what is now southern France. In French it is la Principauté d'Orange....
, Alain d'Albret and the King of France, who had purchased an inheritance claim from the Penthièvre family (arising from the treaty signed at the end of the Breton War of Succession).
Treaty of Sablé
The survival of the Breton state was affected by the marriage of Anne of BrittanyAnne of Brittany
Anne, Duchess of Brittany , also known as Anna of Brittany , was a Breton ruler, who was to become queen to two successive French kings. She was born in Nantes, Brittany, and was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany and Margaret of Foix. Her maternal grandparents were Queen Eleanor of...
. Following the Battle of Saint-Aubin du Cormier
Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier (1488)
The Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier took place on July 28, 1488, between the forces of king Charles VIII of France, and those of Francis II, Duke of Brittany and his allies. The defeat of the latter signalled the end to the "guerre folle" , a feudal conflict in which French aristocrats revolted...
, the Treaty of Sablé
Treaty of Sablé
The Treaty of Sablé was signed on August 20, 1488 in Sablé between Duke Francis II of Brittany and Charles VIII of France. Based on the terms of the accord, the Duke of Brittany acknowledged himself as a vassal of the King of France...
, or "treaty of the orchard", concluded with King Charles VIII of France
Charles VIII of France
Charles VIII, called the Affable, , was King of France from 1483 to his death in 1498. Charles was a member of the House of Valois...
on 19 August 1488, required the agreement of the French king to any marriage of the daughters of Francis II.
Louis XI
Louis XI of France
Louis XI , called the Prudent , was the King of France from 1461 to 1483. He was the son of Charles VII of France and Mary of Anjou, a member of the House of Valois....
felt a great hatred for the Duke of Brittany following the latter's involvement in a number of great conspiracies. He and his successors, the regent Anne de Beaujeu and Charles VIII, wished to:
- destroy the threat of encirclement of the kingdom between Burgundy (and subsequently the Circle of Burgundy, which comprised the Burgundian Netherlands and the County of Burgundy, which passed to the archduke of Austria) to the north and east, and Brittany to the west.
- consolidate the power of the king in the face of Francis II, who, like the other princes, had profited from the enfeeblement of the monarchy to endue himself with symbols of sovereignty, such as a royal seal, a royal crown, the adoption of the principle of lèse-majesté, the establishment of a sovereign parliament (or court of justice), the establishment of a university (at Nantes), independent and direct diplomatic relations with the then major powers, and the eviction of the King's tax collectors.
- punish those nobles who had fought on the anti-royalist side against Francis II, who had participated in the League of the Public WealLeague of the Public WealThe League of the Public Weal was an alliance of feudal nobles organized in 1465 in defiance of the centralized authority of King Louis XI of France...
(1465), the conquest of Normandy in 1467-68 for Charles of France (1446–1472), the war of 1471-1473, the Mad War (La Guerre Folle) (1484–85) and the Franco-Breton war (1487–1488).
Political and economic factors
The duchy could only submit, in spite of its occasional resistance, in the face of one of Europe's strongest armies. The Breton elite were attracted by France's royal court, but the Breton merchant bourgeoisieBourgeoisie
In sociology and political science, bourgeoisie describes a range of groups across history. In the Western world, between the late 18th century and the present day, the bourgeoisie is a social class "characterized by their ownership of capital and their related culture." A member of the...
in Saint-Malo
Saint-Malo
Saint-Malo is a walled port city in Brittany in northwestern France on the English Channel. It is a sub-prefecture of the Ille-et-Vilaine.-Demographics:The population can increase to up to 200,000 in the summer tourist season...
did not identify with the interests of the Dukes of Brittany.
Some members of the parliament (the States of Brittany) were intimidated into co-operation with the union or bought off, with the demand for union in fact being inspired by Francis I. (Louis Melennec has argued that the legal validity of the union is doubtful on such grounds.)
Edict of Union of 1532
After 40 years of personal unionPersonal union
A personal union is the combination by which two or more different states have the same monarch while their boundaries, their laws and their interests remain distinct. It should not be confused with a federation which is internationally considered a single state...
s between Breton duchesses and French kings, Francis I formally invited the Duchy of Brittany to join the French crown. On August 13, 1532, an edict of union was signed by the Estates of Brittany
Estates of Brittany
The Estates of Brittany was the States Provincial for the province of Brittany in ancien regime France. It gathered members of the high clergy, a large number of nobles and delegates from the 42 towns and cities of Brittany...
in Nantes.
Regardless of the validity of the edict, four years later in 1536, Henry II
Henry II of France
Henry II was King of France from 31 March 1547 until his death in 1559.-Early years:Henry was born in the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, the son of Francis I and Claude, Duchess of Brittany .His father was captured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 by his sworn enemy,...
, Duke of Brittany, son of Francis I of France and Claude of Brittany, assumed the French throne, thereby lawfully incorporating the Duchy of Brittany into the Kingdom of France.
See also
- Breton peopleBreton peopleThe Bretons are an ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. They trace much of their heritage to groups of Brythonic speakers who emigrated from southwestern Great Britain in waves from the 3rd to 6th century into the Armorican peninsula, subsequently named Brittany after them.The...
- BrittanyBrittanyBrittany is a cultural and administrative region in the north-west of France. Previously a kingdom and then a duchy, Brittany was united to the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province. Brittany has also been referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain...
- List of Breton monarchs
- List of French monarchs
- Kings of France family tree
- Territorial formation of FranceTerritorial formation of FranceThis article describes the process by which the territorial extent of metropolitan France came to be as it is in 2009. The territory of the French State is spread throughout the world. Metropolitan France is that part which is in Europe....