Polish–Lithuanian War
Encyclopedia
The Polish–Lithuanian War was an armed conflict between newly independent Lithuania
and Poland
in the aftermath of World War I
. The conflict primarily concerned territorial control of the Vilnius Region
, including Vilnius
, and the Suwałki Region, including the towns of Suwałki, Augustów
, and Sejny
. The conflict was largely shaped by the progress in the Polish–Soviet War and international efforts to mediate at the Conference of Ambassadors
and later the League of Nations
. There are major differences in Polish and Lithuanian historiography regarding treatment of the war. According to Lithuanian historians, the war was part of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence and spanned from spring 1919 to November 1920. According to Poland, the war included only fighting over the Suwałki Region in September–October 1920 and was part of the Polish–Soviet War.
In April 1919, Poland captured Vilnius
and came in contact with the Lithuanian Army fighting in the Lithuanian–Soviet War
. Faced with a common enemy, the Polish–Lithuanian relations
were not immediately hostile. Poland hoped to persuade Lithuania to join some kind of Polish–Lithuanian union (see the Międzymorze
federation), which Lithuania saw as loss of independence to Polish federalism. As bilateral relations worsened, the Entente
drew two demarcation lines in hopes to stall further open hostilities. The lines did not please anyone and were ignored. When a Polish coup against the Lithuanian government
failed in August 1919, the front stabilized until summer 1920.
In July 1920, Poland was losing the Polish–Soviet War and was in full retreat. The Lithuanians followed retreating Polish troops to secure the territory, assigned to Lithuania by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
. The Soviets were the first to enter Vilnius. When Poland achieved a major victory in the Battle of Warsaw
and forced the Soviets to retreat in August 1920, Lithuanians defended their new borders. Poland did not recognize the Peace Treaty and claimed that Lithuania had become a Soviet ally. Fighting broke out in the Suwałki Region. During the Battle of the Niemen River
, Poland attacked Lithuania on a wide front. The battle drastically altered the military situation and left Vilnius open to an attack. Under pressure from the League of Nations, Poland signed the Suwałki Agreement on October 7, 1920. The agreement drew a new demarcation line, which was incomplete and did not provide protection to Vilnius.
On October 8, 1920, Polish general Lucjan Żeligowski
staged a mutiny among Polish troops and marched on Vilnius to "defend the right of self-determination of local Poles." The mutiny was planned and authorized by Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski. Żeligowski's forces captured Vilnius, but further advances were stopped by the Lithuanian troops. Żeligowski proclaimed creation of the Republic of Central Lithuania
with capital in Vilnius. On November 29, a ceasefire was signed. The prolonged mediation by the League of Nations did not change the situation and status quo
was accepted in 1923. The Republic of Central Lithuania was incorporated into Poland as the Wilno Voivodeship in 1922. Lithuania did not recognize these developments and continued to claim Vilnius as its constitutional capital. There were no diplomatic relations between Poland and Lithuania until the Polish ultimatum of 1938
.
World War I
ended on November 11, 1918 when Germany signed the Compiègne Armistice
. On November 13, the Soviet Russia
renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
and began the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919. The Bolsheviks followed retreating German troops and attacked Lithuania and Poland from the east trying to prevent their independence. They attempted to spread the global proletarian revolution
, establish Soviet republics in the region, and join the German and the Hungarian Revolutions
. The Soviet offensive sparked a series of local wars, including the Polish–Soviet War and the Lithuanian–Soviet War
. At first the Soviets were successful, but came to a halt in February 1919. In March–April both Lithuanians and Poles began their offensives against the Soviets. The three armies met in the Vilnius Region
. The Polish–Lithuanian relations
were not immediately hostile, but grew worse as each side refused to compromise. On April 19, 1919, the Polish Army captured Vilnius
.
At first, both Poles and Lithuanians cooperated against the Soviets, but soon the cooperation gave wave to increasing hostility. Lithuania claimed neutrality
in the Polish–Soviet War. As the Polish Army forced its way further into Lithuania, the first clashes between Polish and Lithuanian soldiers occurred on April 26 and May 8, 1919, near Vievis
. Though there was no formal state of war and few casualties, by July newspapers reported increasing clashes between Poles and Lithuanians, primarily around the towns of Merkinė
and Širvintos
. Direct negotiations in Kaunas between May 28 and June 11, 1919, collapsed as neither side agreed to compromise. Lithuania tried to avoid direct military conflict and submitted its case for mediation to the Conference of Ambassadors
.
federation) and campaigned for some kind of Polish–Lithuanian union in the Paris Peace Conference
. Poland also did not intend to make any territorial concessions, justifying its actions not only as part of a military campaign against the Soviets but also as the right of self-determination of local Poles. According to the 1897 Russian census
, the disputed city of Vilnius had an ethnic breakdown of 30% Poles, 40% Jews, and 2% Lithuanians; however the percentage of Lithuanians was much higher in the surrounding countryside. According to the 1916 German census, Poles constituted 50% of city's population. The Lithuanians claimed Vilnius as their historical capital and refused any federation with Poland, desiring an independent Lithuanian state. They regarded Polish federalism as recreation of Polish cultural and political dominance. The Lithuanian government in Kaunas
, designated as the temporary capital
, saw the Polish presence in Vilnius as occupation. In addition to the Vilnius Region, the Suwałki Region was also disputed. It had mixed Polish and Lithuanian population.
At the time international situations of newly-independent Poland and Lithuania were unequal. Poland, much larger in territory and population, was dedicated point #13 in Woodrow Wilson
's Fourteen Points
. It was recognized by all nations of the Entente
, officially invited to the Paris Peace Conference
, and became one of the founding members of the League of Nations
. Poland also enjoyed a close alliance with France. Lithuania did not receive international recognition (it was first recognized de jure
in July 1920 by Soviet Russia
) as the Entente hoped to revive the Russian Empire within its former territory, which included Lithuania. Not invited to any post-war diplomatic conferences, it also had to battle negative propaganda that the Council of Lithuania
was a German puppet, that Lithuanians harbored pro-Bolshevik attitudes, or that Lithuania was too small and weak to survive without a union with Poland.
The Conference of Ambassadors
drew the first demarcation line
on June 18. The line, drawn about 5 km (3.1 mi) west of the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
, was based on military situation on the ground rather than ethnic composition. Neither Poles nor Lithuanians were content with the line. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected the line as it would require the Polish forces to retread up to 35 km (21.7 mi). The Lithuanians protested leaving Vilnius and Hrodna
under Polish control. As German volunteers were departing from Lithuania and Lithuanian forces were preoccupied with battles against the Soviets in northern Lithuania, Poland mounted an offensive on 100 km (62.1 mi) wide front moving 20 – deeper into the Lithuanian territory. Lithuania could not organize an effective defense.
On July 18, Ferdinand Foch
proposed the second demarcation line, known as the Foch Line
. It was approved by the Entente on July 26. The Lithuanians were informed about the new line line only on August 3. Two major modifications favorable to the Poles were made: the Suwałki Region was assigned to Poland and the entire line was moved about 7 km (4.3 mi) west. Again, both Poles and Lithuanians protested the line as it would require to withdraw their armies from the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions respectively. German administration, which had not yet retreated from the Suwałki Region, also opposed the Foch Line. The new line did not immediately halt the hostilities. After a couple Polish attacks on July 29 and August 2, the front stabilized.
and formed a line on the Czarna Hańcza river – Wigry Lake
. They showed intention to stay there permanently, which caused concern among the local Poles. On August 12, they organized a rally of about 100 people demanding incorporation into Poland. The Sejny branch of Polish Military Organization (PMO) began preparing for an uprising, scheduled for night of August 22 to 23, 1919. Between 900 and 1,200 partisans joined PMO forces. On August 23, the Poles captured Sejny and attacked Lazdijai
and Kapčiamiestis
, towns on the Lithuanian side of the Foch Line. The insurgents planned to march as far as Simnas
. Lithuanians recaptured Sejny on August 25 for a few hours. On August 26, Polish regular forces – the 41st Infantry Regiment – joined the PMO volunteers. On September 5, the Lithuanians agreed to withdraw behind the Foch Line by September 7. Poland secured Sejny and repressed Lithuanian cultural life: the Sejny Priest Seminary
was expelled, Lithuanian schools and cultural organizations closed. After the uprising, the mistrust of Poles prompted the Lithuanian intelligence to intensify its investigations of Polish activities in Lithuania. This helped to detect and prevent a planned coup d'état
in Kaunas to overthrow the government of Lithuania.
federation). Polish leader Józef Piłsudski believed there were enough Polish sympathizers in Lithuania to carry out the coup. On August 3, a Polish diplomatic mission, led by Leon Wasilewski
, in Kaunas had a double purpose: propose a plebiscite in the contested territories and assess preparedness for the coup. On August 6, the Lithuanian government rejected the plebiscite proposal, stating that the disputed territories constitute ethnographic Lithuania
. PMO planned to capture and hold Kaunas for a few hours until arrival of the regular Polish troops, situated only some 40 – east from the city. The coup would be portrayed as an initiative of local population to "free Lithuania from German influence" while denouncing any involvement of the Polish government. Polish newspapers ran a propaganda campaign claiming that the Council of Lithuania
was simply a German puppet. The coup was initially scheduled for the night of August 27 to 28, but was postponed to September 1. Lithuanian intelligence discovered the coup, but did not have a list of PMO members. Lithuanian authorities began mass arrests of some 200 Polish activists, including some officers of the Lithuanian Army. Kaunas was declared under the state of siege
. Polish press saw mass arrests of Polish activists "to whom no charge can be ascribed other than being Poles" as proof of systematic anti-Polish policies of the German-ridden Lithuanian government. PMO was little affected by the arrests and scheduled another coup attempt for the end of September. However, Lithuanians obtained a full PMO membership list and liquidated the organization in Lithuania.
and encroached towards Ukmergė
. On several occasions fights broke out regarding strategically important bridge over the Šventoji River
near Vepriai
. In October, when main Lithuanian forces were deployed against the Bermontians in northwestern Lithuania, the attacks intensified. Poles captured Salakas on October 5 and attacked Kapčiamiestis
on October 12. The front stabilized, but harassment of border guards and local villagers continued throughout late 1919 and early 1920. In March 1920, the Poles attacked along the railroad stations in Kalkūni and Turmantas
. The situation was investigated by British and French observers and reported to the Entente. The situation somewhat improved only in late spring 1920 when most Polish troops were deployed in Ukraine during the Polish–Soviet War.
At the time Lithuania faced a severe budget crisis – in 1919 its revenue was 72 million while expenses reached 190 million German mark
s. While the government was struggling to obtain financial assistance and loans, deep cuts affected the army. Instead of increasing its armed forces to 40,000 men, Lithuania was forced to cut them to about 25,000.
In April 1920 Poland launched the large-scale Kiev Offensive in hopes to capture Ukraine
. Initially successful, the Polish Army started retreating after Russian counterattacks in early June 1920. Soon the Soviet forces began to threaten Poland's independence as they reached and crossed the Polish borders. On July 9, Polish Prime Minister Władysław Grabski asked the Allied Powers
in the Spa Conference
for military assistance in the war with the Soviets. The conference proposed that the Polish forces would withdraw behind the Curzon Line
, the Soviet forces would stop 50 km (31.1 mi) to the east of the line, the Lithuanian forces would take control of Vilnius, and all other disputes would be settled via negotiations in London. Grabski opposed the transfer of Vilnius, but under pressure of British Prime Minister Lloyd George, agreed to the resolution on July 10.
At the same time Soviets and Lithuanians negotiated the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
, which was signed on July 12, 1920. Russia recognized Lithuanian independence and withdrew any territorial claims. The treaty drew the eastern border of Lithuania, which the Lithuanians continued to claim as their de jure
state border until World War II. Vilnius Region
, including Brasłaŭ, Hrodna
, Lida
, and Vilnius
, was recognized to Lithuania. On August 6, after long and heated negotiations, Lithuania and Soviet Russia signed a convention regarding withdrawal of Russian troops from the recognized Lithuanian territory. However, the troops began to retreat only after the Red Army suffered a heavy defeat in Poland.
on July 7, Tauragnai
and Alanta
on July 9, Širvintos
and Musninkai
on July 10, Kernavė
, Molėtai
, and Giedraičiai
on July 11, Maišiagala
and Pabradė
on July 13. On July 13 the Polish command decided to transfer Vilnius to the Lithuanians in accordance with the resolution of the Spa Conference. Lithuanians moved in, but their trains were stopped by Polish soldiers near Kazimieriškės. This delay meant that the Bolsheviks were the first to enter Vilnius on July 14. By the time first Lithuanian troops entered the city on July 15, it was already secured by the Soviets. Poland sought to have Russians in the city as it would create much less complications when Polish Army counterattacked. Despite the Peace Treaty, the Soviets did not intend to transfer the city to the Lithuanians. Indeed there were indications that the Soviets planned a coup against the Lithuanian government in hopes to re-establish the Lithuanian SSR
.
Despite the setback in Vilnius, the Lithuanians continued to secure territories in the Suwałki Region. They took Druskininkai
on July 17, Vištytis
, Punsk
, Giby
, and Sejny
on July 19, Suwałki on July 29, Augustów on August 8. The Polish units, afraid of being surrounded and cut off from the main Polish forces, retreated towards Łomża. The Lithuanian authorities started to organize themselves in the regained areas.
. On August 10, Lithuanians held 103 Polish officers and 3,520 private soldiers. Poland also claimed that the Lithuanian troops actively participated in military operations of the Red Army. This charge, based on memoirs of Soviet officials, lacks evidence. Further military clashes between Polish and Lithuanian troops in the Suwałki Region were interpreted by Poland to show that "the Lithuanian government has become an instrument of the Soviet government." Lithuania responded that it was defending its borders.
The Russians suffered a great defeat in the Battle of Warsaw
in mid-August 1920 and started withdrawing. They handed over Vilnius to the Lithuanians on August 26. The Lithuanians hastily made preparations to secure the border, as determined by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. The soldiers were ordered to maintain neutrality: avoid hostilities and intern
any Soviet or Polish troops that would cross the border. On August 26, a Polish delegation, led by colonel Mieczysław Mackiewicz, arrived in Kaunas to negotiate the situation. The Poles, lacking authority to discuss political issues, were concerned with military aspects. They sought permission to transport Polish troops through the territory of Lithuania, wanted access to a portion of the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
, and demanded that the Lithuanian troops would withdraw from the Suwałki Region behind the Curzon Line
. The Lithuanians refused to discuss military matters without a clear political Polish–Lithuanian border, that would be respected after the war. Due to these fundamental disagreements and Polish attacks, the negotiations broke down on August 30.
The Suwałki Region had strategic importance in the Polish–Soviet War. Following orders of Edward Rydz-Śmigły, Polish forces took Augustów from Lithuanians in a surprise attack on August 28. Confused and disoriented Lithuanians retreated from Suwałki and Sejny on August 30 and 31. The Lithuanians reorganized, gathered their forces (11 battalions with 7,000 soldiers), and organized a counterattack to "defend their border" on September 2. The goal was to take and secure the Augustów–Lipsk
–Hrodna
line. The Lithuanians succeeded in taking Sejny and Lipsk and by September 4 reached the outskirts of Augustów. On September 5, the Poles counterattacked and forced the Lithuanians to retreat. On September 9, the Polish forces recaptured Sejny, but the Lithuanians pushed back and regained Sejny and Giby on September 13 and 14. Pending direct negotiations, hostilities were ceased on both sides.
On September 6, Lithuanian Foreign Minister Juozas Purickis proposed direct negotiations in Marijampolė
. On September 8, during a planning meeting of the Battle of the Niemen River
, the Poles decided to maneuver through the Lithuanian territory to the rear of the Soviet Army, stationed in Hrodna
. In an attempt to conceal the planned attack, Polish diplomats accepted the proposal to negotiate. The negotiations started on September 16 in Kalvarija, but collapsed just two days later.
On September 5, 1920, Polish Foreign Minister Eustachy Sapieha
delivered a diplomatic note to the League of Nations
alleging the Lithuania violated its neutrality and asking to intervene in the Polish–Lithuanian War. The League agreed to mediate and began its session on September 16. The resolution, adopted on September 20, urged both states to cease hostilities and adhere to the Curzon Line. Poland was asked to respect Lithuanian neutrality if Soviet Russia agreed to do the same. Also a special Control Commission was to be dispatched into the conflict zone to oversee implementation of the resolution. It was clear that the League had only a narrow goal to prevent armed hostilities and not to resolve the underlying territorial dispute. The Lithuanian government accepted the resolution, while Poland reserved full freedom of action in preparation for the attack on the Soviets.
near Druskininkai
and Merkinė
to the rear of the Soviet forces near Hrodna
and Lida
. The Red Army hastily retreated. Lithuanians had limited intelligence warning about such attack, but chose inadequate defensive strategy and spread their forces too thinly along the entire Polish–Lithuanian front without sufficient forces to protect bridges across the Neman. This attack, just two days after the resolution by the League of Nations to cease hostilities, put more pressure on Poland to settle the dispute peacefully. On September 26, Poles captured Hrodna and Sapieha proposed new negotiations in Suwałki. The Battle of the Niemen River drastically altered the balance of power: Vilnius, in Lithuanian hands since August 26, was exposed to a Polish attack. Indeed Poles had already decided to capture the city and used the negotiations in Suwałki to stall and buy time for necessary preparations. The Lithuanian side was ready to give up the Suwałki Region in exchange for Poland's recognition of the Lithuanian claims to Vilnius.
The negotiations between Poles, led by colonel Mieczysław Mackiewicz, and Lithuanians, led by general
Maksimas Katche
, began in the evening of September 29, 1920. Both sides agreed to an armistice
, but only to the east of the Neman River (the Suwałki Region). Fighting to the west on the river continued around Marcinkonys
, Zervynos
, Perloja, Eišiškės
. Major point of contention, both diplomatic and military, was the train station in Varėna
(Orany) on the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
. Major Lithuanian forces were still concentrated in the Suwałki Region and moving them to protect Vilnius without the railway would be extremely difficult. Fighting west of the Neman River ceased only on October 6, when Polish troops had already captured the train station in Varėna.
Negotiations regarding the demarcation line were difficult. In essence, the Lithuanians wanted a longer demarcation line to provide better protection for Vilnius. The Poles agreed only to a short line in order to provide the planned attack on Vilnius with space for operation. The Polish delegation was also stalling to buy time for necessary preparations for an attack on Vilnius. While Vilnius was not a topic of debate, it was on everybody's mind. On October 4, the Control Commission, sent by the League according to its resolution of September 20, arrived to Suwałki. The Commission, led by French colonel Pierre Chardigny, re-energized the negotiations. On October 7, at midnight, the final agreement was signed. The treaty made not a single reference to Vilnius or the Vilnius Region. The ceasefire was effective only along the demarcation line, which ran through the Suwałki Region to the train station in Bastuny. Thus the line was incomplete, did not provide protection to the Vilnius Region, but indicated it would be left on the Lithuanian side.
Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski ordered his subordinate, General Lucjan Żeligowski
, to stage a mutiny with his 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division (16 battalions with 14,000 soldiers) in Lida
and capture Vilnius in fait accompli
. The rebellion had two main goals: capture Vilnius and preserve Polish international reputation. The League of Nations was mediating other Polish disputes, notably over the Free City of Danzig
and Upper Silesia
, and direct aggression against Lithuania could have hampered Polish bargaining positions. While the Polish side officially held Żeligowski to be a deserter and did not support him, Poland provided logistic support, including munitions and food rations, to his units. Żeligowski also received reinforcements, when, according to the official version, the mutiny spread further among the Polish troops. His initial attack was secured on both sides by two Polish Armies.
The Żeligowski's Mutiny
, in planning since mid-September, began in the early morning on October 8, 1920, – just few hours after the signing of the Suwałki Agreement. A provisional agreement was made in the Polish–Soviet War, which freed up Polish units for the attack on Lithuania. As part of the rouse, Żeligowski wrote a note to Polish command announcing his mutiny and expressing his disappointment with the Suwałki Agreement. He claimed that his troops marched to defend the right of self-determination
of local Polish population.
and Rūdninkai along the Merkys River
, shielding the city from Poland. Their main forces were still in the Suwałki Region and to the west from Druskininkai
and Varėna
. Without the railway, Lithuanian units could not be easily redeployed to protect Vilnius. After it became clear that Żeligowski would not stop in Vilnius, Commander of the Lithuanian Army Silvestras Žukauskas
, who took the position only on October 6, ordered to evacuate the city in the afternoon on October 8. They left city's administration to Entente official Constantin Reboul. Żeligowski entered Vilnius the following evening. He did not recognize Reboul's authority and Entente officials left the city in protest. On October 12, Żeligowski proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Central Lithuania
, with Vilnius as its capital. The name was inline with Piłsudski's vision of historical Lithuania, divided into three cantons: Lithuanian-inhabited Western Lithuania with capital in Kaunas
, Polish-inhabited Central Lithuania with capital in Vilnius, and Belarusian-inhabited Eastern Lithuania with capital in Minsk
. Further developments of other cantons was prevented by Polish National Democracy, a party opposed to Piłsudski's federalist ideas.
Żeligowski's units continued to advance: territories east of the city were taken without resistance while Lithuanians defended in the west. Żeligowski took Švenčionys
and Rūdiškės
on October 10, Nemenčinė
on October 11, Lentvaris
on October 13, Rykantai
on October 15. The front somewhat stabilized on the southern (left) side of the Neris River, but fighting continued on the northern (right) side of Neris. When Polish cavalry maneuvered towards Riešė
, it learned from local population the location of the command of the 1st Riflemen Regiment. On October 21, the cavalry raided the village and took the entire command prisoners. Left without their commanders, the Lithuanians retreated and Poles took Maišiagala
and Paberžė. On October 26, another cavalry raid captured Dubingiai
, Giedraičiai
, Želva
and threatened Ukmergė
. However, Lithuanians counterattacked and took back Želva on October 30 and Giedraičiai on November 1. For a while the front stabilized.
On November 17, the mutineers began a major attack. They planned to capture Kaunas, thus threatening Lithuanian independence, by encircling the city from north through Širvintos
–Ukmergė
–Jonava
and Giedraičiai
–Kavarskas
–Kėdainiai
. Żeligowski's forces were about three times larger: 15 Polish battalions against 5 Lithuanian battalions. One cavalry brigade managed to break through the Lithuanian defense lines near Dubingiai
, reached Kavarskas, and continued towards Kėdainiai
. However, Lithuanians were successful in stopping an attack towards Ukmergė near Širvintos on November 19. About 200 Lithuanians maneuvered through swaps to the rear of three Polish battalions. Attacked from front and rear, some 200 Poles were taken prisoners while others retreated. Lithuanians continued to attack and captured Giedraičiai on November 21. On the same day a ceasefire was signed under pressure from the League of Nations. The Polish cavalry brigade, pushed from Kėdainiai and cut off from its main forces, retreated through Ramygala
–Troškūnai
–Andrioniškis
–Lėliūnai
and rejoined other Żeligowski's units only on November 24. These were the last military movements in the Polish–Lithuanian conflict.
asked the League of Nations to intervene in the renewed conflict with Poland. On October 14, Chairman of the League Léon Bourgeois
issued a note condemning the aggression and asking Polish units to retreat. Politicians in London even considered expelling Poland from the League. When the League heard both arguments on October 26–28, Polish envoy Szymon Askenazy
claimed that there was no conflict between Poland and Lithuania to mediate. He maintained that the old conflict ended with signing ceasefires with Lithuania on October 7 and with Soviet Russia on October 12 and the new conflict was caused by Żeligowski, who acted without approval from the Polish command, but with moral support of the entire Polish nation. Lithuanian envoy Augustinas Voldemaras
argued that Poland orchestrated the mutiny and demanded strict sanctions against Poland. The League refused to validate Żeligowski's action. It suggested to hold a plebiscite in the contested areas. On November 6 and 7, both sides agreed and Lithuanians began preparatory work.
On November 19, Żeligowski proposed the Control Commission, led by Chardigny, to cease hostilities. Lithuanians agreed and a ceasefire was signed on November 21. Later this episode was criticized by Lithuanian commentators as at the time the Lithuanian Army had initiative in the front and had a chance of marching on Vilnius. However, the Lithuanians trusted the League of Nations would resolve the dispute in their favor and were afraid that in case of an attack on Vilnius regular Polish forces would arrive to reinforce Żeligowski's units.
Negotiations for a more permanent armistice, under mediation of the Control Commission, began on November 27 in Kaunas. Lithuania did not agree to negotiate directly with Żeligowski and thus legitimizing his actions. Therefore, Poland stepped in as a mediator. Lithuania agreed as it hoped to put the talks back into the context of the Suwałki Agreement. Poles rejected any withdrawal of Żeligowski's forces. No agreement could be reached regarding a demarcation line. On November 29, 1920, it was agreed only to cease hostilities on November 30, to entrust the Control Commission with establishment of a 6 km (3.7 mi) wide neutral zone, and to exchange prisoners. This neutral zone existed until February 1923.
, wanted the plebiscite. The parties could not agree in which territory to carry out the vote and how Żeligowski's forces should be replaced by League's forces. The League of Nations then moved on from trying to solve the narrow territorial dispute in the Vilnius Region to shaping the fundamental relationship between Poland and Lithuania. During 1921, Belgian Paul Hymans
suggested several Polish–Lithuanian federation models, all rejected by both sides. In January 1922, parliamentary election to the Wilno Diet (Sejm wileński) in a landslide Polish victory. In its first session on February 20, 1922, the Diet voted for incorporation into Poland as the Wilno Voivodeship. Polish Sejm
accepted the resolution of the Diet. The League of Nations ended its efforts to mediate the dispute. After Lithuanians seized the Klaipėda Region
in January 1923, the League saw recognition of Lithuanian interest in Klaipėda as adequate compensation for the loss of Vilnius. The League accepted the status quo
in February 1923 by dividing the neutral zone and setting a demarcation line, which was recognized in March 1923 as the official Polish–Lithuanian border. Lithuania did not recognize this border.
Historians have asserted that if Poland had not prevailed in the Polish-Soviet War
, Lithuania would have been invaded by the Soviets, and would never have experienced two decades of independence. Despite the Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920, Lithuania was very close to being invaded by the Soviets in summer 1920 and being forcibly incorporated into that state, and only the Polish victory derailed this plan.Alfred Erich Senn, Lietuvos valstybes... p. 163: "If the Poles didn't stop the Soviet attack, Lithuania would fell to the Soviets... Polish victory costs the Lithuanians the city of Wilno, but saved Lithuania itself."
Antanas Ruksa, Kovos del Lietuvos nepriklausomybes, t.3, p. 417: "In summer 1920 Russia was working on a communist revolution in Lithuania... From this disaster Lithuania was saved by the miracle at Vistula."
Jonas Rudokas, Józef Piłsudski – wróg niepodległości Litwy czy jej wybawca? (Polish translation of a Lithuanian article) "Veidas", 25 08 2005: [Piłsudski] "defended both Poland and Lithuanian from Soviet domination"
The dispute over Vilnius remained one of the biggest foreign policy issues in Lithuania and Poland. Lithuania broke off all diplomatic relations with Poland and refused any actions that would recognize Poland's control of Vilnius even de facto
. For example, Lithuania broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See
after the Concordat of 1925
established an ecclesiastical province in Wilno thereby acknowledging Poland's claims to the city. Poland refused to formally recognize the existence of any dispute regarding the region, since that would have lent legitimacy to the Lithuanian claims. Railroad traffic and telegraph lines could not cross the border, and mail service was complicated. For example, a letter from Poland to Lithuania needed to be sent to a neutral country, repackaged in a new envelope to remove any Polish signs, and only then delivered to Lithuania. Despite several attempts to normalize the relations, the situation of "no war, no peace" lasted until Poland demanded to reestablish diplomatic relations by issuing the ultimatum of 1938
. These tensions were one of the reasons why Józef Piłsudski's Międzymorze
federation was never formed. The Soviet Union returned Vilnius to Lithuania after the Soviet invasion of Eastern Poland in September 1939.
Lithuania
Lithuania , officially the Republic of Lithuania is a country in Northern Europe, the biggest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark...
and Poland
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
in the aftermath of World War I
Aftermath of World War I
The fighting in World War I ended in western Europe when the Armistice took effect at 11:00 am GMT on November 11, 1918, and in eastern Europe by the early 1920s. During and in the aftermath of the war the political, cultural, and social order was drastically changed in Europe, Asia and Africa,...
. The conflict primarily concerned territorial control of the Vilnius Region
Vilnius region
Vilnius Region , refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania, that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time,...
, including Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
, and the Suwałki Region, including the towns of Suwałki, Augustów
Augustów
Augustów is a town in north-eastern Poland with 29,600 inhabitants . It lies on the Netta River and the Augustów Canal. It is situated in the Podlaskie Voivodeship , having previously been in Suwałki Voivodeship . It is the seat of Augustów County and of Gmina Augustów.In 1970 Augustów became...
, and Sejny
Sejny
Sejny is a town in north-eastern Poland, in Podlaskie Voivodeship, close to the border with Lithuania and Belarus. It is located in the eastern part of the Suwałki Lake Area , on the Marycha river, being a tributary of Czarna Hańcza...
. The conflict was largely shaped by the progress in the Polish–Soviet War and international efforts to mediate at the Conference of Ambassadors
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
and later the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
. There are major differences in Polish and Lithuanian historiography regarding treatment of the war. According to Lithuanian historians, the war was part of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence and spanned from spring 1919 to November 1920. According to Poland, the war included only fighting over the Suwałki Region in September–October 1920 and was part of the Polish–Soviet War.
In April 1919, Poland captured Vilnius
Vilna offensive
The Vilna offensive was a campaign of the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. The Polish army launched an offensive on April 16, 1919, to take Vilnius from the Red Army. After three days of street fighting from April 19–21, the city was captured by Polish forces, causing the Red Army to...
and came in contact with the Lithuanian Army fighting in the Lithuanian–Soviet War
Lithuanian–Soviet War
The Lithuanian–Soviet War or Lithuanian–Bolshevik War was fought between newly independent Lithuania and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in the aftermath of World War I. It was part of the larger Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919...
. Faced with a common enemy, the Polish–Lithuanian relations
Polish–Lithuanian relations
Polish–Lithuanian relations dates from the 13th century, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Mindaugas took over some of the lands of Rus' and thus established a border with the then-fragmented Kingdom of Poland. Polish-Lithuanian relations improved, leading to an alliance...
were not immediately hostile. Poland hoped to persuade Lithuania to join some kind of Polish–Lithuanian union (see the Międzymorze
Miedzymorze
Międzymorze was a plan, pursued after World War I by Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, for a federation, under Poland's aegis, of Central and Eastern European countries...
federation), which Lithuania saw as loss of independence to Polish federalism. As bilateral relations worsened, the Entente
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
drew two demarcation lines in hopes to stall further open hostilities. The lines did not please anyone and were ignored. When a Polish coup against the Lithuanian government
1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania
The Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania refers to a failed attempt by Józef Piłsudski to overthrow the existing government of Lithuania, led by Prime Minister Mykolas Sleževičius, and install a more pro-Polish cabinet that would agree to a union with Poland. The coup d'etat was to be carried...
failed in August 1919, the front stabilized until summer 1920.
In July 1920, Poland was losing the Polish–Soviet War and was in full retreat. The Lithuanians followed retreating Polish troops to secure the territory, assigned to Lithuania by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty, also known as the Moscow Peace Treaty, was signed between Lithuania and Soviet Russia on July 12, 1920. In exchange for Lithuania's neutrality and permission to freely move its troops in the recognized territory during its war against Poland, Soviet Russia...
. The Soviets were the first to enter Vilnius. When Poland achieved a major victory in the Battle of Warsaw
Battle of Warsaw (1920)
The Battle of Warsaw sometimes referred to as the Miracle at the Vistula, was the decisive battle of the Polish–Soviet War. That war began soon after the end of World War I in 1918 and lasted until the Treaty of Riga resulted in the end of the hostilities between Poland and Russia in 1921.The...
and forced the Soviets to retreat in August 1920, Lithuanians defended their new borders. Poland did not recognize the Peace Treaty and claimed that Lithuania had become a Soviet ally. Fighting broke out in the Suwałki Region. During the Battle of the Niemen River
Battle of the Niemen River
The Battle of the Niemen River was the second-greatest battle of the Polish-Soviet War. It took place near the middle Neman River between the cities of Suwałki, Grodno and Białystok...
, Poland attacked Lithuania on a wide front. The battle drastically altered the military situation and left Vilnius open to an attack. Under pressure from the League of Nations, Poland signed the Suwałki Agreement on October 7, 1920. The agreement drew a new demarcation line, which was incomplete and did not provide protection to Vilnius.
On October 8, 1920, Polish general Lucjan Żeligowski
Lucjan Zeligowski
Lucjan Żeligowski , was a Polish general, and veteran of World War I, the Polish-Soviet War and World War II. He is mostly remembered for his role in Żeligowski's Mutiny and as head of a short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania.-Biography:...
staged a mutiny among Polish troops and marched on Vilnius to "defend the right of self-determination of local Poles." The mutiny was planned and authorized by Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski. Żeligowski's forces captured Vilnius, but further advances were stopped by the Lithuanian troops. Żeligowski proclaimed creation of the Republic of Central Lithuania
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania or Middle Lithuania , or simply Central Lithuania , was a short-lived political entity, which did not gain international recognition...
with capital in Vilnius. On November 29, a ceasefire was signed. The prolonged mediation by the League of Nations did not change the situation and status quo
Status quo
Statu quo, a commonly used form of the original Latin "statu quo" – literally "the state in which" – is a Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs. To maintain the status quo is to keep the things the way they presently are...
was accepted in 1923. The Republic of Central Lithuania was incorporated into Poland as the Wilno Voivodeship in 1922. Lithuania did not recognize these developments and continued to claim Vilnius as its constitutional capital. There were no diplomatic relations between Poland and Lithuania until the Polish ultimatum of 1938
1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania
The 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania was an ultimatum delivered to Lithuania by Poland on March 17, 1938. The Lithuanian government had steadfastly refused to have any diplomatic relations with Poland after 1920, protesting the annexation by Poland of the Vilnius Region. As pre-World War II...
.
Military developments
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
ended on November 11, 1918 when Germany signed the Compiègne Armistice
Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)
The armistice between the Allies and Germany was an agreement that ended the fighting in the First World War. It was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on 11 November 1918 and marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany, although not technically a surrender...
. On November 13, the Soviet Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, mediated by South African Andrik Fuller, at Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the Central Powers, headed by Germany, marking Russia's exit from World War I.While the treaty was practically obsolete before the end of the year,...
and began the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919. The Bolsheviks followed retreating German troops and attacked Lithuania and Poland from the east trying to prevent their independence. They attempted to spread the global proletarian revolution
World revolution
World revolution is the Marxist concept of overthrowing capitalism in all countries through the conscious revolutionary action of the organized working class...
, establish Soviet republics in the region, and join the German and the Hungarian Revolutions
Hungarian Soviet Republic
The Hungarian Soviet Republic or Soviet Republic of Hungary was a short-lived Communist state established in Hungary in the aftermath of World War I....
. The Soviet offensive sparked a series of local wars, including the Polish–Soviet War and the Lithuanian–Soviet War
Lithuanian–Soviet War
The Lithuanian–Soviet War or Lithuanian–Bolshevik War was fought between newly independent Lithuania and the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in the aftermath of World War I. It was part of the larger Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919...
. At first the Soviets were successful, but came to a halt in February 1919. In March–April both Lithuanians and Poles began their offensives against the Soviets. The three armies met in the Vilnius Region
Vilnius region
Vilnius Region , refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania, that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time,...
. The Polish–Lithuanian relations
Polish–Lithuanian relations
Polish–Lithuanian relations dates from the 13th century, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Mindaugas took over some of the lands of Rus' and thus established a border with the then-fragmented Kingdom of Poland. Polish-Lithuanian relations improved, leading to an alliance...
were not immediately hostile, but grew worse as each side refused to compromise. On April 19, 1919, the Polish Army captured Vilnius
Vilna offensive
The Vilna offensive was a campaign of the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. The Polish army launched an offensive on April 16, 1919, to take Vilnius from the Red Army. After three days of street fighting from April 19–21, the city was captured by Polish forces, causing the Red Army to...
.
At first, both Poles and Lithuanians cooperated against the Soviets, but soon the cooperation gave wave to increasing hostility. Lithuania claimed neutrality
Neutral country
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
in the Polish–Soviet War. As the Polish Army forced its way further into Lithuania, the first clashes between Polish and Lithuanian soldiers occurred on April 26 and May 8, 1919, near Vievis
Vievis
Vievis is a small city in Elektrėnai municipality, Lithuania. It is located 14 km east of Elektrėnai. The city is surrounded by Lake Vievis.In 1522 year the Vievis manor, in 1539 year - town, which belonged to Ogiński family, was mentioned...
. Though there was no formal state of war and few casualties, by July newspapers reported increasing clashes between Poles and Lithuanians, primarily around the towns of Merkinė
Merkine
Merkinė is a town in Dzūkija National Park in Lithuania, located at the confluence of the Merkys and Neman Rivers.First mentioned in 1359, Merkinė is one of the oldest Lithuanian settlements. It received the Magdeburg rights in 1569. The town is the location of The Mount of Queen Bona, a mound...
and Širvintos
Širvintos
Širvintos is a city in Vilnius County in the eastern part of Lithuania. It is the administrative center of the Širvintos district municipality.The word Širvintos is the plural form of the name of the Širvinta River, which flows through the city....
. Direct negotiations in Kaunas between May 28 and June 11, 1919, collapsed as neither side agreed to compromise. Lithuania tried to avoid direct military conflict and submitted its case for mediation to the Conference of Ambassadors
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
.
Diplomatic developments
Poland did not recognize independence of Lithuania as Polish leader Józef Piłsudski hoped to revive the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (see the MiędzymorzeMiedzymorze
Międzymorze was a plan, pursued after World War I by Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, for a federation, under Poland's aegis, of Central and Eastern European countries...
federation) and campaigned for some kind of Polish–Lithuanian union in the Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
. Poland also did not intend to make any territorial concessions, justifying its actions not only as part of a military campaign against the Soviets but also as the right of self-determination of local Poles. According to the 1897 Russian census
Russian Empire Census
The Russian Imperial Census of 1897 was the first and the only census carried out in the Russian Empire . It recorded demographic data as of ....
, the disputed city of Vilnius had an ethnic breakdown of 30% Poles, 40% Jews, and 2% Lithuanians; however the percentage of Lithuanians was much higher in the surrounding countryside. According to the 1916 German census, Poles constituted 50% of city's population. The Lithuanians claimed Vilnius as their historical capital and refused any federation with Poland, desiring an independent Lithuanian state. They regarded Polish federalism as recreation of Polish cultural and political dominance. The Lithuanian government in Kaunas
Kaunas
Kaunas is the second-largest city in Lithuania and has historically been a leading centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaunas was the biggest city and the center of a powiat in Trakai Voivodeship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1413. During Russian Empire occupation...
, designated as the temporary capital
Temporary capital of Lithuania
The temporary capital of Lithuania was the official designation of the city of Kaunas in Lithuania during the interwar period. It was in contrast to the declared capital in Vilnius , which was under Polish control from 1920 until 1939...
, saw the Polish presence in Vilnius as occupation. In addition to the Vilnius Region, the Suwałki Region was also disputed. It had mixed Polish and Lithuanian population.
At the time international situations of newly-independent Poland and Lithuania were unequal. Poland, much larger in territory and population, was dedicated point #13 in Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
's Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points
The Fourteen Points was a speech given by United States President Woodrow Wilson to a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1918. The address was intended to assure the country that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for postwar peace in Europe...
. It was recognized by all nations of the Entente
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
, officially invited to the Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
, and became one of the founding members of the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
. Poland also enjoyed a close alliance with France. Lithuania did not receive international recognition (it was first recognized de jure
De jure
De jure is an expression that means "concerning law", as contrasted with de facto, which means "concerning fact".De jure = 'Legally', De facto = 'In fact'....
in July 1920 by Soviet Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , commonly referred to as Soviet Russia, Bolshevik Russia, or simply Russia, was the largest, most populous and economically developed republic in the former Soviet Union....
) as the Entente hoped to revive the Russian Empire within its former territory, which included Lithuania. Not invited to any post-war diplomatic conferences, it also had to battle negative propaganda that the Council of Lithuania
Council of Lithuania
The Council of Lithuania , after July 11, 1918 The State Council of Lithuania , was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between September 18 and 23, 1917. The council was granted the executive authority of the Lithuanian people and was entrusted to establish an independent...
was a German puppet, that Lithuanians harbored pro-Bolshevik attitudes, or that Lithuania was too small and weak to survive without a union with Poland.
Demarcation lines
Conference of Ambassadors
The Conference of Ambassadors of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers was an inter-allied organization of the Entente in the period following the end of World War I. Formed in Paris in January 1920 it became a successor of the Supreme War Council and was later on de facto incorporated into...
drew the first demarcation line
Demarcation line
A demarcation line means simply a boundary around a specific area, but is commonly used to denote a temporary geopolitical border, often agreed upon as part of an armistice or ceasefire.See the following examples:...
on June 18. The line, drawn about 5 km (3.1 mi) west of the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
The Saint Petersburg – Warsaw Railway, Russian "Санкт-Петербурго-Варшавская железная дорога" is a long railway, built in the 19th century by the Russian Empire to connect Russia with Central Europe. At the time the entire railway was within Russia, as Warsaw was under a Russian partition of Poland...
, was based on military situation on the ground rather than ethnic composition. Neither Poles nor Lithuanians were content with the line. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected the line as it would require the Polish forces to retread up to 35 km (21.7 mi). The Lithuanians protested leaving Vilnius and Hrodna
Hrodna
Grodno or Hrodna , is a city in Belarus. It is located on the Neman River , close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania . It has 327,540 inhabitants...
under Polish control. As German volunteers were departing from Lithuania and Lithuanian forces were preoccupied with battles against the Soviets in northern Lithuania, Poland mounted an offensive on 100 km (62.1 mi) wide front moving 20 – deeper into the Lithuanian territory. Lithuania could not organize an effective defense.
On July 18, Ferdinand Foch
Ferdinand Foch
Ferdinand Foch , GCB, OM, DSO was a French soldier, war hero, military theorist, and writer credited with possessing "the most original and subtle mind in the French army" in the early 20th century. He served as general in the French army during World War I and was made Marshal of France in its...
proposed the second demarcation line, known as the Foch Line
Foch Line
The Foch Line was a temporary demarcation line between Poland and Lithuania proposed by the Entente in the aftermath of World War I. The line was proposed by Marshal of France Ferdinand Foch and was accepted by the Conference of Ambassadors in 1919. With small adjustments the line formed the basis...
. It was approved by the Entente on July 26. The Lithuanians were informed about the new line line only on August 3. Two major modifications favorable to the Poles were made: the Suwałki Region was assigned to Poland and the entire line was moved about 7 km (4.3 mi) west. Again, both Poles and Lithuanians protested the line as it would require to withdraw their armies from the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions respectively. German administration, which had not yet retreated from the Suwałki Region, also opposed the Foch Line. The new line did not immediately halt the hostilities. After a couple Polish attacks on July 29 and August 2, the front stabilized.
Sejny Uprising
The Lithuanians obeyed the Foch Line and retreated from Suwałki on August 7, 1919. However, they stopped in ethnically mixed SejnySejny
Sejny is a town in north-eastern Poland, in Podlaskie Voivodeship, close to the border with Lithuania and Belarus. It is located in the eastern part of the Suwałki Lake Area , on the Marycha river, being a tributary of Czarna Hańcza...
and formed a line on the Czarna Hańcza river – Wigry Lake
Wigry Lake
Wigry is a lake located in north-eastern part of Poland, in Podlaskie Voivodeship.Wigry lake is situated in the forests of the Augustów Wilderness – trees grow on about 80% of its shoreline. There are 19 smaller and bigger islands on the lake, in its waters thrive as many as 26 species of...
. They showed intention to stay there permanently, which caused concern among the local Poles. On August 12, they organized a rally of about 100 people demanding incorporation into Poland. The Sejny branch of Polish Military Organization (PMO) began preparing for an uprising, scheduled for night of August 22 to 23, 1919. Between 900 and 1,200 partisans joined PMO forces. On August 23, the Poles captured Sejny and attacked Lazdijai
Lazdijai
Lazdijai is a city in Lithuania located about east of the border with Poland. In 1990 Lithuania declared independence from the Soviet Union, and new check points between the borders Poland and Lithuania were established and Lazdijai became the center that oversees and continues to regulate these...
and Kapčiamiestis
Kapciamiestis
Kapčiamiestis is a town in Lithuania located near the confluence of Baltoji Ančia and Nieda Rivers. Town traces its history dating back in early 16th century, then a manor was built...
, towns on the Lithuanian side of the Foch Line. The insurgents planned to march as far as Simnas
Simnas
Simnas is a city within the Alytus district municipality, Lithuania. It is located west of Alytus.-External links:*...
. Lithuanians recaptured Sejny on August 25 for a few hours. On August 26, Polish regular forces – the 41st Infantry Regiment – joined the PMO volunteers. On September 5, the Lithuanians agreed to withdraw behind the Foch Line by September 7. Poland secured Sejny and repressed Lithuanian cultural life: the Sejny Priest Seminary
Sejny Priest Seminary
The Sejny Priest Seminary or Sejny Theological Seminary was a Catholic priest seminary established in Sejny in 1826. The courses lasted five years...
was expelled, Lithuanian schools and cultural organizations closed. After the uprising, the mistrust of Poles prompted the Lithuanian intelligence to intensify its investigations of Polish activities in Lithuania. This helped to detect and prevent a planned coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
in Kaunas to overthrow the government of Lithuania.
Polish coup attempt
Sometime in mid-July 1919, PMO forces in Vilnius began planning a coup to replace the Lithuanian government with a pro-Polish cabinet, which would agree to a union with Poland (the proposed MiędzymorzeMiedzymorze
Międzymorze was a plan, pursued after World War I by Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, for a federation, under Poland's aegis, of Central and Eastern European countries...
federation). Polish leader Józef Piłsudski believed there were enough Polish sympathizers in Lithuania to carry out the coup. On August 3, a Polish diplomatic mission, led by Leon Wasilewski
Leon Wasilewski
Leon Wasilewski was an activist of the Polish Socialist Party , a coworker of Józef Piłsudski, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs, designer of much of Second Polish Republic policy towards the East, historian and father of Wanda Wasilewska....
, in Kaunas had a double purpose: propose a plebiscite in the contested territories and assess preparedness for the coup. On August 6, the Lithuanian government rejected the plebiscite proposal, stating that the disputed territories constitute ethnographic Lithuania
Ethnographic Lithuania
Ethnographic Lithuania was an early 20th century concept that defined Lithuanian territories as significant part of the territories that belonged to Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Lithuanians as all people living on them, regardless of whether those people spoke Lithuanian language and considered...
. PMO planned to capture and hold Kaunas for a few hours until arrival of the regular Polish troops, situated only some 40 – east from the city. The coup would be portrayed as an initiative of local population to "free Lithuania from German influence" while denouncing any involvement of the Polish government. Polish newspapers ran a propaganda campaign claiming that the Council of Lithuania
Council of Lithuania
The Council of Lithuania , after July 11, 1918 The State Council of Lithuania , was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between September 18 and 23, 1917. The council was granted the executive authority of the Lithuanian people and was entrusted to establish an independent...
was simply a German puppet. The coup was initially scheduled for the night of August 27 to 28, but was postponed to September 1. Lithuanian intelligence discovered the coup, but did not have a list of PMO members. Lithuanian authorities began mass arrests of some 200 Polish activists, including some officers of the Lithuanian Army. Kaunas was declared under the state of siege
State of Siege
State of Siege is a 1972 French film directed by Costa Gavras starring Yves Montand and Renato Salvatori.-Summary:...
. Polish press saw mass arrests of Polish activists "to whom no charge can be ascribed other than being Poles" as proof of systematic anti-Polish policies of the German-ridden Lithuanian government. PMO was little affected by the arrests and scheduled another coup attempt for the end of September. However, Lithuanians obtained a full PMO membership list and liquidated the organization in Lithuania.
September 1919 – June 1920: minor incidents
After the failure of the coup in Kaunas, there were numerous small border incidents. On September 19, 1919, Polish troops attacked GelvonaiGelvonai
Gelvonai is a town in Širvintos district municipality, Vilnius County, east Lithuania. According to the 2001 census, the town has a population of 380 people. The town has a church of Catholics.- Famous citizens :...
and encroached towards Ukmergė
Ukmerge
-Early history:Ukmergė was first mentioned as a settlement in 1333. It was essentially a wooden fortress that stood on a hill, near the confluence of the Vilkmergė River and the Šventoji River. Ukmergė was attacked by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order in 1333, 1365, 1378, 1386, and even...
. On several occasions fights broke out regarding strategically important bridge over the Šventoji River
Šventoji River
The Šventoji River is the longest river that flows entirely within Lithuania and the largest tributary of the Neris River. It originates from the Lake Samanis in the Gražutė Regional Park and flows into Neris near Jonava. The longest tributary of the Šventoji is the Širvinta River.The Šventoji...
near Vepriai
Vepriai
Vepriai is the largest town in Ukmergė district, Lithuania, situated south-west of Ukmergė with population of about 1,000 . The capital of Vepriai elderate.-History:Vepriai was founded on a hill near Vepriai Lake and south of Šventoji River...
. In October, when main Lithuanian forces were deployed against the Bermontians in northwestern Lithuania, the attacks intensified. Poles captured Salakas on October 5 and attacked Kapčiamiestis
Kapciamiestis
Kapčiamiestis is a town in Lithuania located near the confluence of Baltoji Ančia and Nieda Rivers. Town traces its history dating back in early 16th century, then a manor was built...
on October 12. The front stabilized, but harassment of border guards and local villagers continued throughout late 1919 and early 1920. In March 1920, the Poles attacked along the railroad stations in Kalkūni and Turmantas
Turmantas
Turmantas is a town in the Zarasai district municipality, Lithuania. Located on the border with Latvia, it is a railway station on the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg railway. The village is known since 1798. It began growing after completion of the railway in 1862. As part of the Vilnius Region,...
. The situation was investigated by British and French observers and reported to the Entente. The situation somewhat improved only in late spring 1920 when most Polish troops were deployed in Ukraine during the Polish–Soviet War.
At the time Lithuania faced a severe budget crisis – in 1919 its revenue was 72 million while expenses reached 190 million German mark
German mark
The Deutsche Mark |mark]], abbreviated "DM") was the official currency of West Germany and Germany until the adoption of the euro in 2002. It is commonly called the "Deutschmark" in English but not in German. Germans often say "Mark" or "D-Mark"...
s. While the government was struggling to obtain financial assistance and loans, deep cuts affected the army. Instead of increasing its armed forces to 40,000 men, Lithuania was forced to cut them to about 25,000.
Diplomatic developments
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
. Initially successful, the Polish Army started retreating after Russian counterattacks in early June 1920. Soon the Soviet forces began to threaten Poland's independence as they reached and crossed the Polish borders. On July 9, Polish Prime Minister Władysław Grabski asked the Allied Powers
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
in the Spa Conference
Spa Conference
The Spa Conference was a meeting between the Supreme War Council and Weimar Republic in Spa, Belgium on 5–16 July 1920. It was the first post-war conference to include German representatives. The attendees included British and French Prime Ministers Lloyd George and Alexandre Millerand, German...
for military assistance in the war with the Soviets. The conference proposed that the Polish forces would withdraw behind the Curzon Line
Curzon Line
The Curzon Line was put forward by the Allied Supreme Council after World War I as a demarcation line between the Second Polish Republic and Bolshevik Russia and was supposed to serve as the basis for a future border. In the wake of World War I, which catalysed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the...
, the Soviet forces would stop 50 km (31.1 mi) to the east of the line, the Lithuanian forces would take control of Vilnius, and all other disputes would be settled via negotiations in London. Grabski opposed the transfer of Vilnius, but under pressure of British Prime Minister Lloyd George, agreed to the resolution on July 10.
At the same time Soviets and Lithuanians negotiated the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty
The Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty, also known as the Moscow Peace Treaty, was signed between Lithuania and Soviet Russia on July 12, 1920. In exchange for Lithuania's neutrality and permission to freely move its troops in the recognized territory during its war against Poland, Soviet Russia...
, which was signed on July 12, 1920. Russia recognized Lithuanian independence and withdrew any territorial claims. The treaty drew the eastern border of Lithuania, which the Lithuanians continued to claim as their de jure
De jure
De jure is an expression that means "concerning law", as contrasted with de facto, which means "concerning fact".De jure = 'Legally', De facto = 'In fact'....
state border until World War II. Vilnius Region
Vilnius region
Vilnius Region , refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania, that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time,...
, including Brasłaŭ, Hrodna
Hrodna
Grodno or Hrodna , is a city in Belarus. It is located on the Neman River , close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania . It has 327,540 inhabitants...
, Lida
Lida
Lida is a city in western Belarus in Hrodna Voblast, situated 160 km west of Minsk. It is the fourteenth largest city in Belarus.- Etymology :...
, and Vilnius
Vilnius
Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania, and its largest city, with a population of 560,190 as of 2010. It is the seat of the Vilnius city municipality and of the Vilnius district municipality. It is also the capital of Vilnius County...
, was recognized to Lithuania. On August 6, after long and heated negotiations, Lithuania and Soviet Russia signed a convention regarding withdrawal of Russian troops from the recognized Lithuanian territory. However, the troops began to retreat only after the Red Army suffered a heavy defeat in Poland.
Territorial changes
The Bolshevik forces reached the Lithuanian territory on July 7, 1920, and continued to push the Polish troops. The Lithuanian Army moved to secure territories abandoned by the retreating Polish forces. They took TurmantasTurmantas
Turmantas is a town in the Zarasai district municipality, Lithuania. Located on the border with Latvia, it is a railway station on the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg railway. The village is known since 1798. It began growing after completion of the railway in 1862. As part of the Vilnius Region,...
on July 7, Tauragnai
Tauragnai
Tauragnai is a town in Utena County, Lithuania. According to the 2001 census, the town has a population of 602 people....
and Alanta
Alanta
Alanta is a small town in Molėtai district municipality, Lithuania. It is the administrative seat of the Alanta Elderate. According to a census in 2001, Alanta had 464 residents. It is situated at the crossing of two roads: Molėtai–Anykščiai and Utena–Alanta–Ukmergė. The town's St...
on July 9, Širvintos
Širvintos
Širvintos is a city in Vilnius County in the eastern part of Lithuania. It is the administrative center of the Širvintos district municipality.The word Širvintos is the plural form of the name of the Širvinta River, which flows through the city....
and Musninkai
Musninkai
Musninkai is a town in Širvintos district municipality, Vilnius County, east Lithuania. According to the 2001 census, the town has a population of 472 people. The town has a church of Catholics....
on July 10, Kernavė
Kernave
Kernavė was a medieval capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and today is a tourist attraction and an archeological site . It is located in the Širvintos district municipality located in southeast Lithuania...
, Molėtai
Moletai
Molėtai is a city in north eastern Lithuania. One of the oldest settlements in Lithuania, it is a popular resort for the inhabitants of Vilnius. According to the 2001 census, it had 7,221 inhabitants....
, and Giedraičiai
Giedraiciai
Giedraitis is the name of a Lithuanian noble family, most probably dating back to the time of Mindaugas, although it has no connections with him...
on July 11, Maišiagala
Maišiagala
Maišiagala is a historic town in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania. It is located about northwest of Vilnius near the Vilnius–Panevėžys highway. According to the 2001 census, it had population of 1,634.-History:...
and Pabradė
Pabrade
Pabradė is a city in Lithuania, in Švenčionys district municipality, on Žeimena river, 38 km south-west of Švenčionys.Pabradė is a busy place as the Vilnius–Daugavpils railway is close to the city. It was quite a small settlement until the 19th century, when the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg...
on July 13. On July 13 the Polish command decided to transfer Vilnius to the Lithuanians in accordance with the resolution of the Spa Conference. Lithuanians moved in, but their trains were stopped by Polish soldiers near Kazimieriškės. This delay meant that the Bolsheviks were the first to enter Vilnius on July 14. By the time first Lithuanian troops entered the city on July 15, it was already secured by the Soviets. Poland sought to have Russians in the city as it would create much less complications when Polish Army counterattacked. Despite the Peace Treaty, the Soviets did not intend to transfer the city to the Lithuanians. Indeed there were indications that the Soviets planned a coup against the Lithuanian government in hopes to re-establish the Lithuanian SSR
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1919)
The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was an early short-lived Soviet republic declared on December 16, 1918 by the provisional revolutionary government, led by Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas...
.
Despite the setback in Vilnius, the Lithuanians continued to secure territories in the Suwałki Region. They took Druskininkai
Druskininkai
Druskininkai is a spa town on the Neman River in southern Lithuania, close to the borders of Belarus and Poland. The city of Druskininkai has a population of 18,233 and dates back as a spa resort to the 19th century.-Names:...
on July 17, Vištytis
Vištytis
Vištytis is a town in southern Lithuania on Lake Vištytis, Marijampolė district. It is situated at the Russian border and is a capital of Vištytis elderate....
, Punsk
Punsk
Puńsk is a village with 1,050 inhabitants in the Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland. Over 80% of the population of Puńsk is Lithuanian. It lies in the northeastern part of Poland, only from the border with Lithuania....
, Giby
Giby
Giby , is a village in Sejny County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland, close to the borders with Belarus and Lithuania. It is the seat of the gmina called Gmina Giby. It lies approximately south of Sejny and north of the regional capital Białystok.The village has an approximate...
, and Sejny
Sejny
Sejny is a town in north-eastern Poland, in Podlaskie Voivodeship, close to the border with Lithuania and Belarus. It is located in the eastern part of the Suwałki Lake Area , on the Marycha river, being a tributary of Czarna Hańcza...
on July 19, Suwałki on July 29, Augustów on August 8. The Polish units, afraid of being surrounded and cut off from the main Polish forces, retreated towards Łomża. The Lithuanian authorities started to organize themselves in the regained areas.
Lithuanian neutrality
Poland claimed that Lithuania violated its claim to neutrality in the Polish–Soviet War and in effect became a Soviet ally. A secret clause of the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty allowed Soviet forces unrestricted movement within the Soviet-recognized Lithuanian territory for the duration of Soviet hostilities with Poland. This clause was of a practical matter: Soviet troops already occupied much of the assigned territory and could not withdraw while hostilities with Poland continued. Lithuanians were also simply unable to resist Soviet troops. For example, when Lithuanians refused a permission to use a road, the Soviets ignored Lithuanian protests and transported their troops and equipment regardless. At the same time Polish soldiers were disarmed and interned. The largest group, a brigade under colonel Pasławski, was interned on July 18, 1920, near KruonisKruonis
Kruonis is a small town, located east of Kaunas, in Kaunas County, central Lithuania. As of 2001 it had a population of 726. The only in the Baltic States Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant is situated north of Kruonis.-References:...
. On August 10, Lithuanians held 103 Polish officers and 3,520 private soldiers. Poland also claimed that the Lithuanian troops actively participated in military operations of the Red Army. This charge, based on memoirs of Soviet officials, lacks evidence. Further military clashes between Polish and Lithuanian troops in the Suwałki Region were interpreted by Poland to show that "the Lithuanian government has become an instrument of the Soviet government." Lithuania responded that it was defending its borders.
Polish advance and Soviet retreat
Battle of Warsaw (1920)
The Battle of Warsaw sometimes referred to as the Miracle at the Vistula, was the decisive battle of the Polish–Soviet War. That war began soon after the end of World War I in 1918 and lasted until the Treaty of Riga resulted in the end of the hostilities between Poland and Russia in 1921.The...
in mid-August 1920 and started withdrawing. They handed over Vilnius to the Lithuanians on August 26. The Lithuanians hastily made preparations to secure the border, as determined by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. The soldiers were ordered to maintain neutrality: avoid hostilities and intern
Internment
Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the meaning as: "The action of 'interning'; confinement within the limits of a country or place." Most modern usage is about individuals, and there is a distinction...
any Soviet or Polish troops that would cross the border. On August 26, a Polish delegation, led by colonel Mieczysław Mackiewicz, arrived in Kaunas to negotiate the situation. The Poles, lacking authority to discuss political issues, were concerned with military aspects. They sought permission to transport Polish troops through the territory of Lithuania, wanted access to a portion of the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
The Saint Petersburg – Warsaw Railway, Russian "Санкт-Петербурго-Варшавская железная дорога" is a long railway, built in the 19th century by the Russian Empire to connect Russia with Central Europe. At the time the entire railway was within Russia, as Warsaw was under a Russian partition of Poland...
, and demanded that the Lithuanian troops would withdraw from the Suwałki Region behind the Curzon Line
Curzon Line
The Curzon Line was put forward by the Allied Supreme Council after World War I as a demarcation line between the Second Polish Republic and Bolshevik Russia and was supposed to serve as the basis for a future border. In the wake of World War I, which catalysed the Russian Revolution of 1917, the...
. The Lithuanians refused to discuss military matters without a clear political Polish–Lithuanian border, that would be respected after the war. Due to these fundamental disagreements and Polish attacks, the negotiations broke down on August 30.
The Suwałki Region had strategic importance in the Polish–Soviet War. Following orders of Edward Rydz-Śmigły, Polish forces took Augustów from Lithuanians in a surprise attack on August 28. Confused and disoriented Lithuanians retreated from Suwałki and Sejny on August 30 and 31. The Lithuanians reorganized, gathered their forces (11 battalions with 7,000 soldiers), and organized a counterattack to "defend their border" on September 2. The goal was to take and secure the Augustów–Lipsk
Lipsk
Lipsk , , is a town in Augustów County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland, with 2,520 inhabitants ....
–Hrodna
Hrodna
Grodno or Hrodna , is a city in Belarus. It is located on the Neman River , close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania . It has 327,540 inhabitants...
line. The Lithuanians succeeded in taking Sejny and Lipsk and by September 4 reached the outskirts of Augustów. On September 5, the Poles counterattacked and forced the Lithuanians to retreat. On September 9, the Polish forces recaptured Sejny, but the Lithuanians pushed back and regained Sejny and Giby on September 13 and 14. Pending direct negotiations, hostilities were ceased on both sides.
Direct negotiations and League of Nations
Marijampole
Marijampolė is an industrial city and the capital of the Marijampolė County in the south of Lithuania, bordering Poland and Russian Kaliningrad oblast, and Lake Vištytis. The population of Marijampolė is 48,700...
. On September 8, during a planning meeting of the Battle of the Niemen River
Battle of the Niemen River
The Battle of the Niemen River was the second-greatest battle of the Polish-Soviet War. It took place near the middle Neman River between the cities of Suwałki, Grodno and Białystok...
, the Poles decided to maneuver through the Lithuanian territory to the rear of the Soviet Army, stationed in Hrodna
Hrodna
Grodno or Hrodna , is a city in Belarus. It is located on the Neman River , close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania . It has 327,540 inhabitants...
. In an attempt to conceal the planned attack, Polish diplomats accepted the proposal to negotiate. The negotiations started on September 16 in Kalvarija, but collapsed just two days later.
On September 5, 1920, Polish Foreign Minister Eustachy Sapieha
Eustachy Sapieha
Eustachy Kajetan Sapieha was a Polish nobleman, prince of the Sapieha family, politician, Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs, and deputy to the Polish parliament ....
delivered a diplomatic note to the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
alleging the Lithuania violated its neutrality and asking to intervene in the Polish–Lithuanian War. The League agreed to mediate and began its session on September 16. The resolution, adopted on September 20, urged both states to cease hostilities and adhere to the Curzon Line. Poland was asked to respect Lithuanian neutrality if Soviet Russia agreed to do the same. Also a special Control Commission was to be dispatched into the conflict zone to oversee implementation of the resolution. It was clear that the League had only a narrow goal to prevent armed hostilities and not to resolve the underlying territorial dispute. The Lithuanian government accepted the resolution, while Poland reserved full freedom of action in preparation for the attack on the Soviets.
Battle of the Niemen River
On September 22, 1920, Poland attacked Lithuanian units in the Suwałki Region on a wide front. Overwhelmed by 4–5 times larger enemy forces, some 1,700–2,000 Lithuanian troops surrendered and were taken prisoners. Polish forces then marched, as planned on September 8, across the Neman RiverNeman River
Neman or Niemen or Nemunas, is a major Eastern European river rising in Belarus and flowing through Lithuania before draining into the Curonian Lagoon and then into the Baltic Sea at Klaipėda. It is the northern border between Lithuania and Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast in its lower reaches...
near Druskininkai
Druskininkai
Druskininkai is a spa town on the Neman River in southern Lithuania, close to the borders of Belarus and Poland. The city of Druskininkai has a population of 18,233 and dates back as a spa resort to the 19th century.-Names:...
and Merkinė
Merkine
Merkinė is a town in Dzūkija National Park in Lithuania, located at the confluence of the Merkys and Neman Rivers.First mentioned in 1359, Merkinė is one of the oldest Lithuanian settlements. It received the Magdeburg rights in 1569. The town is the location of The Mount of Queen Bona, a mound...
to the rear of the Soviet forces near Hrodna
Hrodna
Grodno or Hrodna , is a city in Belarus. It is located on the Neman River , close to the borders of Poland and Lithuania . It has 327,540 inhabitants...
and Lida
Lida
Lida is a city in western Belarus in Hrodna Voblast, situated 160 km west of Minsk. It is the fourteenth largest city in Belarus.- Etymology :...
. The Red Army hastily retreated. Lithuanians had limited intelligence warning about such attack, but chose inadequate defensive strategy and spread their forces too thinly along the entire Polish–Lithuanian front without sufficient forces to protect bridges across the Neman. This attack, just two days after the resolution by the League of Nations to cease hostilities, put more pressure on Poland to settle the dispute peacefully. On September 26, Poles captured Hrodna and Sapieha proposed new negotiations in Suwałki. The Battle of the Niemen River drastically altered the balance of power: Vilnius, in Lithuanian hands since August 26, was exposed to a Polish attack. Indeed Poles had already decided to capture the city and used the negotiations in Suwałki to stall and buy time for necessary preparations. The Lithuanian side was ready to give up the Suwałki Region in exchange for Poland's recognition of the Lithuanian claims to Vilnius.
Suwałki Agreement
Lieutenant General
Lieutenant General is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages where the title of Lieutenant General was held by the second in command on the battlefield, who was normally subordinate to a Captain General....
Maksimas Katche
Maksimas Katche
Maksimas Katche , was a Russian and Lithuanian military officer, Knight of St. George.Of Baltic German descent, he was born in Joniškis, Lithuania ....
, began in the evening of September 29, 1920. Both sides agreed to an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
, but only to the east of the Neman River (the Suwałki Region). Fighting to the west on the river continued around Marcinkonys
Marcinkonys
Marcinkonys is a village in Varėna district, Lithuania, located south-east of Merkinė. It is the administrative center of the Dzūkija National Park and Čepkeliai Marsh. According to the 2001 census, it had 765 residents. The settlement is known since 1637, when it was a camp of foresters...
, Zervynos
Zervynos
Zervynos is an ethnographic village in the Varėna district, Lithuania. It is situated within the territory of the Dzūkija National Park near the Ūla River. The Saint Petersburg – Warsaw Railway runs through this village. Zervynos has 48 homesteads; 8 homesteads and 32 separate buildings are...
, Perloja, Eišiškės
Eišiškes
Eišiškės ) is a city in southeastern Lithuania on the border with Belarus. It is situated on a small group of hills, surrounded by marshy valley of Verseka and Dumblė Rivers. Rivers divide the town into two parts; the northern part is called Jurzdika. As of January 2008, Eišiškės had a population...
. Major point of contention, both diplomatic and military, was the train station in Varėna
Varena
Varėna is a city in Dzūkija, Lithuania.-History:The town was founded in 1862 near the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway, south of Sena Varėna . At that time it was a small settlement, but following steady development it eventually became the center of the district in 1950. In the interbellum...
(Orany) on the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway
The Saint Petersburg – Warsaw Railway, Russian "Санкт-Петербурго-Варшавская железная дорога" is a long railway, built in the 19th century by the Russian Empire to connect Russia with Central Europe. At the time the entire railway was within Russia, as Warsaw was under a Russian partition of Poland...
. Major Lithuanian forces were still concentrated in the Suwałki Region and moving them to protect Vilnius without the railway would be extremely difficult. Fighting west of the Neman River ceased only on October 6, when Polish troops had already captured the train station in Varėna.
Negotiations regarding the demarcation line were difficult. In essence, the Lithuanians wanted a longer demarcation line to provide better protection for Vilnius. The Poles agreed only to a short line in order to provide the planned attack on Vilnius with space for operation. The Polish delegation was also stalling to buy time for necessary preparations for an attack on Vilnius. While Vilnius was not a topic of debate, it was on everybody's mind. On October 4, the Control Commission, sent by the League according to its resolution of September 20, arrived to Suwałki. The Commission, led by French colonel Pierre Chardigny, re-energized the negotiations. On October 7, at midnight, the final agreement was signed. The treaty made not a single reference to Vilnius or the Vilnius Region. The ceasefire was effective only along the demarcation line, which ran through the Suwałki Region to the train station in Bastuny. Thus the line was incomplete, did not provide protection to the Vilnius Region, but indicated it would be left on the Lithuanian side.
Żeligowski's Mutiny
Lucjan Zeligowski
Lucjan Żeligowski , was a Polish general, and veteran of World War I, the Polish-Soviet War and World War II. He is mostly remembered for his role in Żeligowski's Mutiny and as head of a short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania.-Biography:...
, to stage a mutiny with his 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division (16 battalions with 14,000 soldiers) in Lida
Lida
Lida is a city in western Belarus in Hrodna Voblast, situated 160 km west of Minsk. It is the fourteenth largest city in Belarus.- Etymology :...
and capture Vilnius in fait accompli
Fait Accompli
Fait accompli is a French phrase which means literally "an accomplished deed". It is commonly used to describe an action which is completed before those affected by it are in a position to query or reverse it...
. The rebellion had two main goals: capture Vilnius and preserve Polish international reputation. The League of Nations was mediating other Polish disputes, notably over the Free City of Danzig
Free City of Danzig
The Free City of Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig and surrounding areas....
and Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. Since the 9th century, Upper Silesia has been part of Greater Moravia, the Duchy of Bohemia, the Piast Kingdom of Poland, again of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as of...
, and direct aggression against Lithuania could have hampered Polish bargaining positions. While the Polish side officially held Żeligowski to be a deserter and did not support him, Poland provided logistic support, including munitions and food rations, to his units. Żeligowski also received reinforcements, when, according to the official version, the mutiny spread further among the Polish troops. His initial attack was secured on both sides by two Polish Armies.
The Żeligowski's Mutiny
Zeligowski's Mutiny
Żeligowski's Mutiny was a sham mutiny led by Polish General Lucjan Żeligowski in October 1920, which resulted in the creation of the short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania. Polish Chief of State Józef Piłsudski had surreptitiously ordered Żeligowski to carry out the operation, and revealed the...
, in planning since mid-September, began in the early morning on October 8, 1920, – just few hours after the signing of the Suwałki Agreement. A provisional agreement was made in the Polish–Soviet War, which freed up Polish units for the attack on Lithuania. As part of the rouse, Żeligowski wrote a note to Polish command announcing his mutiny and expressing his disappointment with the Suwałki Agreement. He claimed that his troops marched to defend the right of self-determination
Self-determination
Self-determination is the principle in international law that nations have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or external interference...
of local Polish population.
Capture of Vilnius and other military attacks
Lithuanians were not prepared for the assault. They had only two battalions, stationed near JašiūnaiJašiūnai
Jašiūnai is a town in Lithuania. It is situated on the Merkys River and an edge of the Rūdninkai Forest . According to the 2001 census, it had population of 1,879. The town's populations is primarily Polish , with Russian and Lithuanian minorities.-History:The town was first mentioned in written...
and Rūdninkai along the Merkys River
Merkys River
The Merkys is a river in southern Lithuania and northern Belarus. It flows for through Belarus, along the Belarusian–Lithuanian border, and through Lithuania before joining the Neman River near Merkinė....
, shielding the city from Poland. Their main forces were still in the Suwałki Region and to the west from Druskininkai
Druskininkai
Druskininkai is a spa town on the Neman River in southern Lithuania, close to the borders of Belarus and Poland. The city of Druskininkai has a population of 18,233 and dates back as a spa resort to the 19th century.-Names:...
and Varėna
Varena
Varėna is a city in Dzūkija, Lithuania.-History:The town was founded in 1862 near the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway, south of Sena Varėna . At that time it was a small settlement, but following steady development it eventually became the center of the district in 1950. In the interbellum...
. Without the railway, Lithuanian units could not be easily redeployed to protect Vilnius. After it became clear that Żeligowski would not stop in Vilnius, Commander of the Lithuanian Army Silvestras Žukauskas
Silvestras Žukauskas
Silvestras Žukauskas , was a general in the Russian army, and later in his native Lithuania, after it regained its independence in 1918.- Biography :After graduating from the secondary school in Marijampolė, Žukauskas studied at the military academy...
, who took the position only on October 6, ordered to evacuate the city in the afternoon on October 8. They left city's administration to Entente official Constantin Reboul. Żeligowski entered Vilnius the following evening. He did not recognize Reboul's authority and Entente officials left the city in protest. On October 12, Żeligowski proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Central Lithuania
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania or Middle Lithuania , or simply Central Lithuania , was a short-lived political entity, which did not gain international recognition...
, with Vilnius as its capital. The name was inline with Piłsudski's vision of historical Lithuania, divided into three cantons: Lithuanian-inhabited Western Lithuania with capital in Kaunas
Kaunas
Kaunas is the second-largest city in Lithuania and has historically been a leading centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaunas was the biggest city and the center of a powiat in Trakai Voivodeship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1413. During Russian Empire occupation...
, Polish-inhabited Central Lithuania with capital in Vilnius, and Belarusian-inhabited Eastern Lithuania with capital in Minsk
Minsk
- Ecological situation :The ecological situation is monitored by Republican Center of Radioactive and Environmental Control .During 2003–2008 the overall weight of contaminants increased from 186,000 to 247,400 tons. The change of gas as industrial fuel to mazut for financial reasons has worsened...
. Further developments of other cantons was prevented by Polish National Democracy, a party opposed to Piłsudski's federalist ideas.
Żeligowski's units continued to advance: territories east of the city were taken without resistance while Lithuanians defended in the west. Żeligowski took Švenčionys
Švencionys
Švenčionys is a city located north of Vilnius in Lithuania. It is the capital of the Švenčionys district municipality. As of 2005, it had population of 5,658 of which about one-third is part of the Polish minority in Lithuania.- Name :...
and Rūdiškės
Rudiškes
Rūdiškės is a city in the Trakai district municipality, Lithuania about 15 km south of Trakai.During the interwar period, it was a part of the Second Polish Republic....
on October 10, Nemenčinė
Nemencine
Nemenčinė is a city in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania, it is located about north-east of Vilnius.-Names:Nemenčinė is the original name of the city reflected in historical documents and still in use today. It derives from a Lithuanian word referring to the river Nemenčia...
on October 11, Lentvaris
Lentvaris
Lentvaris is a city in eastern Lithuania, 9 km east form Trakai, an important center of transportation, because many roads and railroads cross here.Lake Lentvaris is located near the city.- History :...
on October 13, Rykantai
Rykantai
Rykantai is a village in Trakai district municipality, Lithuania, 7 kilometres north-west from Lentvaris. In the village is post station, railway station and Trinity church. North of village flows Neris River....
on October 15. The front somewhat stabilized on the southern (left) side of the Neris River, but fighting continued on the northern (right) side of Neris. When Polish cavalry maneuvered towards Riešė
Riese
Riese may refer to:*Project Riese, a German Nazi WWII economic project*Riese Pio X, a municipality in Italy*Adam Ries, a German mathematician*Riese: Kingdom Falling , a steampunk web series...
, it learned from local population the location of the command of the 1st Riflemen Regiment. On October 21, the cavalry raided the village and took the entire command prisoners. Left without their commanders, the Lithuanians retreated and Poles took Maišiagala
Maišiagala
Maišiagala is a historic town in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania. It is located about northwest of Vilnius near the Vilnius–Panevėžys highway. According to the 2001 census, it had population of 1,634.-History:...
and Paberžė. On October 26, another cavalry raid captured Dubingiai
Dubingiai
Dubingiai is a town in Molėtai district in Lithuania. It is situated near Lake Asveja, the longest lake in the country. The town has 260 inhabitants as of 2003.-History:...
, Giedraičiai
Giedraiciai
Giedraitis is the name of a Lithuanian noble family, most probably dating back to the time of Mindaugas, although it has no connections with him...
, Želva
Želva
Želva is a town in Ukmergė district municipality, Vilnius County, east Lithuania. According to the 2001 census, the town has a population of 516 people. The town has a Catholic church and a synagogue. Želva is the birthplace of Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Aaron Klug....
and threatened Ukmergė
Ukmerge
-Early history:Ukmergė was first mentioned as a settlement in 1333. It was essentially a wooden fortress that stood on a hill, near the confluence of the Vilkmergė River and the Šventoji River. Ukmergė was attacked by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order in 1333, 1365, 1378, 1386, and even...
. However, Lithuanians counterattacked and took back Želva on October 30 and Giedraičiai on November 1. For a while the front stabilized.
On November 17, the mutineers began a major attack. They planned to capture Kaunas, thus threatening Lithuanian independence, by encircling the city from north through Širvintos
Širvintos
Širvintos is a city in Vilnius County in the eastern part of Lithuania. It is the administrative center of the Širvintos district municipality.The word Širvintos is the plural form of the name of the Širvinta River, which flows through the city....
–Ukmergė
Ukmerge
-Early history:Ukmergė was first mentioned as a settlement in 1333. It was essentially a wooden fortress that stood on a hill, near the confluence of the Vilkmergė River and the Šventoji River. Ukmergė was attacked by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order in 1333, 1365, 1378, 1386, and even...
–Jonava
Jonava
Jonava is the ninth largest city in Lithuania with a population of ca 35,000.It is located in Kaunas County in central Lithuania, north east of Kaunas, the second-largest city in Lithuania. It is served by Kaunas International Airport. The largest fertilizer factory in the Baltic states is...
and Giedraičiai
Giedraiciai
Giedraitis is the name of a Lithuanian noble family, most probably dating back to the time of Mindaugas, although it has no connections with him...
–Kavarskas
Kavarskas
Kavarskas , with a population of only 700, is the fourth smallest city in Lithuania. The Šventoji River flows through the town. In 1956 near Kavarskas a water lifting station was built and part of the Šventoji River's water was channeled to the Nevėžis River...
–Kėdainiai
Kedainiai
Kėdainiai is one of the oldest cities in Lithuania. It is located on the Nevėžis River. First mentioned in the 1372 Livonian Chronicle of Hermann de Wartberge, its population as of 2008 was 30,214. Its old town dates to the 17th century....
. Żeligowski's forces were about three times larger: 15 Polish battalions against 5 Lithuanian battalions. One cavalry brigade managed to break through the Lithuanian defense lines near Dubingiai
Dubingiai
Dubingiai is a town in Molėtai district in Lithuania. It is situated near Lake Asveja, the longest lake in the country. The town has 260 inhabitants as of 2003.-History:...
, reached Kavarskas, and continued towards Kėdainiai
Kedainiai
Kėdainiai is one of the oldest cities in Lithuania. It is located on the Nevėžis River. First mentioned in the 1372 Livonian Chronicle of Hermann de Wartberge, its population as of 2008 was 30,214. Its old town dates to the 17th century....
. However, Lithuanians were successful in stopping an attack towards Ukmergė near Širvintos on November 19. About 200 Lithuanians maneuvered through swaps to the rear of three Polish battalions. Attacked from front and rear, some 200 Poles were taken prisoners while others retreated. Lithuanians continued to attack and captured Giedraičiai on November 21. On the same day a ceasefire was signed under pressure from the League of Nations. The Polish cavalry brigade, pushed from Kėdainiai and cut off from its main forces, retreated through Ramygala
Ramygala
Ramygala is a small city in Lithuania. It is located some south from Panevėžys on the banks of the Upytė River, a tributary to the Nevėžis River. According to 2005 estimate, it had just below 1,700 residents....
–Troškūnai
Troškunai
Troškūnai is the second smallest city in Lithuania. It is located west form Anykščiai. The birthplace of Lithuanian lexicographer and writer Konstantinas Sirvydas is nearby the city. The city was established in 1696 by Władysław Sokołowski, who brought there Bernardines, founded a church and a...
–Andrioniškis
Andrioniškis
Andrioniškis is a town in Anykščiai district municipality, in Utena County, in northeast Lithuania. According to the 2001 census, the town has a population of 278 people. Town established near Šventoji River. Andrioniškis name first time mentioned in 1672....
–Lėliūnai
Leliūnai
Leliūnai is a town in Utena County, Lithuania. According to the 2001 census, the town has a population of 483 people....
and rejoined other Żeligowski's units only on November 24. These were the last military movements in the Polish–Lithuanian conflict.
Mediation and diplomatic measures
On October 11, 1920, Lithuanian envoy in Paris Oscar MiloszOscar Milosz
Oscar Vladislas de Lubicz Milosz was a French-Lithuanian writer and representative of Lithuania at the League of Nations. His literary work was concerned with symbols and associations. A recluse, his poems were vibrant and tormented, concerned with love, loneliness and anger. Milosz was primarily...
asked the League of Nations to intervene in the renewed conflict with Poland. On October 14, Chairman of the League Léon Bourgeois
Léon Bourgeois
-Biography:He was born in Paris, and was trained in law. After holding a subordinate office in the department of public works, he became successively prefect of the Tarn and the Haute-Garonne , and then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior...
issued a note condemning the aggression and asking Polish units to retreat. Politicians in London even considered expelling Poland from the League. When the League heard both arguments on October 26–28, Polish envoy Szymon Askenazy
Szymon Askenazy
Szymon Askenazy was a Polish historian, diplomat and politician, founder of the Askenazy school....
claimed that there was no conflict between Poland and Lithuania to mediate. He maintained that the old conflict ended with signing ceasefires with Lithuania on October 7 and with Soviet Russia on October 12 and the new conflict was caused by Żeligowski, who acted without approval from the Polish command, but with moral support of the entire Polish nation. Lithuanian envoy Augustinas Voldemaras
Augustinas Voldemaras
Augustinas Voldemaras was a Lithuanian nationalist political figure. He served as the country's first Prime Minister in 1918, and again from 1926 to 1929.- Biography :...
argued that Poland orchestrated the mutiny and demanded strict sanctions against Poland. The League refused to validate Żeligowski's action. It suggested to hold a plebiscite in the contested areas. On November 6 and 7, both sides agreed and Lithuanians began preparatory work.
On November 19, Żeligowski proposed the Control Commission, led by Chardigny, to cease hostilities. Lithuanians agreed and a ceasefire was signed on November 21. Later this episode was criticized by Lithuanian commentators as at the time the Lithuanian Army had initiative in the front and had a chance of marching on Vilnius. However, the Lithuanians trusted the League of Nations would resolve the dispute in their favor and were afraid that in case of an attack on Vilnius regular Polish forces would arrive to reinforce Żeligowski's units.
Negotiations for a more permanent armistice, under mediation of the Control Commission, began on November 27 in Kaunas. Lithuania did not agree to negotiate directly with Żeligowski and thus legitimizing his actions. Therefore, Poland stepped in as a mediator. Lithuania agreed as it hoped to put the talks back into the context of the Suwałki Agreement. Poles rejected any withdrawal of Żeligowski's forces. No agreement could be reached regarding a demarcation line. On November 29, 1920, it was agreed only to cease hostilities on November 30, to entrust the Control Commission with establishment of a 6 km (3.7 mi) wide neutral zone, and to exchange prisoners. This neutral zone existed until February 1923.
Aftermath
In March 1921, the plans for a plebiscite were abandoned. Neither Lithuania, which was afraid of a negative result, nor Poland, which saw no reason to change status quoStatus quo
Statu quo, a commonly used form of the original Latin "statu quo" – literally "the state in which" – is a Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs. To maintain the status quo is to keep the things the way they presently are...
, wanted the plebiscite. The parties could not agree in which territory to carry out the vote and how Żeligowski's forces should be replaced by League's forces. The League of Nations then moved on from trying to solve the narrow territorial dispute in the Vilnius Region to shaping the fundamental relationship between Poland and Lithuania. During 1921, Belgian Paul Hymans
Paul Hymans
Paul Louis Adrien Henri Hymans , was a Belgian politician associated with the Liberal Party. He was the first President of the League of Nations, and served again as its president in 1932-33....
suggested several Polish–Lithuanian federation models, all rejected by both sides. In January 1922, parliamentary election to the Wilno Diet (Sejm wileński) in a landslide Polish victory. In its first session on February 20, 1922, the Diet voted for incorporation into Poland as the Wilno Voivodeship. Polish Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
accepted the resolution of the Diet. The League of Nations ended its efforts to mediate the dispute. After Lithuanians seized the Klaipėda Region
Klaipėda Region
The Klaipėda Region or Memel Territory was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors...
in January 1923, the League saw recognition of Lithuanian interest in Klaipėda as adequate compensation for the loss of Vilnius. The League accepted the status quo
Status quo
Statu quo, a commonly used form of the original Latin "statu quo" – literally "the state in which" – is a Latin term meaning the current or existing state of affairs. To maintain the status quo is to keep the things the way they presently are...
in February 1923 by dividing the neutral zone and setting a demarcation line, which was recognized in March 1923 as the official Polish–Lithuanian border. Lithuania did not recognize this border.
Historians have asserted that if Poland had not prevailed in the Polish-Soviet War
Polish-Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine and the Second Polish Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic—four states in post–World War I Europe...
, Lithuania would have been invaded by the Soviets, and would never have experienced two decades of independence. Despite the Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920, Lithuania was very close to being invaded by the Soviets in summer 1920 and being forcibly incorporated into that state, and only the Polish victory derailed this plan.Alfred Erich Senn, Lietuvos valstybes... p. 163: "If the Poles didn't stop the Soviet attack, Lithuania would fell to the Soviets... Polish victory costs the Lithuanians the city of Wilno, but saved Lithuania itself."
Antanas Ruksa, Kovos del Lietuvos nepriklausomybes, t.3, p. 417: "In summer 1920 Russia was working on a communist revolution in Lithuania... From this disaster Lithuania was saved by the miracle at Vistula."
Jonas Rudokas, Józef Piłsudski – wróg niepodległości Litwy czy jej wybawca? (Polish translation of a Lithuanian article) "Veidas", 25 08 2005: [Piłsudski] "defended both Poland and Lithuanian from Soviet domination"
The dispute over Vilnius remained one of the biggest foreign policy issues in Lithuania and Poland. Lithuania broke off all diplomatic relations with Poland and refused any actions that would recognize Poland's control of Vilnius even de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
. For example, Lithuania broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
after the Concordat of 1925
Concordat of 1925
The 1925 concordat between the Holy See and the Second Polish Republic had 27 articles, which guaranteed the freedom of the Church and the faithful...
established an ecclesiastical province in Wilno thereby acknowledging Poland's claims to the city. Poland refused to formally recognize the existence of any dispute regarding the region, since that would have lent legitimacy to the Lithuanian claims. Railroad traffic and telegraph lines could not cross the border, and mail service was complicated. For example, a letter from Poland to Lithuania needed to be sent to a neutral country, repackaged in a new envelope to remove any Polish signs, and only then delivered to Lithuania. Despite several attempts to normalize the relations, the situation of "no war, no peace" lasted until Poland demanded to reestablish diplomatic relations by issuing the ultimatum of 1938
1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania
The 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania was an ultimatum delivered to Lithuania by Poland on March 17, 1938. The Lithuanian government had steadfastly refused to have any diplomatic relations with Poland after 1920, protesting the annexation by Poland of the Vilnius Region. As pre-World War II...
. These tensions were one of the reasons why Józef Piłsudski's Międzymorze
Miedzymorze
Międzymorze was a plan, pursued after World War I by Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, for a federation, under Poland's aegis, of Central and Eastern European countries...
federation was never formed. The Soviet Union returned Vilnius to Lithuania after the Soviet invasion of Eastern Poland in September 1939.