Philippa of Lancaster
Encyclopedia
Philippa of Lancaster, LG
(31 March 1359 – 19 July 1415) was a Queen consort of Portugal. Born into the royal family of England
, her marriage with King John I
secured the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
and produced several famous children who became known as the "Illustrious Generation" in Portugal. She was the eldest daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
, and Blanche of Lancaster
, a sister of King Henry IV of England
.
in London
. Here, she was raised and educated alongside her two younger siblings, Elizabeth, who was three years younger, and Henry, six years younger, who would later become King Henry IV.
Philippa’s mother died from the plague
in 1369. Her father first remarried in 1371 to Infanta Constance of Castile, daughter of King Peter of Castile. After Constance's death in 1394, he married his former mistress, Katherine Swynford
, who had been Philippa’s governess. The affair and eventual marriage was considered scandalous, and in the future Philippa would protect herself against such embarrassment.
Katherine seems to have been well liked by Philippa and her Lancastrian siblings and played an important role in Philippa's education. Katherine had close ties with Geoffrey Chaucer
, since her sister, Philippa Roet, was Chaucer’s wife. John of Gaunt became Chaucer’s patron, and Chaucer spent much time with the family as one of Philippa’s many mentors and teachers. She was remarkably well educated for a female at the time and studied science under Friar John, poetry under Jean Froissart
, and philosophy and theology under John Wycliffe
. She was well read in the works of Greek and Roman scholars such as Pliny
and Herodotus
and was diligent in her study of religion.
of Portugal
through her marriage to King John I
. This marriage was the final step in the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
against the France
-Castile
axis.
The couple received the blessing of the church in the Cathedral of Oporto on 2 February 1387. Their married life would officially begin on 14 February 1387. The Portuguese court celebrated the union for fifteen days. Philippa married King John I by proxy, and in keeping with a unique Portuguese tradition, the stand-in bridegroom pretended to bed the bride. The stand-in for King John I was João Rodrigues de Sá.
The marriage itself, as was usually the case for the nobility in the Middle Ages, had more to do with political alliances than with physical attraction, and in fact the couple never met until twelve days after they were legally married. In point of fact, Philippa was considered to be rather plain, and in any case King João I (John I) already had a mistress, Inês Peres Esteves, by whom he had three children. In marrying Philippa, John I established a political and personal alliance with John of Gaunt, initially because it was rumored that John of Gaunt would claim the Kingdom of Castile
through Catherine of Lancaster
, his daughter by his second wife Constance of Castile, Catherine of Lancaster
. As the “de facto King of Castile,” it was feared that John of Gaunt could challenge King John’s claim to the newly-installed dynasty. [Instead, at Windsor in 1386, John I of Portugal signed the remarkably long-lasting Portuguese-British Alliance, which continued through the Napoleonic Wars and ensured Portugal's tenuous neutrality in World War II, almost 600 years later!] Philippa, at the age of 27, was thought to be too old to become a bride for the first time, and the court questioned her ability to bear the King children. Their fears were quickly assuaged, as Philippa bore nine children, six of whom survived into adulthood.
The king had three other children by his long-time mistress, Inês Peres Esteves; their son Afonso
was ten when Philippa and John married. Philippa allowed Alfonso and his sister Beatrice
to be raised in the Portuguese court (the third child, Branca, died in infancy). Their mother left the court at Philippa's command to live in a convent, and under Philippa’s patronage, she became the Prioress.
Though Philippa was seen in her time as the perfect symbol of queenly piety, and made public comments saying that “it would be regarded as an indecent thing for a wife to interfere in her husband’s affairs”, she actually wielded quite a bit of influence in both the Portuguese and English courts and was “actively involved in world affairs”.
Surviving letters show that Philippa often wrote to the English court from Portugal and stayed involved in English politics in this way. On one instance, Philippa intervened in court politics on “behalf of followers of the dethroned Richard II
when they appealed for her help after her brother, Henry IV
, had usurped the English throne”. On another occasion, she persuaded the reluctant Earl of Arundel
to marry her husband's illegitimate daughter Beatrice, further cementing the alliance between Portugal and England.
Philippa’s main political contribution, however, was in her own court. Upon the end of the Portuguese involvement in several wars with Castile and the Moors
, the Portuguese economy was in ruins, and many men who had found employment in the war were suddenly unemployed. Philippa knew that the conquest and control of Ceuta
would be quite lucrative for Portugal: it would mean nothing less than the control of the African and Indian spice trade
. Though Philippa died before her plan was realized, Portugal did send an expedition to conquer the city, a goal that was realized on 14 August 1415 in the Battle of Ceuta
.
, Ínclita Geração) of infantes (princes) and infantas (princesses), whose members were:
to Sacavém
and called her sons to her bedside so that she could give them her blessing. Philippa presented her three eldest sons with jewel-encrusted swords, which they would use in their impending knighthoods, and gave each a portion of the True Cross
, “enjoining them to preserve their faith and to fulfill the duties of their rank”.
Though he had been reluctant to marry her, the king had grown quite fond of his wife, and it is said that he was “so grieved by [her] mortal illness… that he could neither eat nor sleep”.
In her final hours, Philippa was said to be lucid and without pain. A story tells that she was roused by a wind which blew strongly against the house and asked what wind it was. She was delighted to hear that it was the north wind, and thought that this would be quite beneficial for her son’s and husband’s voyage to Africa, which she had coordinated. Philippa’s end was as pious, harmonious, and peaceful as her life: she prayed with several priests and, “without any toil or suffering, gave her soul into the hands of Him who created her, a smile appearing on her mouth as though she disdained the life of this world”.
: Ínclita Geração). Her surviving children went on to make historically significant contributions in their own right. Duarte of Portugal became the eleventh King of Portugal, and was known as, “The Philosopher,” or the “Eloquent.” Henrique, or Henry the Navigator, sponsored expeditions to Africa.
Philippa’s influence was documented in literary works. The medieval French poet Eustache Deschamps
dedicated one of his ballads to “Phelippe en Lancastre,” as a partisan of the Order of the Flower. It has also been speculated that Geoffrey Chaucer may have alluded to Philippa in his poem, “The Legend of Good Women
,” through the character, Alceste.
Order of the Garter
The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry, or knighthood, existing in England. The order is dedicated to the image and arms of St...
(31 March 1359 – 19 July 1415) was a Queen consort of Portugal. Born into the royal family of England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, her marriage with King John I
John I of Portugal
John I KG , called the Good or of Happy Memory, more rarely and outside Portugal the Bastard, was the tenth King of Portugal and the Algarve and the first to use the title Lord of Ceuta...
secured the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, ratified at the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, between England and Portugal is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the world which is still in force — with the earliest treaty dating back to the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373.This alliance, which goes back to the...
and produced several famous children who became known as the "Illustrious Generation" in Portugal. She was the eldest daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster , KG was a member of the House of Plantagenet, the third surviving son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault...
, and Blanche of Lancaster
Blanche of Lancaster
Blanche of Lancaster, Duchess of Lancaster was an English noblewoman and heiress, daughter of England's wealthiest and most powerful peer, Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster...
, a sister of King Henry IV of England
Henry IV of England
Henry IV was King of England and Lord of Ireland . He was the ninth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry Bolingbroke...
.
Early life and education
As the eldest child of John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster, Philippa spent most of her childhood in the many palaces and castles owned by her father, for example the Savoy PalaceSavoy Palace
The Savoy Palace was considered the grandest nobleman's residence of medieval London, until it was destroyed in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. It fronted the Strand, on the site of the present Savoy Theatre and the Savoy Hotel that memorialise its name...
in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
. Here, she was raised and educated alongside her two younger siblings, Elizabeth, who was three years younger, and Henry, six years younger, who would later become King Henry IV.
Philippa’s mother died from the plague
Bubonic plague
Plague is a deadly infectious disease that is caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis, named after the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin. Primarily carried by rodents and spread to humans via fleas, the disease is notorious throughout history, due to the unrivaled scale of death...
in 1369. Her father first remarried in 1371 to Infanta Constance of Castile, daughter of King Peter of Castile. After Constance's death in 1394, he married his former mistress, Katherine Swynford
Katherine Swynford
Katherine Swynford, Duchess of Lancaster , née Roet , was the daughter of Sir Payne Roet , originally a Flemish herald from County of Hainaut, later...
, who had been Philippa’s governess. The affair and eventual marriage was considered scandalous, and in the future Philippa would protect herself against such embarrassment.
Katherine seems to have been well liked by Philippa and her Lancastrian siblings and played an important role in Philippa's education. Katherine had close ties with Geoffrey Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer , known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages and was the first poet to have been buried in Poet's Corner of Westminster Abbey...
, since her sister, Philippa Roet, was Chaucer’s wife. John of Gaunt became Chaucer’s patron, and Chaucer spent much time with the family as one of Philippa’s many mentors and teachers. She was remarkably well educated for a female at the time and studied science under Friar John, poetry under Jean Froissart
Jean Froissart
Jean Froissart , often referred to in English as John Froissart, was one of the most important chroniclers of medieval France. For centuries, Froissart's Chronicles have been recognized as the chief expression of the chivalric revival of the 14th century Kingdom of England and France...
, and philosophy and theology under John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe was an English Scholastic philosopher, theologian, lay preacher, translator, reformer and university teacher who was known as an early dissident in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. His followers were known as Lollards, a somewhat rebellious movement, which preached...
. She was well read in the works of Greek and Roman scholars such as Pliny
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
and Herodotus
Herodotus
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the 5th century BC . He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a...
and was diligent in her study of religion.
Marriage
Philippa became Queen consortQueen consort
A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king. A queen consort usually shares her husband's rank and holds the feminine equivalent of the king's monarchical titles. Historically, queens consort do not share the king regnant's political and military powers. Most queens in history were queens consort...
of Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
through her marriage to King John I
John I of Portugal
John I KG , called the Good or of Happy Memory, more rarely and outside Portugal the Bastard, was the tenth King of Portugal and the Algarve and the first to use the title Lord of Ceuta...
. This marriage was the final step in the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, ratified at the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, between England and Portugal is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the world which is still in force — with the earliest treaty dating back to the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373.This alliance, which goes back to the...
against the France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
-Castile
Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
axis.
The couple received the blessing of the church in the Cathedral of Oporto on 2 February 1387. Their married life would officially begin on 14 February 1387. The Portuguese court celebrated the union for fifteen days. Philippa married King John I by proxy, and in keeping with a unique Portuguese tradition, the stand-in bridegroom pretended to bed the bride. The stand-in for King John I was João Rodrigues de Sá.
The marriage itself, as was usually the case for the nobility in the Middle Ages, had more to do with political alliances than with physical attraction, and in fact the couple never met until twelve days after they were legally married. In point of fact, Philippa was considered to be rather plain, and in any case King João I (John I) already had a mistress, Inês Peres Esteves, by whom he had three children. In marrying Philippa, John I established a political and personal alliance with John of Gaunt, initially because it was rumored that John of Gaunt would claim the Kingdom of Castile
Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne...
through Catherine of Lancaster
Catherine of Lancaster
-Coat of arms:The following are Armorials of the House of Lancaster under her father, John of Gaunt.-References:* Anthony Goodman: "Katherine of Lancaster" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 30 , p. 890-891....
, his daughter by his second wife Constance of Castile, Catherine of Lancaster
Catherine of Lancaster
-Coat of arms:The following are Armorials of the House of Lancaster under her father, John of Gaunt.-References:* Anthony Goodman: "Katherine of Lancaster" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 30 , p. 890-891....
. As the “de facto King of Castile,” it was feared that John of Gaunt could challenge King John’s claim to the newly-installed dynasty. [Instead, at Windsor in 1386, John I of Portugal signed the remarkably long-lasting Portuguese-British Alliance, which continued through the Napoleonic Wars and ensured Portugal's tenuous neutrality in World War II, almost 600 years later!] Philippa, at the age of 27, was thought to be too old to become a bride for the first time, and the court questioned her ability to bear the King children. Their fears were quickly assuaged, as Philippa bore nine children, six of whom survived into adulthood.
The king had three other children by his long-time mistress, Inês Peres Esteves; their son Afonso
Afonso, 1st Duke of Braganza
Dom Afonso I, the 1st Duke of Braganza was the eighth Count of Barcelos, the 2nd Count of Neiva, 2nd Lord of Faria and the first Duke of Braganza.-Origins:...
was ten when Philippa and John married. Philippa allowed Alfonso and his sister Beatrice
Beatrice, Countess of Arundel
Beatrice of Portugal , LG was a natural daughter of John I of Portugal and Inês Pires. She was a sister of Afonso, Duke of Braganza and half-sister of King Edward of Portugal, Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, Henry the Navigator, Isabella of Portugal, John, Lord of Reguengos de Monsaraz, and...
to be raised in the Portuguese court (the third child, Branca, died in infancy). Their mother left the court at Philippa's command to live in a convent, and under Philippa’s patronage, she became the Prioress.
Influence in the Court
Surviving letters show that Philippa often wrote to the English court from Portugal and stayed involved in English politics in this way. On one instance, Philippa intervened in court politics on “behalf of followers of the dethroned Richard II
Richard II of England
Richard II was King of England, a member of the House of Plantagenet and the last of its main-line kings. He ruled from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. Richard was a son of Edward, the Black Prince, and was born during the reign of his grandfather, Edward III...
when they appealed for her help after her brother, Henry IV
Henry IV of England
Henry IV was King of England and Lord of Ireland . He was the ninth King of England of the House of Plantagenet and also asserted his grandfather's claim to the title King of France. He was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, hence his other name, Henry Bolingbroke...
, had usurped the English throne”. On another occasion, she persuaded the reluctant Earl of Arundel
Thomas FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel
Thomas Fitzalan, 12th Earl of Arundel and 10th Earl of Surrey, KG was an English nobleman, one of the principals of the deposition of Richard II, and a major figure during the reign of Henry IV.-Lineage:...
to marry her husband's illegitimate daughter Beatrice, further cementing the alliance between Portugal and England.
Philippa’s main political contribution, however, was in her own court. Upon the end of the Portuguese involvement in several wars with Castile and the Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
, the Portuguese economy was in ruins, and many men who had found employment in the war were suddenly unemployed. Philippa knew that the conquest and control of Ceuta
Ceuta
Ceuta is an autonomous city of Spain and an exclave located on the north coast of North Africa surrounded by Morocco. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies on the border of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta along with the other Spanish...
would be quite lucrative for Portugal: it would mean nothing less than the control of the African and Indian spice trade
Spice trade
Civilizations of Asia were involved in spice trade from the ancient times, and the Greco-Roman world soon followed by trading along the Incense route and the Roman-India routes...
. Though Philippa died before her plan was realized, Portugal did send an expedition to conquer the city, a goal that was realized on 14 August 1415 in the Battle of Ceuta
Battle of Ceuta
The Battle of Ceuta and the subsequent conquest of the Wattasid city of Ceuta by the Portuguese had its roots in the earliest years of the House of Aviz dynasty of Portugal...
.
Children
Philippa is remembered for being a generous and loving queen and for being the mother of the "Illustrious Generation" (in PortuguesePortuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
, Ínclita Geração) of infantes (princes) and infantas (princesses), whose members were:
- Blanche (1388–1389);
- Afonso (July 1390– 22 December 1400);
- Edward (Duarte) (1391–1438). He was a writer and an intellectual who succeeded his father as King of Portugal in 1433;
- Peter (1392–1449). He was the first Duke of Coimbra, a well-travelled man who served as Regent during the minority of his nephew Afonso VAfonso V of PortugalAfonso V KG , called the African , was the twelfth King of Portugal and the Algarves. His sobriquet refers to his conquests in Northern Africa.-Early life:...
; - Henry the Navigator (1394–1460), first Duke of Viseu, who guided Portugal to the Great era of The DiscoveriesAge of DiscoveryThe Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration and the Great Navigations , was a period in history starting in the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans engaged in intensive exploration of the world, establishing direct contacts with...
; - Isabella (1397–1472), who married Philip III of Burgundy and was one of the most powerful and admired women in Europe;
- Blanche (1398), died in childhood;
- JohnInfante João of PortugalThe Infante João, 1st Lord of Reguengos de Monsaraz, Colares and Belas was a Portuguese infante of the House of Aviz, Constable of Portugal and master of the Portuguese Order of St. James .- Life :Infante John was the son of King John I of Portugal and his wife Philippa of Lancaster...
(1400–1442), Constable of PortugalConstable of PortugalConstable of Portugal or Constable of the Kingdom was a title created by the King of Portugal Ferdinand I in 1382, to substitute the title Alferes Mór do Reino. The constable was the second most powerful person in the kingdom, after the King of Portugal...
, Lord of Reguengos, the grandfather of two 16th century Iberian monarchs, Manuel I of PortugalManuel I of PortugalManuel I , the Fortunate , 14th king of Portugal and the Algarves was the son of Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, , by his wife, Infanta Beatrice of Portugal...
and Isabella I of CastileIsabella I of CastileIsabella I was Queen of Castile and León. She and her husband Ferdinand II of Aragon brought stability to both kingdoms that became the basis for the unification of Spain. Later the two laid the foundations for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor...
; - FerdinandFernando, the Saint PrinceThe Blessed Infante Fernando , commonly known as the Saint Prince was an infante of Portugal of the House of Aviz and a saint of the Roman Catholic Church....
(1402–1443) "the Saint Prince," a warrior who was captured during the Disaster of Tangier in 1437 and died a prisoner of the MoorsMoorsThe description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
.
Death
At the age of 53, like her mother, Philippa fell mortally ill with the plague. She moved from LisbonLisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
to Sacavém
Sacavém
Sacavém is a Portuguese civil parish , in the municipality of Loures, just a few kilometers northeast of the Portuguese capital, Lisbon. The parish covers an area of , with a population of 17,659 inhabitants...
and called her sons to her bedside so that she could give them her blessing. Philippa presented her three eldest sons with jewel-encrusted swords, which they would use in their impending knighthoods, and gave each a portion of the True Cross
True Cross
The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a Christian tradition, are believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified.According to post-Nicene historians, Socrates Scholasticus and others, the Empress Helena The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a...
, “enjoining them to preserve their faith and to fulfill the duties of their rank”.
Though he had been reluctant to marry her, the king had grown quite fond of his wife, and it is said that he was “so grieved by [her] mortal illness… that he could neither eat nor sleep”.
In her final hours, Philippa was said to be lucid and without pain. A story tells that she was roused by a wind which blew strongly against the house and asked what wind it was. She was delighted to hear that it was the north wind, and thought that this would be quite beneficial for her son’s and husband’s voyage to Africa, which she had coordinated. Philippa’s end was as pious, harmonious, and peaceful as her life: she prayed with several priests and, “without any toil or suffering, gave her soul into the hands of Him who created her, a smile appearing on her mouth as though she disdained the life of this world”.
Legacy
Philippa and King John’s union was praised for establishing purity and virtue in a court that was regarded as particularly corrupt. Philippa is remembered as the mother of “The Illustrious Generation” (PortuguesePortuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
: Ínclita Geração). Her surviving children went on to make historically significant contributions in their own right. Duarte of Portugal became the eleventh King of Portugal, and was known as, “The Philosopher,” or the “Eloquent.” Henrique, or Henry the Navigator, sponsored expeditions to Africa.
Philippa’s influence was documented in literary works. The medieval French poet Eustache Deschamps
Eustache Deschamps
Eustache Deschamps was a medieval French poet, also known as Eustache Morel . Born at Vertus, in Champagne, he received lessons in versification from Guillaume de Machaut and later studied law at Orleans University. He then traveled through Europe as a diplomatic messenger for Charles V...
dedicated one of his ballads to “Phelippe en Lancastre,” as a partisan of the Order of the Flower. It has also been speculated that Geoffrey Chaucer may have alluded to Philippa in his poem, “The Legend of Good Women
The Legend of Good Women
The Legend of Good Women is a poem in the form of a dream vision by Geoffrey Chaucer.The poem is the third longest of Chaucer’s works, after The Canterbury Tales and Troilus and Criseyde and is possibly the first significant work in English to use the iambic pentameter or decasyllabic couplets...
,” through the character, Alceste.