Mongol conquest of Anatolia
Encyclopedia
The Mongol conquest of Anatolia (or Mongol subjugation of Turkey in some sources) was a fast process, effectively lasting from 1241 to 1243. Real power over Anatolia was exercised by the Mongols after the Seljuks surrendered in 1243 until the fall of the Ilkhanate. Because the Seljuk Sultan rebelled several times, in 1255, the Mongols swept through central and eastern Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanate
garrison was stationed near Ankara
. Remains of the Mongol cultural heritage still can be seen in Turkey
, including tombs of a Mongol governor and a son of Hulegu.
By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks due to the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty in Rum. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols through declining Seljuk Sultans. The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Ilkhanids. The Osmanli ruler Osman I
was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320's, for it bears the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugul". Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to be a sovereign
, it can be considered that Osmanli became independent of the Mongol Khans.
In the 12th century, the Byzantines
managed to reassert their control in Western and Northern Anatolia. After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin Crusaders
, two Byzantine successor states were established: the Empire of Nicaea
, and the Despotate of Epirus
. A third one, the Empire of Trebizond
was created a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople by Alexios I of Trebizond
. Of these three successor states, Trebizond and Nicaea stood near the Mongolian Empire. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Greek States and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.
During the Military governor Chormaqan
’s tenture in Persia, no hostilities occurred with the Seljuk Turks. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I and his immediate successor Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II swore an oath of vassalage with the payment of at least token tribute in the name of Ogedei Qaghan. However, the Mongols
raided part of Greater Armenia which was under the Sultanate of Rum in 1238.
After the death of Ogedei in 1241, Kaykhusraw took the opportunity to terminate the tributary status of his realm, believing he is strong enough to resist the Mongol Empire
. Chormaqan’s successor Baiju
summoned him to resubmit Asia Minor
to its tributary status. The Sultan rejected his demands to make him go to Mongolia
in person, give hostages, and accept a Mongol darugachi. When the Sultan refused, Baiju declared war. The Seljuks invaded the Kingdom of Georgia
, part of the Mongol Empire.
When the reports of the attack on Erzurum reported to him, Kaykhusraw summoned his armed forces at Konya. He accepted the challenge by sending a war message, defying Baiju that his army took only one of his many cities.
(Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
) promised him to send a contingent; however, it is not certain they really engaged in his struggle with the Mongols. Kaykhusraw received the military support from the Empire of Trebizond
and the Ayyubid Sultan at Aleppo
, and the Frankish
mercenaries participated in the campaign. Because of little reliable information, it is difficult to measure the opposing troops. But the Seljuk force was larger than the Mongols.
Kaykhusraw advanced from Konya
some 200 miles up to Köse Dağ. The Mongolian army entered the area in June 1243 and awaited the march of the Seljuks and their allies. The early stage of the battle was indecisive. The Sultan’s forces suffered the greater casualties and he decided to withdraw at night. Pursuing him, Baiju received the submission of Erzinjan, Divrigi and Sivas en route.
The Mongols set up their camp near Sivas. When the Mongols penetrated into Kayseri
, it chose to resist them. After a short resistance, it fell to the invaders. Hearing of the disaster at Köse Dağ, Hethum I of Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia quickly made his peace with the Mongols in 1243 and sent his brother Sembat
to the Mongol court of Karakorum
in 1247 to negotiate an alliance with the Mongolian Emperor Guyuk
.
Kaykhusraw sent a delegation headed by his vizier to Baiju, realizing the further resistance would only produce a great disaster. Baiju offered terms based on resubmission and the Sultan was undertaken to pay a tribute tax every year in gold, silk, camel and sheep of uncertain quantities. However, the Turkish realm that had been taken by the military force remained occupied by the Mongols. Almost half of the Sultanate of Rum became an occupied country. The Empire of Trebizond became subject to the Mongolia
n Qaghan, fearing of the potential punitive expedition because they involved in the battle of Köse Dağ.
In the Empire of Nicaea
John III Doukas Vatatzes
prepared for the coming Mongol threat. However, Vatatzes had sent envoys to the Qaghans Guyuk and Mongke
but was playing for time. The Mongol Empire did not cause any harm to his plan to recapture Constantinople
from the hands of the Latins
who also sent their envoy to the Mongols. Vatatzes' successors, the Palaiologan
emperors of the restored Byzantine Empire
, made an alliance with the Mongols, giving their princesses in marriage to the Mongol khans.
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Azerbaijan and Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
garrison was stationed near Ankara
Ankara
Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after Istanbul. The city has a mean elevation of , and as of 2010 the metropolitan area in the entire Ankara Province had a population of 4.4 million....
. Remains of the Mongol cultural heritage still can be seen in Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, including tombs of a Mongol governor and a son of Hulegu.
By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks due to the collapse of the Seljuk dynasty in Rum. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols through declining Seljuk Sultans. The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Ilkhanids. The Osmanli ruler Osman I
Osman I
Osman I or Othman I or El-Gazi Sultan Osman Ghazi, or Osman Bey or I. Osman, Osman Gazi Han), nicknamed "Kara" for his courage, was the leader of the Ottoman Turks, and the founder of the dynasty that established and ruled the Ottoman Empire...
was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320's, for it bears the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugul". Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to be a sovereign
Sovereign
A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority within its jurisdiction.Sovereign may also refer to:*Monarch, the sovereign of a monarchy*Sovereign Bank, banking institution in the United States*Sovereign...
, it can be considered that Osmanli became independent of the Mongol Khans.
Early relations
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
managed to reassert their control in Western and Northern Anatolia. After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin Crusaders
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and conquered the Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire...
, two Byzantine successor states were established: the Empire of Nicaea
Empire of Nicaea
The Empire of Nicaea was the largest of the three Byzantine Greek successor states founded by the aristocracy of the Byzantine Empire that fled after Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade...
, and the Despotate of Epirus
Despotate of Epirus
The Despotate or Principality of Epirus was one of the Byzantine Greek successor states of the Byzantine Empire that emerged in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. It claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Byzantine Empire, along with the Empire of Nicaea, and the Empire of Trebizond...
. A third one, the Empire of Trebizond
Empire of Trebizond
The Empire of Trebizond, founded in April 1204, was one of three Byzantine successor states of the Byzantine Empire. However, the creation of the Empire of Trebizond was not directly related to the capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, rather it had broken away from the Byzantine Empire...
was created a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople by Alexios I of Trebizond
Alexios I of Trebizond
Alexios I Megas Komnenos or Alexius I Comnenus was Emperor of Trebizond from 1204 to 1222. He was the eldest son of Manuel Komnenos and of Rusudan, daughter of George III of Georgia. He was thus a grandson of the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos I. Andronikos was dethroned and killed in 1185...
. Of these three successor states, Trebizond and Nicaea stood near the Mongolian Empire. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Greek States and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
Sultanate of Rûm
The Sultanate of Rum , also known as the Anatolian Seljuk State , was a Turkic state centered in in Anatolia, with capitals first at İznik and then at Konya. Since the court of the sultanate was highly mobile, cities like Kayseri and Sivas also functioned at times as capitals...
, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.
During the Military governor Chormaqan
Chormaqan
Chormaqan was one of the most famous generals of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He was also a member of the keshik....
’s tenture in Persia, no hostilities occurred with the Seljuk Turks. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I and his immediate successor Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II swore an oath of vassalage with the payment of at least token tribute in the name of Ogedei Qaghan. However, the Mongols
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
raided part of Greater Armenia which was under the Sultanate of Rum in 1238.
After the death of Ogedei in 1241, Kaykhusraw took the opportunity to terminate the tributary status of his realm, believing he is strong enough to resist the Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
. Chormaqan’s successor Baiju
Baiju
Baiju was a Mongol commander in Persia appointed by Ögedei Khan to succeed Chormagan, and expand Mongol power further in that area....
summoned him to resubmit Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
to its tributary status. The Sultan rejected his demands to make him go to Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
in person, give hostages, and accept a Mongol darugachi. When the Sultan refused, Baiju declared war. The Seljuks invaded the Kingdom of Georgia
Kingdom of Georgia
The Kingdom of Georgia was a medieval monarchy established in AD 978 by Bagrat III.It flourished during the 11th and 12th centuries, the so-called "golden age" of the history of Georgia. It fell to the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, but managed to re-assert sovereignty by 1327...
, part of the Mongol Empire.
Fall of Karin
Baiju’s army attacked Karin in relation to Kaykhusraw’s disobedience in 1241. Before sacking of the city, Baiju demanded the submission of it. The inhabitants of the city bullied the Mongol envoy sent by him. Since the city decided to resist and defied the Mongol diplomacy, it is enclosed with the siege machines. In two months, the Mongols took it and punished its residents. Aware of the Seljuk power in Anaotlia, Baiju returned to Mughan plain without advancing further deep.Campaign in Erzurum
Baiju advanced to Erzurum with a contingent of Georgian and Armenian warriors under Awag and Shansheh in 1243. They besieged the city of Erzurum when its governor Yakut refused to surrender it. With the power of twelve catapults and the bravery of the Mongols, Baiju stormed Erzurum.When the reports of the attack on Erzurum reported to him, Kaykhusraw summoned his armed forces at Konya. He accepted the challenge by sending a war message, defying Baiju that his army took only one of his many cities.
Köse Dağ
The Seljuk Sultan made an alliance with all nations surrounding him. The King of Lesser ArmeniaLesser Armenia
Lesser Armenia , also known as Armenia Minor and Armenia Inferior, refers to the Armenian populated regions, primarily to the West and North-West of the ancient Armenian Kingdom...
(Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia , also known as the Cilician Armenia, Kingdom of Cilician Armenia or New Armenia, was an independent principality formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia...
) promised him to send a contingent; however, it is not certain they really engaged in his struggle with the Mongols. Kaykhusraw received the military support from the Empire of Trebizond
Empire of Trebizond
The Empire of Trebizond, founded in April 1204, was one of three Byzantine successor states of the Byzantine Empire. However, the creation of the Empire of Trebizond was not directly related to the capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, rather it had broken away from the Byzantine Empire...
and the Ayyubid Sultan at Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
, and the Frankish
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
mercenaries participated in the campaign. Because of little reliable information, it is difficult to measure the opposing troops. But the Seljuk force was larger than the Mongols.
Kaykhusraw advanced from Konya
Konya
Konya is a city in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The metropolitan area in the entire Konya Province had a population of 1,036,027 as of 2010, making the city seventh most populous in Turkey.-Etymology:...
some 200 miles up to Köse Dağ. The Mongolian army entered the area in June 1243 and awaited the march of the Seljuks and their allies. The early stage of the battle was indecisive. The Sultan’s forces suffered the greater casualties and he decided to withdraw at night. Pursuing him, Baiju received the submission of Erzinjan, Divrigi and Sivas en route.
The Mongols set up their camp near Sivas. When the Mongols penetrated into Kayseri
Kayseri
Kayseri is a large and industrialized city in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Kayseri Province. The city of Kayseri, as defined by the boundaries of Kayseri Metropolitan Municipality, is structurally composed of five metropolitan districts, the two core districts of Kocasinan and...
, it chose to resist them. After a short resistance, it fell to the invaders. Hearing of the disaster at Köse Dağ, Hethum I of Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia quickly made his peace with the Mongols in 1243 and sent his brother Sembat
Sempad the Constable
Sempad the Constable was a noble in Cilician Armenia, an older brother of King Hetoum I. He was an important figure in Cilicia, acting as a diplomat, judge, and military officer, holding the title of Constable or Sparapet, supreme commander of the Armenian armed forces...
to the Mongol court of Karakorum
Karakorum
Karakorum was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery...
in 1247 to negotiate an alliance with the Mongolian Emperor Guyuk
Güyük Khan
Güyük was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. As the eldest son of Ögedei Khan and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he reigned from 1246 to 1248...
.
Peace of Sivas
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
n Qaghan, fearing of the potential punitive expedition because they involved in the battle of Köse Dağ.
In the Empire of Nicaea
Empire of Nicaea
The Empire of Nicaea was the largest of the three Byzantine Greek successor states founded by the aristocracy of the Byzantine Empire that fled after Constantinople was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade...
John III Doukas Vatatzes
John III Doukas Vatatzes
John III Doukas Vatatzes, Latinized as Ducas Vatatzes |Nymphaion]]) was emperor of Nicaea 1221–1254.-Life:John Doukas Vatatzes was probably the son of the general Basileios Vatatzes, Duke of Thrace, who died in 1193, and his wife, an unnamed daughter of Isaakios Angelos and cousin of the Emperors...
prepared for the coming Mongol threat. However, Vatatzes had sent envoys to the Qaghans Guyuk and Mongke
Möngke Khan
Möngke Khan , born Möngke, , was the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from July 1, 1251 – August 11, 1259. He was the first Great Khan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign...
but was playing for time. The Mongol Empire did not cause any harm to his plan to recapture Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
from the hands of the Latins
Latin Empire
The Latin Empire or Latin Empire of Constantinople is the name given by historians to the feudal Crusader state founded by the leaders of the Fourth Crusade on lands captured from the Byzantine Empire. It was established after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 and lasted until 1261...
who also sent their envoy to the Mongols. Vatatzes' successors, the Palaiologan
Palaiologos
Palaiologos , often latinized as Palaeologus, was a Byzantine Greek noble family, which produced the last ruling dynasty of the Byzantine Empire. After the Fourth Crusade, members of the family fled to the neighboring Empire of Nicaea, where Michael VIII Palaiologos became co-emperor in 1259,...
emperors of the restored Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
, made an alliance with the Mongols, giving their princesses in marriage to the Mongol khans.