Martin Nowak
Encyclopedia
Martin A. Nowak is Professor of Biology and Mathematics and Director of the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics at Harvard University
.
, and earned his Ph. D. in 1989, working with Peter Schuster
on quasi-species theory
and with Karl Sigmund
on evolution
of cooperation. In 1989, he moved to Oxford
as Erwin Schrödinger
Scholar to work with Robert May
, becoming Head of Mathematical Biology in 1995 and Professor of Mathematical Biology in 1997. In 1998 he moved to the IAS at Princeton
to establish the first program in Theoretical Biology there. In 2003, Nowak was recruited to Harvard University
as Professor of Mathematics and Biology. He is Director of the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics http://www.ped.fas.harvard.edu which was funded with a $30 million pledge by Jeffrey Epstein
, a friend of Nowak who had supported his work in the past.
Nowak is interested in all aspects of mathematical biology. In particular, he works on the dynamics of infectious diseases, cancer genetics, the evolution of cooperation and human language. He has published more than 290 papers and is on the editorial board of various journals. His first book, Virus Dynamics (written with Robert May) was published by Oxford University Press, 2000. Nowak is a corresponding member of the Austrian academy of sciences
. He won the Weldon Memorial Prize
, the Albert Wander Prize, the Akira Okubo Prize, the David Starr Jordan Prize and the Henry Dale Prize. His 2006 book Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life was published in 2006 to critical acclaim and won the Association of American Publishers
R.R. Hawkins Award for the Outstanding Professional, Reference or Scholarly Work of 2006.
Nowak was co-director with Sarah Coakley
of the Evolution and Theology of Cooperation project at Harvard University
, sponsored by the Templeton Foundation. He is also a member of the Board of Advisers of the Templeton Foundation. In a lecture given at Harvard in March 2007 called "Evolution and Christianity", Nowak, a Roman Catholic, argues that "Science and religion are two essential components in the search for truth. Denying either is a barren approach."
He has over 300 scientific publications, of which 40 are in Nature
and 15 in Science
.http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~ped/people/faculty/all_publications.html
In 2010 a paper by Nowak, EO Wilson and Corina Tarnita, which was featured on the front cover of Nature
, argued that standard natural selection theory represents a simpler and superior approach to kin selection
theory in the evolution of eusociality
. This work has led to many comments including strong criticism from the proponents of inclusive fitness theory. Nowak maintains that the findings of the paper are conclusive and that the field of social evolution should move beyond the limitations imposed by inclusive fitness theory.
Manfred Milinski
in Nature describes the book as "part autobiography, part textbook, and reads like a best-selling novel" and suggests that whereas Nowak is right that the theories of kin selection and punishment need revisiting, it is too soon to tell whether his bold ideas will hold up to empirical testing. On the Nowak/Tarnita/Wilson paper Milinski says: "I anticipate that a better mathematical formulation of social evolution theory will be found that includes relatedness, is compatible with existing evidence and includes Hamilton's rule as a rule of thumb."
David Willetts
in the FT
describes the book as an "excellent example" of using the nexus of evolutionary biology, game theory and neuroscience to understand the development of cooperation in society, and suggests that "all politicians can draw inspiration and ideas from the intellectual resources of this exciting approach"
In 1990 Nowak and Robert May
proposed a mathematical model which explained the puzzling delay between HIV
infection and AIDS
in terms of the evolution of different strains of the virus during individual infections, to the point where the genetic diversity of the virus reaches a threshold whereby the immune system can no longer control it.
This detailed quantitative approach depended on assumptions about the biology of HIV which were subsequently confirmed by experiment.
In a paper in Science in 2006 Nowak enunciated and unified the mathematical rules for the five understood bases of the evolution of cooperation (kin selection
, direct reciprocity
, indirect reciprocity
, network reciprocity
, and group selection
). Nowak suggests that evolution is constructive because of cooperation, and that we might add “natural cooperation” as a third fundamental principle of evolution beside mutation and natural selection.
In a paper featured on the front cover of Nature
Nowak and colleagues demonstrated that the transition of irregular verbs to regular verbs in English over time obeys a simple inverse-square law
, thus providing one of the first quantitative laws in the evolution of language.
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
.
Career
Martin Nowak studied biochemistry and mathematics at the University of ViennaUniversity of Vienna
The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world...
, and earned his Ph. D. in 1989, working with Peter Schuster
Peter Schuster
Peter K. Schuster is a renowned theoretical chemist, known for his work with the German Nobel Laureate Manfred Eigen in developing the quasispecies model...
on quasi-species theory
Quasispecies model
The quasispecies model is a description of the process of the Darwinian evolution of certain self-replicating entities within the framework of physical chemistry...
and with Karl Sigmund
Karl Sigmund
Karl Sigmund is a Professor of Mathematics at the University of Vienna and one of the pioneers of evolutionary game theory.-Career:...
on evolution
Evolution
Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth...
of cooperation. In 1989, he moved to Oxford
University of Oxford
The University of Oxford is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096...
as Erwin Schrödinger
Erwin Schrödinger
Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger was an Austrian physicist and theoretical biologist who was one of the fathers of quantum mechanics, and is famed for a number of important contributions to physics, especially the Schrödinger equation, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933...
Scholar to work with Robert May
Robert May, Baron May of Oxford
Robert McCredie May, Baron May of Oxford, OM, AC, PRS is an Australian scientist who has been Chief Scientific Adviser to the UK Government, President of the Royal Society, and a Professor at Sydney and Princeton. He now holds joint professorships at Oxford, and Imperial College London...
, becoming Head of Mathematical Biology in 1995 and Professor of Mathematical Biology in 1997. In 1998 he moved to the IAS at Princeton
Institute for Advanced Study
The Institute for Advanced Study, located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States, is an independent postgraduate center for theoretical research and intellectual inquiry. It was founded in 1930 by Abraham Flexner...
to establish the first program in Theoretical Biology there. In 2003, Nowak was recruited to Harvard University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
as Professor of Mathematics and Biology. He is Director of the Program for Evolutionary Dynamics http://www.ped.fas.harvard.edu which was funded with a $30 million pledge by Jeffrey Epstein
Jeffrey Epstein
Jeffrey Edward Epstein is an American financier. He served 13 months in jail of an 18-month sentence as a convicted sex offender in the state of Florida for soliciting an underage girl for prostitution...
, a friend of Nowak who had supported his work in the past.
Nowak is interested in all aspects of mathematical biology. In particular, he works on the dynamics of infectious diseases, cancer genetics, the evolution of cooperation and human language. He has published more than 290 papers and is on the editorial board of various journals. His first book, Virus Dynamics (written with Robert May) was published by Oxford University Press, 2000. Nowak is a corresponding member of the Austrian academy of sciences
Austrian Academy of Sciences
The Austrian Academy of Sciences is a legal entity under the special protection of the Federal Republic of Austria. According to the statutes of the Academy its mission is to promote the sciences and humanities in every respect and in every field, particularly in fundamental research...
. He won the Weldon Memorial Prize
Weldon Memorial Prize
The Weldon Memorial Prize, also known as the Weldon Memorial Prize and Medal, is given yearly by the University of Oxford. The prize is to be awarded...
, the Albert Wander Prize, the Akira Okubo Prize, the David Starr Jordan Prize and the Henry Dale Prize. His 2006 book Evolutionary Dynamics: Exploring the Equations of Life was published in 2006 to critical acclaim and won the Association of American Publishers
Association of American Publishers
The Association of American Publishers is the national trade association of the American book publishing industry. AAP has more than 300 members, including most of the major commercial publishers in the United States, as well as smaller and non-profit publishers, university presses and scholarly...
R.R. Hawkins Award for the Outstanding Professional, Reference or Scholarly Work of 2006.
Nowak was co-director with Sarah Coakley
Sarah Coakley
Sarah Coakley is an Anglican systematic theologian and philosopher of religion with wide interdisciplinary interests.-Life and work:...
of the Evolution and Theology of Cooperation project at Harvard University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
, sponsored by the Templeton Foundation. He is also a member of the Board of Advisers of the Templeton Foundation. In a lecture given at Harvard in March 2007 called "Evolution and Christianity", Nowak, a Roman Catholic, argues that "Science and religion are two essential components in the search for truth. Denying either is a barren approach."
He has over 300 scientific publications, of which 40 are in Nature
Nature (journal)
Nature, first published on 4 November 1869, is ranked the world's most cited interdisciplinary scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports...
and 15 in Science
Science (journal)
Science is the academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is one of the world's top scientific journals....
.http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~ped/people/faculty/all_publications.html
In 2010 a paper by Nowak, EO Wilson and Corina Tarnita, which was featured on the front cover of Nature
Nature (journal)
Nature, first published on 4 November 1869, is ranked the world's most cited interdisciplinary scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports...
, argued that standard natural selection theory represents a simpler and superior approach to kin selection
Kin selection
Kin selection refers to apparent strategies in evolution that favor the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of group/kin selection...
theory in the evolution of eusociality
Eusociality
Eusociality is a term used for the highest level of social organization in a hierarchical classification....
. This work has led to many comments including strong criticism from the proponents of inclusive fitness theory. Nowak maintains that the findings of the paper are conclusive and that the field of social evolution should move beyond the limitations imposed by inclusive fitness theory.
Supercooperators
In 2011 his book Supercooperators: The Mathematics of Evolution, Altruism and Human Behaviour (Or, Why We Need Each Other to Succeed) was published, co-authored with Roger Highfield.Manfred Milinski
Manfred Milinski
Manfred Milinski is a German Biologist who is Director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology-Career:He was born in 1950 in Oldenburg. He studied biology and mathematics in Bielefeld and Bochum, went to Oxford University on a Heisenberg Scholarship and in 1987 became Professor of...
in Nature describes the book as "part autobiography, part textbook, and reads like a best-selling novel" and suggests that whereas Nowak is right that the theories of kin selection and punishment need revisiting, it is too soon to tell whether his bold ideas will hold up to empirical testing. On the Nowak/Tarnita/Wilson paper Milinski says: "I anticipate that a better mathematical formulation of social evolution theory will be found that includes relatedness, is compatible with existing evidence and includes Hamilton's rule as a rule of thumb."
David Willetts
David Willetts
David Linsay Willetts is a British Conservative Party politician and the Minister of State for Universities and Science. He is the Member of Parliament representing the constituency of Havant in Hampshire.-Education:...
in the FT
Financial Times
The Financial Times is an international business newspaper. It is a morning daily newspaper published in London and printed in 24 cities around the world. Its primary rival is the Wall Street Journal, published in New York City....
describes the book as an "excellent example" of using the nexus of evolutionary biology, game theory and neuroscience to understand the development of cooperation in society, and suggests that "all politicians can draw inspiration and ideas from the intellectual resources of this exciting approach"
Research interests
Professor Nowak's current research interests include:- Somatic evolution of cancerCancerCancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
, geneticGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
instability, tumorTumorA tumor or tumour is commonly used as a synonym for a neoplasm that appears enlarged in size. Tumor is not synonymous with cancer...
suppressor genes - Stem cellStem cellThis article is about the cell type. For the medical therapy, see Stem Cell TreatmentsStem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms, that can divide and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells...
s, tissueTissue (biology)Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. These are called tissues because of their identical functioning...
architecture - VirusVirusA virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es, infectious diseaseInfectious diseaseInfectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
s, immunologyImmunologyImmunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ; the... - QuasispeciesQuasispecies modelThe quasispecies model is a description of the process of the Darwinian evolution of certain self-replicating entities within the framework of physical chemistry...
- Genetic redundancyGenetic redundancyGenetic redundancy is a term typically used to describe situations where a given biochemical function is redundantly encoded by two or more genes. In these cases, mutations in one of these genes will have a smaller effect on the fitness of the organism than expected from the genes’ function....
- Evolution of languageEvolutionary linguisticsEvolutionary linguistics is the scientific study of the origins and development of language. The main challenge in this research is the lack of empirical data: spoken language leaves practically no traces. This led to an abandonment of the field for more than a century...
- Evolutionary game theoryEvolutionary game theoryEvolutionary game theory is the application of Game Theory to evolving populations of lifeforms in biology. EGT is useful in this context by defining a framework of contests, strategies and analytics into which Darwinian competition can be modelled. It originated in 1973 with John Maynard Smith...
- Evolutionary graph theoryEvolutionary graph theoryEvolutionary graph theory is an area of research lying at the intersection of graph theory, probability theory, and mathematical biology. Evolutionary graph theory is an approach to studying how topology affects evolution of a population...
- Evolution of cooperation and fairness
- Prelife
In 1990 Nowak and Robert May
Robert May, Baron May of Oxford
Robert McCredie May, Baron May of Oxford, OM, AC, PRS is an Australian scientist who has been Chief Scientific Adviser to the UK Government, President of the Royal Society, and a Professor at Sydney and Princeton. He now holds joint professorships at Oxford, and Imperial College London...
proposed a mathematical model which explained the puzzling delay between HIV
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome , a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive...
infection and AIDS
AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus...
in terms of the evolution of different strains of the virus during individual infections, to the point where the genetic diversity of the virus reaches a threshold whereby the immune system can no longer control it.
This detailed quantitative approach depended on assumptions about the biology of HIV which were subsequently confirmed by experiment.
In a paper in Science in 2006 Nowak enunciated and unified the mathematical rules for the five understood bases of the evolution of cooperation (kin selection
Kin selection
Kin selection refers to apparent strategies in evolution that favor the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of group/kin selection...
, direct reciprocity
Reciprocity (evolution)
Reciprocity in evolutionary biology refers to mechanisms whereby the evolution of cooperative or altruistic behaviour may be favoured by the probability of future mutual interactions...
, indirect reciprocity
Reciprocity (evolution)
Reciprocity in evolutionary biology refers to mechanisms whereby the evolution of cooperative or altruistic behaviour may be favoured by the probability of future mutual interactions...
, network reciprocity
Reciprocity (evolution)
Reciprocity in evolutionary biology refers to mechanisms whereby the evolution of cooperative or altruistic behaviour may be favoured by the probability of future mutual interactions...
, and group selection
Group selection
In evolutionary biology, group selection refers to the idea that alleles can become fixed or spread in a population because of the benefits they bestow on groups, regardless of the alleles' effect on the fitness of individuals within that group....
). Nowak suggests that evolution is constructive because of cooperation, and that we might add “natural cooperation” as a third fundamental principle of evolution beside mutation and natural selection.
In a paper featured on the front cover of Nature
Nature (journal)
Nature, first published on 4 November 1869, is ranked the world's most cited interdisciplinary scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports...
Nowak and colleagues demonstrated that the transition of irregular verbs to regular verbs in English over time obeys a simple inverse-square law
Inverse-square law
In physics, an inverse-square law is any physical law stating that a specified physical quantity or strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity....
, thus providing one of the first quantitative laws in the evolution of language.
Education
- 1975-1983 Albertus Magnus Gymnasium in Vienna
- 1983-1989 University of Vienna, studying Biochemistry and Mathematics
- 1985 First Diploma: Biochemistry (with highest honors)
- 1987 Diploma thesis: Theoretical Chemistry Second Diploma: Biochemistry (with highest honors)
- 1987-1989 Doctoral thesis: Mathematics
- 1989 Doctor rerum naturalium (sub auspiciis praesidentis)
Vienna
- 1987-1988 Institute for Theoretical Chemistry, Professor Peter SchusterPeter SchusterPeter K. Schuster is a renowned theoretical chemist, known for his work with the German Nobel Laureate Manfred Eigen in developing the quasispecies model...
- 1987-1989 Institute for Mathematics, Professor Karl SigmundKarl SigmundKarl Sigmund is a Professor of Mathematics at the University of Vienna and one of the pioneers of evolutionary game theory.-Career:...
- Sept-Nov 1988 Max Planck Institute for Biophysical ChemistryMax Planck Institute for Biophysical ChemistryThe Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen is a research institute of the Max Planck Society. Currently, 812 people work at the Institute, 353 of them are scientists....
, Göttingen, Germany, Professor Manfred EigenManfred EigenManfred Eigen is a German biophysical chemist who won the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions.-Career:... - 1993 "Habilitation" at the Institute of Mathematics, University of Vienna (Universitäts Dozent)
Oxford
- 1989-1990 Erwin Schrödinger Scholarship to work with Professor Sir Robert MayRobert May, Baron May of OxfordRobert McCredie May, Baron May of Oxford, OM, AC, PRS is an Australian scientist who has been Chief Scientific Adviser to the UK Government, President of the Royal Society, and a Professor at Sydney and Princeton. He now holds joint professorships at Oxford, and Imperial College London...
- 1990-1992 Guy Newton Junior Research Fellow, Wolfson CollegeWolfson College, OxfordWolfson College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Located in north Oxford along the River Cherwell, Wolfson is an all-graduate college with over sixty governing body fellows, in addition to both research and junior research fellows. It caters to a wide range of...
- 1992-1998 Wellcome TrustWellcome TrustThe Wellcome Trust was established in 1936 as an independent charity funding research to improve human and animal health. With an endowment of around £13.9 billion, it is the United Kingdom's largest non-governmental source of funds for biomedical research...
Senior Research Fellow in Biomedical Sciences - 1993-1996 E. P. Abraham Junior Research Fellow, Keble College
- 1995-1998 Head of Mathematical Biology Group in the Department of Zoology
- 1996-1998 Senior Research Fellow, Keble College
- 1997-1998 Professor of Mathematical Biology, Department of Zoology
Princeton
- 1998-2003 Head, Program in Theoretical Biology Institute for Advanced StudyInstitute for Advanced StudyThe Institute for Advanced Study, located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States, is an independent postgraduate center for theoretical research and intellectual inquiry. It was founded in 1930 by Abraham Flexner...
. From 1999-2003 he was Associated Faculty, Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and from 2000-2003 also Associated Faculty, Program in Applied and Computational Mathematics
Harvard
- 2003- Professor of Mathematics and Biology and Director, Program for Evolutionary DynamicsEvolutionary dynamicsEvolutionary dynamics is the study of the mathematical principles according to which life has evolved and continues to evolve. In this area, Evolution has become a mathematical theory, and any idea of an evolutionary process or mechanism should be studied in the context of the mathematical...
Prizes, named lectures and memberships
- 1990 Prize from the Austrian Science Minister
- 1990 Promotion sub auspiciis praesidentis rei publicae
- 1995 Richardson Lecture, Keble College, Oxford
- 1996 Weldon Memorial Prize
- 1997 Shanks Lecture, Vanderbilt University
- 1998 Albert Wander Prize and Memorial Lecture, University of Bern
- 1999 Roger F. Murray Prize, Institute for Quantitative Research in Finance
- 1999 Akira Okubo Prize, International and Japanese Society for Mathematical Biology
- 1999 Erwin Schrödinger Lecture, University of ViennaUniversity of ViennaThe University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world...
- 1999 Porter Lecture, Rice University
- 2000 Gergen Lecture, Duke University
- 2001 David Starr Jordan Prize, Stanford University, Cornell University, Indiana University
- 2001 Rainich Lectures, University of Michigan
- 2001 Corresponding Member of the Austrian Academy of SciencesAustrian Academy of SciencesThe Austrian Academy of Sciences is a legal entity under the special protection of the Federal Republic of Austria. According to the statutes of the Academy its mission is to promote the sciences and humanities in every respect and in every field, particularly in fundamental research...
- 2001 Benjamin Pinkel Lecture, University of Pennsylvania
- 2003 Henry DaleHenry Hallett DaleSir Henry Hallett Dale, OM, GBE, PRS was an English pharmacologist and physiologist. For his study of acetylcholine as agent in the chemical transmission of nerve impulses he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Otto Loewi.-Biography:Henry Hallett Dale was born in Islington,...
Prize, The Royal InstitutionRoyal InstitutionThe Royal Institution of Great Britain is an organization devoted to scientific education and research, based in London.-Overview:...
, London - 2007 Association of American PublishersAssociation of American PublishersThe Association of American Publishers is the national trade association of the American book publishing industry. AAP has more than 300 members, including most of the major commercial publishers in the United States, as well as smaller and non-profit publishers, university presses and scholarly...
R.R. Hawkins Award for the Outstanding Professional, Reference or Scholarly Work of 2006 - 2008 Coxeter Lectures, Fields Institute, Toronto
Editorial Work
- Editorial board member: Proceedings of the Royal Society London, Journal of Theoretical BiologyJournal of Theoretical BiologyThe Journal of Theoretical Biology is a scientific journal about theoretical biology; dealing with theoretical issues, as well as mathematical and computational aspects of biology. Some research areas covered by the papers published in the journal are population genetics, morphogenesis,...
, Journal of Theoretical Medicine, Journal of Difference Equations, International Journal of Bifurcation and ChaosInternational Journal of Bifurcation and ChaosInternational Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos is a journal that has been published by World Scientific since its founding in 1991. It covers chaos and nonlinear science in a diverse range of fields in Applied Sciences, such as astronomy and zoology, as well as Engineering, such as in aerospace...
. - Referee: NatureNature (journal)Nature, first published on 4 November 1869, is ranked the world's most cited interdisciplinary scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports...
, ScienceScience (journal)Science is the academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is one of the world's top scientific journals....
, Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesProceedings of the National Academy of SciencesThe Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, usually referred to as PNAS, is the official journal of the United States National Academy of Sciences...
, and others.
External links
- Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, Harvard University
- Nowak biography, Harvard University
- Scientist at Work | Martin Nowak. In Games, an Insight Into the Rules of Evolution, The New York Times, 31 July 2007