International psychology
Encyclopedia
The dream of a unified human community seems now within our reach yet still beyond our grasp. Global communication has transformed us and grown our awareness of human diversity. Local, regional and national identities have expanded to include species-wide co-identification as fellow human beings. Yet our world continues to struggle with ignorance and intolerance, misunderstanding, and violence.
Instantaneous worldwide communication affords new opportunities for the creative exchange of diverse ways of knowing. In many respects, the online environment is akin to a spirit realm that transcends the boundaries of physical space, wherein we are now able to “upload” ourselves into an interconnected global human community. A new psychology is needed to accompany this transition from the factionalism of region and nation to the new “glocal” reality.
International Psychology is an emerging paradigm that attempts to integrate indigenous, holistic, and scientific psychologies. International psychology seeks to move academic psychology beyond a one-size-fits-all model that exalts the individual self, intentionally embracing the interconnectedness of the global Earth community, and working with the dreams and aspirations of diverse micro-cultural groups while remaining mindful of the emerging macro-culture of our global interdependence.
International or global psychology is an emerging branch of psychology
that focuses on the worldwide enterprise of psychology in terms of communication and networking, cross-cultural comparison, scholarship
, practice, and pedagogy. Often, the terms international psychology, global psychology, and cross-cultural psychology are used interchangeably, but their purposes are subtly and importantly different: Global means worldwide, international means across and between nations, cross-cultural means across cultures. In contrast, the term “multicultural” is more often used to refer to ethnic and other cultural differences
existing within a given nation rather than to global or international comparisons. This entry focuses predominantly on international psychology.
. It advocates committed involvement in worldwide and regional psychology and policy-making organizations such as the International Union of Psychology Science (IUPsyS: it includes 71 national psychology associations), the International Association of Applied Psychology
(IAAP), the International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP), the International Council of Psychologists (ICP), the European Federation
of Psychologists’ Associations (EFPA: it includes 31 national psychology associations), the Sociedad Interamericana de Psicología (SIP), and many others.
In contrast, the term “global psychology” is more frequently used to refer to the worldwide investigation of global issues and phenomena of interest from a psychological and psychocultural point of view. Examples include the investigation of subjective well being, identification and treatment of mental health
problems, the psychological dimensions of family systems, gender role
s and gender-typed behavior, childrearing practices, cognitive and emotional functioning, international attitudes, value system
s, intergroup conflicts, threats to the natural environment, societal transformation and national development, the struggles of disempowered groups (such as women, children, and immigrants and refugees) as seen in global perspective.
Cross-cultural psychology may be defined as the comparative study of behavior and mental processes in different cultures. It aims to measure the psychological phenomena across cultures and looks for patterns, generalizability, and culture-specific differentiation. An example would be the investigation of child-rearing practices and their psychological consequences among distinctly different groups. Cross-cultural psychology focuses on the relationship between psychology and culture (such as language, traditions, and socialization practices) and how it affects individual human functioning. In this respect, cross-cultural psychology constitutes one important element of global psychology. Cross-cultural psychology emerged during the 1960s-1970s as a separate field of study
with a definite identity; it is thus older than the more general field of international psychology, which is only now emerging as a distinct discipline.
The Oxford English Dictionary (1993) defines global as, “…pertaining to or involving the world, worldwide” (p. 1101) and international as, “Existing, occurring, or carried on between nations…Agreed on by many nations; used by, or able to be used by (the people of) many nations” (p. 1397). At present the term international psychology is in wider use although Stevens and Gielen (2007) have proposed the preferential usage of the term global psychology in order to underline the increasingly global nature of psychological phenomena and problems together with their scientific investigation
and efforts to ameliorate them. More generally, the emergence and intensification of an international psychology movement is part and parcel of the broader process of globalization in the economic, technological, sociocultural, political and ecological spheres. It reflects and makes use of the increasingly global flow of information, ideas, and peoples.
(1832-1920), for instance, the father of scientific psychology, supervised approximately 190 doctoral students from at least 10 countries. Similarly, the First International Congress of Physiological Psychology in 1889, in Paris
, included more than 200 participants from 20 countries. Although psychology developed first in Europe
, it soon began to prosper in the United States
as well. Altogether, modern scientific psychology remained a predominantly western enterprise till well after World War II
. During the 1930s many prominent psychologists from Germany and Austria emigrated to the United States. As a result of these developments, psychology in the United States assumed worldwide leadership, but also grew increasingly monocultural, monolingual, and ethnocentric in character (see David and Buchanan, 2003, for a timeline of important events in the history of international psychology). However, there is now an increased awareness among many U.S. psychologists that U.S. psychology must take into account global developments in order to fully represent the world of psychology. For instance, the American Psychological Association
established in 1997 an International Psychology Division (Division 52), which already has close to 1,000 members.
During the last three to four decades, especially, psychology has expanded worldwide and assumed a global presence. Stevens and Gielen (2007) estimate that the total number of psychologists has surpassed 1 million. This estimate is based on local definitions of what it means to be a professional psychologist: in most countries the prerequisite is a Masters degree or diploma in psychology, whereas in some others (e.g., Brazil) a Bachelor’s degree and a period of supervised practice enable one to gain admission to a licensing examination. The global estimate includes well over 300,000 psychologists in Europe, at least 200,000 in Latin America, and 277,000 in the United States. In addition, psychology has gained ground in East and Southeast Asia
and is increasingly visible in some Muslim countries such as Turkey
, Egypt
, Jordan
, and Iran
(Ahmed & Gielen, 1998; Stevens & Wedding, 2004). In sub-Saharan Africa
, psychology is well developed in South Africa
, but less present in the other regions. For more detailed information, see the edited volume by Stevens and Wedding (2004) which includes analyses of the status of psychology in 27 countries located on all inhabited continents.
In general, psychology as a discipline has prospered in well-to-do and individualistic countries and cultures but it is frequently considered an unnecessary luxury in the poorer regions of the world where the treatment of physical health problems by modern healthcare workers and indigenous healers is likely to take precedence over the identification and treatment of mental health
problems (Leung & Zhang, 1995).
(IUPsyS) has seen an increase of new member countries from Africa
, Asia
, Eastern Europe
, and Latin America
in the past ten years; membership in such organizations represents a desire and need in these countries for networking, training, accreditation, expansion of scientific research, and international recognition (Stevens & Gielen, 2007).
Trends in global psychology point to the sustained growth, specialization, and feminization of psychology, and the emergence of contextually sensitive paradigms.
The number of psychologists, psychology students, and psychology programs worldwide continues to grow, proving that one of the goals of globalization is being met. However, much work is still to be done in order to bring psychology to underdeveloped areas, and to increase the resources and development of the field in countries where it has already taken hold (Adair & Kağitçibaşi, 1995).
Specialization is a growing trend, with each nation focusing specializations on its own needs and goals. Also, communication within these specializations is being facilitated through the World Wide Web
and the emergence and growth of specialized international organization
s and journals in many subfields of psychology. Although access to the Internet is often limited in less developed countries
, it has nevertheless improved in recent years.
Feminization in psychology is another trend, as women are beginning to dominate the field in Europe, Latin America, and the United States. A trend within this trend is the continued dominance of male psychologists within business and academia, whereas women tend to work more in school, counseling, and clinical settings.
Finally, with the globalization of psychology comes the demand for more culturally sensitive paradigms. Traditionally, psychology was taught in the Western context, reflecting the norms, values, and data of those particular regions. Increasing awareness that this psychology does not address global issues and therefore does not apply to some cultures has led to the call for indigenous psychologies, or at least an alternative psychology to the mainstream, reductionistic paradigm which may be applied to most, if not all, cultures (Kim, Yang, & Hwang, 2006). Prominent centers of indigenous psychology
include Mexico, the Philippines, South Korea
, and Taiwan.
in Psychology comparable to a Master’s level university education
of six years duration that includes supervised practice.
Some countries that currently have no regulation of the profession include: India
, Iran
, Japan
, Kenya
, Kuwait
, Nigeria
, Pakistan
, the Philippines
, Poland
, Russia
, Singapore
, Thailand
and Turkey
. Several of these countries are working toward licensing legislation, and several have developed ethical standards of practice to guide.
At present a considerable number of national psychology associations have adopted a code of ethics
such as, for instance, APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
. EFPA has adopted several codes of ethics in recent years, and the five Nordic countries
(Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) adopted a unified code of ethics in 1988, which they revised in 1998 to be more consistent with EFPA’s meta-code (Pettifor, 2007). Moreover, IUPsyS, IAAP, and IACCP are now working jointly toward a Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles of Psychologists through an Ad Hoc
Joint Committee
chaired by Janel Gauthier, Canada (see ww.iupsys.org for copies of the draft Declaration and various pertinent committee reports). It is hoped that the Declaration will be ratified in 2008 by the three sponsoring organizations.
. Consequently, one may safely predict that the cross-cultural, global, and international dimensions of psychology will become more prominent in the foreseeable future.
Instantaneous worldwide communication affords new opportunities for the creative exchange of diverse ways of knowing. In many respects, the online environment is akin to a spirit realm that transcends the boundaries of physical space, wherein we are now able to “upload” ourselves into an interconnected global human community. A new psychology is needed to accompany this transition from the factionalism of region and nation to the new “glocal” reality.
International Psychology is an emerging paradigm that attempts to integrate indigenous, holistic, and scientific psychologies. International psychology seeks to move academic psychology beyond a one-size-fits-all model that exalts the individual self, intentionally embracing the interconnectedness of the global Earth community, and working with the dreams and aspirations of diverse micro-cultural groups while remaining mindful of the emerging macro-culture of our global interdependence.
International or global psychology is an emerging branch of psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
that focuses on the worldwide enterprise of psychology in terms of communication and networking, cross-cultural comparison, scholarship
Scholarship
A scholarship is an award of financial aid for a student to further education. Scholarships are awarded on various criteria usually reflecting the values and purposes of the donor or founder of the award.-Types:...
, practice, and pedagogy. Often, the terms international psychology, global psychology, and cross-cultural psychology are used interchangeably, but their purposes are subtly and importantly different: Global means worldwide, international means across and between nations, cross-cultural means across cultures. In contrast, the term “multicultural” is more often used to refer to ethnic and other cultural differences
Cultural identity
Cultural identity is the identity of a group or culture, or of an individual as far as one is influenced by one's belonging to a group or culture. Cultural identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with, identity politics....
existing within a given nation rather than to global or international comparisons. This entry focuses predominantly on international psychology.
Definitions and scope
International psychology is concerned with the emergence and practice of psychology in different parts of the worldWorld
World is a common name for the whole of human civilization, specifically human experience, history, or the human condition in general, worldwide, i.e. anywhere on Earth....
. It advocates committed involvement in worldwide and regional psychology and policy-making organizations such as the International Union of Psychology Science (IUPsyS: it includes 71 national psychology associations), the International Association of Applied Psychology
Applied psychology
The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law...
(IAAP), the International Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP), the International Council of Psychologists (ICP), the European Federation
United States of Europe
Since the 1950s, European integration has seen the development of a supranational system of governance, as its institutions move further from the concept of simple intergovernmentalism. However, with the Maastricht Treaty of 1993, new intergovernmental elements have been introduced alongside the...
of Psychologists’ Associations (EFPA: it includes 31 national psychology associations), the Sociedad Interamericana de Psicología (SIP), and many others.
In contrast, the term “global psychology” is more frequently used to refer to the worldwide investigation of global issues and phenomena of interest from a psychological and psychocultural point of view. Examples include the investigation of subjective well being, identification and treatment of mental health
Mental health
Mental health describes either a level of cognitive or emotional well-being or an absence of a mental disorder. From perspectives of the discipline of positive psychology or holism mental health may include an individual's ability to enjoy life and procure a balance between life activities and...
problems, the psychological dimensions of family systems, gender role
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s and gender-typed behavior, childrearing practices, cognitive and emotional functioning, international attitudes, value system
Value system
A value system is a set of consistent ethic values and measures used for the purpose of ethical or ideological integrity. A well defined value system is a moral code.-Personal and communal:...
s, intergroup conflicts, threats to the natural environment, societal transformation and national development, the struggles of disempowered groups (such as women, children, and immigrants and refugees) as seen in global perspective.
Cross-cultural psychology may be defined as the comparative study of behavior and mental processes in different cultures. It aims to measure the psychological phenomena across cultures and looks for patterns, generalizability, and culture-specific differentiation. An example would be the investigation of child-rearing practices and their psychological consequences among distinctly different groups. Cross-cultural psychology focuses on the relationship between psychology and culture (such as language, traditions, and socialization practices) and how it affects individual human functioning. In this respect, cross-cultural psychology constitutes one important element of global psychology. Cross-cultural psychology emerged during the 1960s-1970s as a separate field of study
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
with a definite identity; it is thus older than the more general field of international psychology, which is only now emerging as a distinct discipline.
The Oxford English Dictionary (1993) defines global as, “…pertaining to or involving the world, worldwide” (p. 1101) and international as, “Existing, occurring, or carried on between nations…Agreed on by many nations; used by, or able to be used by (the people of) many nations” (p. 1397). At present the term international psychology is in wider use although Stevens and Gielen (2007) have proposed the preferential usage of the term global psychology in order to underline the increasingly global nature of psychological phenomena and problems together with their scientific investigation
Scientific method
Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of...
and efforts to ameliorate them. More generally, the emergence and intensification of an international psychology movement is part and parcel of the broader process of globalization in the economic, technological, sociocultural, political and ecological spheres. It reflects and makes use of the increasingly global flow of information, ideas, and peoples.
Foci
Some of the major foci of international psychology include:- The worldwide study of psychological processes and phenomena (e.g., Gielen & Chumachenko, 2004; Hofstede, 2001).
- Macro-level interventions and policy making, for example, international efforts to reduce HIV infectionsHIVHuman immunodeficiency virus is a lentivirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome , a condition in humans in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive...
based on psychological research (Wessells & Dawes, 2007). - Micro- level interventions, for example, counseling and psychotherapy, school psychologySchool psychologySchool psychology is a field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and learning problems...
, and interventions in organizations (e.g., Pedersen, Draguns, Lonner, & Trimble, 2002). - International networking and international psychology organizations and conferences, such as IUPsyS, IAAP, IACCP, EFPA, SIP, APA’s Division 52 – International Psychology (Merenda, 1995), and the Institute for International and Cross-Cultural PsychologyInstitute for International and Cross-Cultural PsychologyThe Institute for International and Cross-Cultural Psychology at St. Francis College, New York City was founded in 1998. During its 12 years of existence it has become a well known center for the advancement of cross-cultural psychology and international Psychology...
(IICCP). - Pedagogy and expansion of psychology curricula, for example, rewriting the history of psychologyHistory of psychologyThe history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the 1870s, when psychology developed as an independent scientific discipline in...
from a global point of view, together with corresponding changes in the curriculum (Brock, 2007; Marsella, 2007). - Establishing shared training standards, professional rehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:UserLogingulations, and codes of ethicsEthicsEthics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
(Pettifor, 2007).
History
Modern scientific psychology had an international dimension from its beginnings in the late 19th century. Wilhelm WundtWilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology"...
(1832-1920), for instance, the father of scientific psychology, supervised approximately 190 doctoral students from at least 10 countries. Similarly, the First International Congress of Physiological Psychology in 1889, in Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, included more than 200 participants from 20 countries. Although psychology developed first in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, it soon began to prosper in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
as well. Altogether, modern scientific psychology remained a predominantly western enterprise till well after World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. During the 1930s many prominent psychologists from Germany and Austria emigrated to the United States. As a result of these developments, psychology in the United States assumed worldwide leadership, but also grew increasingly monocultural, monolingual, and ethnocentric in character (see David and Buchanan, 2003, for a timeline of important events in the history of international psychology). However, there is now an increased awareness among many U.S. psychologists that U.S. psychology must take into account global developments in order to fully represent the world of psychology. For instance, the American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
established in 1997 an International Psychology Division (Division 52), which already has close to 1,000 members.
During the last three to four decades, especially, psychology has expanded worldwide and assumed a global presence. Stevens and Gielen (2007) estimate that the total number of psychologists has surpassed 1 million. This estimate is based on local definitions of what it means to be a professional psychologist: in most countries the prerequisite is a Masters degree or diploma in psychology, whereas in some others (e.g., Brazil) a Bachelor’s degree and a period of supervised practice enable one to gain admission to a licensing examination. The global estimate includes well over 300,000 psychologists in Europe, at least 200,000 in Latin America, and 277,000 in the United States. In addition, psychology has gained ground in East and Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
and is increasingly visible in some Muslim countries such as Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, Jordan
Jordan
Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...
, and Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
(Ahmed & Gielen, 1998; Stevens & Wedding, 2004). In sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
, psychology is well developed in South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
, but less present in the other regions. For more detailed information, see the edited volume by Stevens and Wedding (2004) which includes analyses of the status of psychology in 27 countries located on all inhabited continents.
In general, psychology as a discipline has prospered in well-to-do and individualistic countries and cultures but it is frequently considered an unnecessary luxury in the poorer regions of the world where the treatment of physical health problems by modern healthcare workers and indigenous healers is likely to take precedence over the identification and treatment of mental health
Mental health
Mental health describes either a level of cognitive or emotional well-being or an absence of a mental disorder. From perspectives of the discipline of positive psychology or holism mental health may include an individual's ability to enjoy life and procure a balance between life activities and...
problems (Leung & Zhang, 1995).
Trends
Perhaps the best measure of trends within international psychology is within its organizations, through new membership, conference topics, and cooperative research across borders. For example, the International Union of Psychological SciencePsychological science
Psychological Science is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal of the Association for Psychological Science , published by SAGE Publications. It is one of the most influential journals in psychology.-Publishings:...
(IUPsyS) has seen an increase of new member countries from Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
, Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is the eastern part of Europe. The term has widely disparate geopolitical, geographical, cultural and socioeconomic readings, which makes it highly context-dependent and even volatile, and there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region"...
, and Latin America
Latin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
in the past ten years; membership in such organizations represents a desire and need in these countries for networking, training, accreditation, expansion of scientific research, and international recognition (Stevens & Gielen, 2007).
Trends in global psychology point to the sustained growth, specialization, and feminization of psychology, and the emergence of contextually sensitive paradigms.
The number of psychologists, psychology students, and psychology programs worldwide continues to grow, proving that one of the goals of globalization is being met. However, much work is still to be done in order to bring psychology to underdeveloped areas, and to increase the resources and development of the field in countries where it has already taken hold (Adair & Kağitçibaşi, 1995).
Specialization is a growing trend, with each nation focusing specializations on its own needs and goals. Also, communication within these specializations is being facilitated through the World Wide Web
World Wide Web
The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet...
and the emergence and growth of specialized international organization
International organization
An intergovernmental organization, sometimes rendered as an international governmental organization and both abbreviated as IGO, is an organization composed primarily of sovereign states , or of other intergovernmental organizations...
s and journals in many subfields of psychology. Although access to the Internet is often limited in less developed countries
Developing country
A developing country, also known as a less-developed country, is a nation with a low level of material well-being. Since no single definition of the term developing country is recognized internationally, the levels of development may vary widely within so-called developing countries...
, it has nevertheless improved in recent years.
Feminization in psychology is another trend, as women are beginning to dominate the field in Europe, Latin America, and the United States. A trend within this trend is the continued dominance of male psychologists within business and academia, whereas women tend to work more in school, counseling, and clinical settings.
Finally, with the globalization of psychology comes the demand for more culturally sensitive paradigms. Traditionally, psychology was taught in the Western context, reflecting the norms, values, and data of those particular regions. Increasing awareness that this psychology does not address global issues and therefore does not apply to some cultures has led to the call for indigenous psychologies, or at least an alternative psychology to the mainstream, reductionistic paradigm which may be applied to most, if not all, cultures (Kim, Yang, & Hwang, 2006). Prominent centers of indigenous psychology
Indigenous psychology
Indigenous psychology is defined by Kim and Berry as "the scientific study of human behavior or mind that is native, that is not transported from other regions, and that is designed for its people.” Indigenous psychology generally advocates examining knowledge, skills and beliefs people have about...
include Mexico, the Philippines, South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
, and Taiwan.
Professional regulations and ethical standards
Many countries around the world have professional regulations for the practice of psychology. “With some exceptions, the existence of professional regulation reflects the level of development of professional psychology in that country. A profession needs to establish an identity and credibility before there is something to be regulated” (Pettifor, 2007, p. 312). In the 31 European countries represented in EFPA, a major effort is underway to unify the basic academic curriculum as well as other requirements underlying the training of psychologists. One of the goals is to establish a European DiplomaDiploma
A diploma is a certificate or deed issued by an educational institution, such as a university, that testifies that the recipient has successfully completed a particular course of study or confers an academic degree. In countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the word diploma refers to...
in Psychology comparable to a Master’s level university education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
of six years duration that includes supervised practice.
Some countries that currently have no regulation of the profession include: India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, Kenya
Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
, Kuwait
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
, Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in...
, Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
, the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
, Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
and Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
. Several of these countries are working toward licensing legislation, and several have developed ethical standards of practice to guide.
At present a considerable number of national psychology associations have adopted a code of ethics
Ethical code
An ethical code is adopted by an organization in an attempt to assist those in the organization called upon to make a decision understand the difference between 'right' and 'wrong' and to apply this understanding to their decision...
such as, for instance, APA’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
Code of Conduct
A code of conduct is a set of rules outlining the responsibilities of or proper practices for an individual, party or organization. Related concepts include ethical codes and honor codes....
. EFPA has adopted several codes of ethics in recent years, and the five Nordic countries
Nordic countries
The Nordic countries make up a region in Northern Europe and the North Atlantic which consists of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden and their associated territories, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland...
(Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) adopted a unified code of ethics in 1988, which they revised in 1998 to be more consistent with EFPA’s meta-code (Pettifor, 2007). Moreover, IUPsyS, IAAP, and IACCP are now working jointly toward a Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles of Psychologists through an Ad Hoc
Ad hoc
Ad hoc is a Latin phrase meaning "for this". It generally signifies a solution designed for a specific problem or task, non-generalizable, and not intended to be able to be adapted to other purposes. Compare A priori....
Joint Committee
Joint committee
A Joint Committee is a term in politics that is used to refer to a committee made up of members of both chambers of a bicameral legislature. In other contexts, it refers to a committee with members from more than one organization.-Republic of Ireland:...
chaired by Janel Gauthier, Canada (see ww.iupsys.org for copies of the draft Declaration and various pertinent committee reports). It is hoped that the Declaration will be ratified in 2008 by the three sponsoring organizations.
Conclusion
The scope of scientific psychology and its practice have expanded enormously from its early beginnings in the 19th century to today. This holds true for all post-industrial countries and increasingly for some modernizing nations such as Brazil, Mexico, the Philippines, and Turkey. In contrast, psychology remains much less visible in the poorer countries and especially so in their rural areas. The expansion of psychology into the nonwestern world has led to an increasing awareness of the role of cultural factors in psychological functioning together with repeated calls to “indigenize” psychology (Kim, Yang, & Hwang, 2006). International contacts among psychologists as well as joint research and applied projects across national and geographic boundaries have prospered thanks to the rapidly evolving technologies of transportation and electronic communicationTelecommunication
Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to communicate. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and optical heliographs, or audio messages via coded...
. Consequently, one may safely predict that the cross-cultural, global, and international dimensions of psychology will become more prominent in the foreseeable future.
Representative journals and newsletters
- Applied Psychology: An International Journal (IAAP)
- Asian Journal of Social PsychologySocial psychologySocial psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
(Asian Association of Social Psychology/Japanese Group DynamicsGroup dynamicsGroup dynamics refers to a system of behaviors and psychological processes that occur within a social group , or between social groups...
Association) - European PsychologistEuropean PsychologistEuropean Psychologist is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal and the official organ of the European Federation of Psychologists' Associations, and is additionally supported by local, country-specific European psychological organizations. The journal was established in 1996 and is...
(EFPA) - International Journal of Psychology (IUPsyS)
- International Psychologist (ICP)
- International Psychology Bulletin (APA Division 52)
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP)
- Revista Interamericana de Psicología/Interamerican Journal of Psychology (SIP)
External links
- American Psychological Association Division 52 (International Psychology)
- International Association of Applied Psychology
- International Union of Psychological Science
- International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology
- International Council of Psychologists
- Sociedad Interamericana:de Psicologia
- Society for Cross-Cultural Research
- European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations
- St. Francis College: Institute for International and Cross-Cultural Psychology
- Western Washington University: Institute for Cross-Cultural Research