Indonesian literature
Encyclopedia
Indonesian literature, is a term grouping various genres of South-East Asian literature.
Indonesian Literature can refer to literature produced in the Indonesian archipelago. It is also used to refer more broadly to literature produced in areas with common language roots based on the Malay language
(of which Indonesian is one scion
). This would extend the reach to the Maritime Southeast Asia
(including Indonesia, but also other nations with a common language such as Malaysia and Brunei
, as well as population within other nations such as the Malay people
living in Singapore
.
There are also works written in and about Indonesia in unrelated languages. There are several languages and several distinct but related literary traditions within the geographical boundaries of the modern nation of Indonesia. For example the island of Java has its own Javanese pre-national cultural and literary history. There are also Sundanese
, Balinese
, and Batak
or Madurese traditions. Indonesia also has a colonial
history of Dutch
, British
and Japanese occupation
, as well as a history of Islam
ic influence that brought its own texts, linguistic and literary influences. There is also an oral literature
tradition in the area.
The phrase Indonesian literature is used in this article to refer to Indonesian
as written in the nation of Indonesia, but also covers literature written in an earlier form of the Indonesian language i.e. Malay language
written in the Dutch East Indies
.
number over a thousand, and for that reason alone it is impracticable to survey their entire literary production in one article. Since the thought of a national Indonesian language only struck root as recently as the 1920s, this means that emphasis in the present article is put on the twentieth century.
At the same time, such a choice leaves a number of distinctions open. Major factors which make for a blurring of distinctions are:
, India
, Europe
and the Middle East
. Indonesia was then a colony of the Netherlands
(ca. 1600—1942) and Japan
(1942–45). Its literary tradition was influenced by these cultures, mainly those of India
, Persia
, China
and, more recently, Western Europe
. However, unique Indonesian characteristics cause it to be considered as a separate path and tradition.
Chronologically Indonesian literature may be divided into several periods:
There is considerable overlapping between these periods, and the usual designation according to "generations" (angkatan) should not allow us to lose sight of the fact that these are movements rather than chronological periods. For instance, older Malay literature was being written until well into the twentieth century. Likewise, the Pujangga Baru Generation was active even after the Generation of 1950 had entered the literary scene.
. Before that time, however, there must have existed a lively oral tradition.
syair : Syair Bidasari, Syair Ken Tambuhan, Syair Raja Mambang Jauhari, Syair Raja Siak
pantun : scattered items found all over the Indonesian Archipelago, and also incorporated in other works (e.g., Sejarah Melayu
)
hikayat : Hikayat Abdullah
, Hikayat Andaken Penurat, Hikayat Bayan Budiman
, Hikayat Djahidin, Hikayat Hang Tuah
, Hikayat Kadirun, Hikayat Kalila dan Damina, Hikayat Masydulhak, Hikayat Pelanduk Jinaka, Hikayat Pandja Tanderan, Hikayat Putri Djohar Manikam, Hikayat Tjendera Hasan, Tsahibul Hikayat.
historiography : Sejarah Melayu
.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, however, changes became visible. National consciousness emerged among educated Indonesians especially. At the same time, the Dutch colonisers temporarily veered to a point of view which allowed for the education and unification of the Indonesian peoples to self-reliance and maturity, as it was perceived. Indonesian independence, however, was not contemplated by the Dutch. A third factor was the emergence of newspapers, which at the beginning of the century began to appear in Chinese and subsequently in Malay.
, which became some sort of government-supervised publisher. Besides preventing criticism of the colonial government, Balai Pustaka blocked all work that might be conducive to any sort of religious controversy, and anything "pornographic" was avoided: even a novel featuring divorce had to be published elsewhere.
At the same time, school libraries were founded and were supplied by the new publisher. Works in Dutch as well as translations of world literature were brought out, but a burgeoning indigenous literature was also stimulated. From 1920 to 1950 Balai Pustaka published many works in high Malay (as opposed to everyday "street Malay"), but also in Javanese
and Sundanese
, and occasionally also in Balinese
, Batak or Madurese
.
's Azab dan Sengsara was the very first modern novel appearing in Indonesian, constituting a break with the Malay romance tradition. While not completely successful, in that it rather schematically deals in black-and-white oppositions, and directly addresses the reader, subverting its realism, this may still be regarded as the first treatment of contemporaneous problems (i.e., the issue of forced marriage) in the realist tradition.
Nur Sutan Iskandar
was the most active authors and he could be called as "the King of Balai Pustaka Generation". When viewed the original author, could said that the novels of a raised in the generation are "novel Sumatera", with the Minangkabau as the center point.
, the first indigenous movement, was founded. Conceived as a political organization, it soon adapted its objectives under pressure from the Dutch government, and mainly restricted itself to cultural activities. Political concerns were more prominent in Sarekat Islam
, founded in 1912 as a society of tradesmen, but which soon evolved into a nationalist movement, counting among its members the future President of the Republic, Soekarno, and the communist Semaun
. Meanwhile, other societies were founded, and a political party mainly aimed at halfcaste Dutch and Indonesian members appeared.
In due course, the Dutch colonizers followed suit, and a Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)
("People's Council") was founded in 1918. This Council was an assembly of Dutch and Indonesian members, whose powers, however, were severely restricted. It was a consultative committee advising the Governor General, the Dutch viceroy of the East-Indies, who could react to the Council's advice as he pleased.
In 1928, an association of young Javanese intellectuals referred to the language as "Bahasa Indonesia" ("Indonesian language
"), for the first time, thus emphasizing the notion of a national rather than an ethnic language. A few months later, on October 28, 1928, a congress of associations of young Indonesians, known as the Youth Congress (Sumpah Pemuda) adopted the principles of "one people, one nation, one language"., and this step may be regarded as the birth of the Indonesian language.
To this end, in 1933 they founded the first national literary magazine, Poedjangga Baroe, created by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana
, Amir Hamzah (regarded as the greatest of the poets of the late colonial period), and Armijn Pane
. Its main protagonists were the three founders, together with Sanusi Pane (brother of Armijn).
The magazine was published between 1933 and 1942. When the Japanese occupied the country, a request on the part of the editors for permission to continue publication went unanswered, and this was tantamount to a refusal. Publication was resumed in 1948, until the magazine finally folded in 1953. Although influential as the pioneering platform of an emerging Indonesian literature, sales had never been comfortable: Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana has revealed that the periodical's subscription was never much more than 150.
, an Indo-European (Eurasian) author of Dutch nationality but with strong nationalist sympathies, was briefly on the editorial board before the war broke out.
The contents of the magazine were dominated by essays, often touching on the requirements and exigencies of the new literature; and by poetry in the modern vein. This modernism was a conscious breakaway from tradition, although two quite distinct tendencies were discernible.
The Dutch example was not followed slavishly. In particular, its emphasis on the strictly individual in human experience was rejected. It was the poets' task, Poedjangga Baroe maintained, to be a social agent, a force for national development. To some of its members, too, the role of the poet was a religious one.
was felt. Amir Hamzah was greatly attracted to the Thousand and One Nights, although his intention to translate this work into Indonesian never materialized. The Bhagavad Gita
was translated into Indonesian by him. Sanusi Pane's play Manusia Baru ("New Humanity") was set in India. Plays were based on Java's past. Amir Hamzah anthologized eastern poetry.
(Lekra). The end of this literary generation came when political upheaval connected with the 30 September Movement
erupted.
Indonesian Literature can refer to literature produced in the Indonesian archipelago. It is also used to refer more broadly to literature produced in areas with common language roots based on the Malay language
Malay language
Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
(of which Indonesian is one scion
Kinship
Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin, through either biological, cultural, or historical descent. And descent groups, lineages, etc. are treated in their own subsections....
). This would extend the reach to the Maritime Southeast Asia
Maritime Southeast Asia
Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the maritime region of Southeast Asia as opposed to mainland Southeast Asia and includes the modern countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei, East Timor and Singapore....
(including Indonesia, but also other nations with a common language such as Malaysia and Brunei
Brunei
Brunei , officially the State of Brunei Darussalam or the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace , is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia...
, as well as population within other nations such as the Malay people
Malay people
Malays are an ethnic group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, including the southernmost parts of Thailand, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and the smaller islands which lie between these locations...
living in Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
.
There are also works written in and about Indonesia in unrelated languages. There are several languages and several distinct but related literary traditions within the geographical boundaries of the modern nation of Indonesia. For example the island of Java has its own Javanese pre-national cultural and literary history. There are also Sundanese
Sundanese people
The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 31 million, and are the second most populous of all the nation's ethncities. The Sundanese are predominantly Muslim...
, Balinese
Balinese people
The Balinese population of 3.0 million live mostly on the island of Bali, making up 89% of the island's population. There are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java The Balinese population of 3.0 million (1.5% of Indonesia's population) live...
, and Batak
Batak (Indonesia)
Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Toba, Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Angkola and Mandailing, each of which are distinct but related groups with distinct, albeit related, languages and...
or Madurese traditions. Indonesia also has a colonial
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
history of Dutch
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and Japanese occupation
Japanese Occupation of Indonesia
The Japanese Empire occupied Indonesia, known then as the Dutch East Indies, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of War in 1945...
, as well as a history of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic influence that brought its own texts, linguistic and literary influences. There is also an oral literature
Oral literature
Oral literature corresponds in the sphere of the spoken word to literature as literature operates in the domain of the written word. It thus forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do...
tradition in the area.
The phrase Indonesian literature is used in this article to refer to Indonesian
Indonesian language
Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. Indonesian is a normative form of the Riau Islands dialect of Malay, an Austronesian language which has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries....
as written in the nation of Indonesia, but also covers literature written in an earlier form of the Indonesian language i.e. Malay language
Malay language
Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
written in the Dutch East Indies
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Netherlands government in 1800....
.
Blurred distinctions
The languages spoken (and part of them written) in the Indonesian ArchipelagoIndonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
number over a thousand, and for that reason alone it is impracticable to survey their entire literary production in one article. Since the thought of a national Indonesian language only struck root as recently as the 1920s, this means that emphasis in the present article is put on the twentieth century.
At the same time, such a choice leaves a number of distinctions open. Major factors which make for a blurring of distinctions are:
- the difficulty of distinguishing between Malay and Indonesian
- Even in the 1930s, Malay was the lingua francaLingua francaA lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
of the Archipelago, but was also used widely outside it, while a national Indonesian language was still in a state of development. Thus, it is often difficult to ascertain where Malay leaves off and Indonesian begins. Nor is it possible to understand the development of Indonesian literature without study of the older Malay which it reacted against, and whose tradition it continued.- mutual influence between regional languages and their literatures.
- A work which appears in one Indonesian language may be found in a variant form in one or more others, especially when such literature has been part of the tradition for a long time.
- the problem of distinguishing between oral and written literature
- Oral literature is, of course, assessed by other means than written manifestations, and field-work is one of these means. However, in the written literature, too, poetry may have been recorded which had originated as oral literature.
Overview
During its early history, Indonesia was the centre of trade among sailors and traders from ChinaChina
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Indonesia was then a colony of the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
(ca. 1600—1942) and Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
(1942–45). Its literary tradition was influenced by these cultures, mainly those of India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Persia
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and, more recently, Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
. However, unique Indonesian characteristics cause it to be considered as a separate path and tradition.
Chronologically Indonesian literature may be divided into several periods:
- Pujangga Lama: the "Literates of Olden Times" (traditional literature)
- Sastra Melayu Lama: "Older Malay Literature"
- Angkatan Balai Pustaka: the "Generation of the [Colonial] Office for Popular Literature" (from 1908)
- Angkatan Pujangga Baru: the "New Literates" (from 1933)
- Angkatan 1945: the "Generation of 1945"
- Angkatan 1950 - 1960-an: the "Generation of the 1950s"
- Angkatan 1966 - 1970-an: the "Generation of 1966 into the 1970s"
- Angkatan 1980-an: the "Decade of the 1980s"
- Angkatan Reformasi: the post-Suharto "Reformation Period"
- Angkatan 2000-an: the "Generation of 2000s"
There is considerable overlapping between these periods, and the usual designation according to "generations" (angkatan) should not allow us to lose sight of the fact that these are movements rather than chronological periods. For instance, older Malay literature was being written until well into the twentieth century. Likewise, the Pujangga Baru Generation was active even after the Generation of 1950 had entered the literary scene.
Traditional literature: Pujangga Lama
Early Indonesian literature originates in Malay literature, and the influence of these roots was felt until well into the twentieth century. The literature produced by the Pujangga lama (literally "the old poets") was mainly written before the 20th century, but after the coming of IslamIslam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
. Before that time, however, there must have existed a lively oral tradition.
Genres
In written poetry and prose, a number of traditional forms dominate, mainly:—- syairSyairSyair is a form of traditional Malay poetry that made up of four-line stanzas or quatrains. The syair can be a narrative poem, a didactic poem, or a poem used to convey ideas on religion or philosophy, or even one to describe historical event....
(traditional narrative poetry) - pantunPantunThe pantun is a Malay poetic form. The pantun originated as a traditional oral form of expression. The first examples to be recorded appear in the 15th century in the Malay Annals and the Hikayat Hang Tuah. The most common theme is love....
(quatrains made up of two seemingly disconnected coupletCoupletA couplet is a pair of lines of meter in poetry. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and have the same meter.While traditionally couplets rhyme, not all do. A poem may use white space to mark out couplets if they do not rhyme. Couplets with a meter of iambic pentameter are called heroic...
s) - gurindamGurindamGurindam is a type of irregular verse forms of traditional Malay poetry. It is a combination of two clauses where the relative clause forms a line and is thus linked to the second line, or the main clause. Each pair of lines provides complete ideas within the pair and has the same rhyme in its end...
(brief aphorismAphorismAn aphorism is an original thought, spoken or written in a laconic and memorable form.The term was first used in the Aphorisms of Hippocrates...
s) - hikayat (stories, fairy-tales, animal fables, chronicles)
- babad (histories or chronicles).
Works
Some of these works are:syair : Syair Bidasari, Syair Ken Tambuhan, Syair Raja Mambang Jauhari, Syair Raja Siak
pantun : scattered items found all over the Indonesian Archipelago, and also incorporated in other works (e.g., Sejarah Melayu
Sejarah Melayu
Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals is a Malay literary work which covers a period of over 600 years that chronicles the, then and now, Genealogies of Rulers in the Malay Archipelago...
)
hikayat : Hikayat Abdullah
Hikayat Abdullah
Hikayat Abdullah was the major literary work of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a Malacca-born Munshi of Singapore. It was completed in 1845 and first published in 1849, making it one of the first Malay literary texts being published commercially. Abdullah’s authorship was prominently displayed in this...
, Hikayat Andaken Penurat, Hikayat Bayan Budiman
Hikayat Bayan Budiman
Hikayat Bayan Budiman is the Malay version of a tradition that begins with the Sanskrit Śukasaptati, The Parrot's Seventy Tales, an Indian work, in which a parrot tells 70 stories in order to prevent a woman from going on the wrong path. These chain stories, like the Arabian Nights, form the crux...
, Hikayat Djahidin, Hikayat Hang Tuah
Hikayat Hang Tuah
Hikayat Hang Tuah is a Malay work of literature that tells the tale of the legendary Malay Muslim warrior Hang Tuah and his four warrior friends - Hang Jebat, Hang Kasturi, Hang Lekir and Hang Lekiu - who lived during the height of the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century.The most memorable...
, Hikayat Kadirun, Hikayat Kalila dan Damina, Hikayat Masydulhak, Hikayat Pelanduk Jinaka, Hikayat Pandja Tanderan, Hikayat Putri Djohar Manikam, Hikayat Tjendera Hasan, Tsahibul Hikayat.
historiography : Sejarah Melayu
Sejarah Melayu
Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals is a Malay literary work which covers a period of over 600 years that chronicles the, then and now, Genealogies of Rulers in the Malay Archipelago...
.
1870—1942: Sastra Melayu Lama
The literature of this period was produced from the year 1870 until 1942. The works from this period were predominantly popular among the people in Sumatra (i.e. the regions of Langkat, Tapanuli, Padang, etc.), the Chinese and the Indo-Europeans. The first works were dominated by syair, hikayat and translations of western novels. These are:Unifying forces
Until the twentieth century, ethnic and linguistic diversity was dominant in the vast archipelago, and as a result, no national literature existed. Literature in Malay rubbed shoulders with works in other languages of the region, from Batak in the West through Sundanes, Javanese, Balinese, to Moluccan in the East. It is true that Malay was used as the lingua franca of the colony, and indeed, far beyond its borders, but it could not be regarded as a national language.At the beginning of the twentieth century, however, changes became visible. National consciousness emerged among educated Indonesians especially. At the same time, the Dutch colonisers temporarily veered to a point of view which allowed for the education and unification of the Indonesian peoples to self-reliance and maturity, as it was perceived. Indonesian independence, however, was not contemplated by the Dutch. A third factor was the emergence of newspapers, which at the beginning of the century began to appear in Chinese and subsequently in Malay.
The Bureau for Popular Literature
Education, means of communication, national awareness: all these factors favoured the emergence of a comprehensive Indonesian literature. The Dutch, however, wished to channel all these forces, nipping any political subversiveness in the bud while at the same time instructing and educating Indonesians, in a way the government saw fit. For those reasons, an official Bureau (or: Commission) for Popular Literature was instituted under the name Balai PustakaBalai Pustaka
Balai Pustaka is the state-owned publisher of Indonesia and publisher of major pieces of Indonesian literature such as Salah Asuhan, Sitti Nurbaya and Layar Terkembang. Its head office is in Jakarta....
, which became some sort of government-supervised publisher. Besides preventing criticism of the colonial government, Balai Pustaka blocked all work that might be conducive to any sort of religious controversy, and anything "pornographic" was avoided: even a novel featuring divorce had to be published elsewhere.
At the same time, school libraries were founded and were supplied by the new publisher. Works in Dutch as well as translations of world literature were brought out, but a burgeoning indigenous literature was also stimulated. From 1920 to 1950 Balai Pustaka published many works in high Malay (as opposed to everyday "street Malay"), but also in Javanese
Javanese language
Javanese language is the language of the Javanese people from the central and eastern parts of the island of Java, in Indonesia. In addition, there are also some pockets of Javanese speakers in the northern coast of western Java...
and Sundanese
Sundanese language
Sundanese is the language of about 27 million people from the western third of Java or about 15% of the Indonesian population....
, and occasionally also in Balinese
Balinese language
Balinese or simply Bali is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by 3.3 million people on the Indonesian island of Bali, as well as northern Nusa Penida, western Lombok and eastern Java...
, Batak or Madurese
Madurese
The Madurese also known as Orang Madura and Suku Madura are an ethnic group originally from the island of Madura but now found in many parts of Indonesia, where they are the third-largest ethnic group by population...
.
The first Indonesian novel
During this period, whose heyday was in the 1920s, Indonesian literature came to be dominated by fiction (both short stories and novels), and Western-style drama and poetry, which gradually replaced the earlier syair, gurindam, pantun and hikayat. Merari SiregarMerari Siregar
Merari Siregar was an Indonesian writer and also the author of the first novel written in Indonesian....
's Azab dan Sengsara was the very first modern novel appearing in Indonesian, constituting a break with the Malay romance tradition. While not completely successful, in that it rather schematically deals in black-and-white oppositions, and directly addresses the reader, subverting its realism, this may still be regarded as the first treatment of contemporaneous problems (i.e., the issue of forced marriage) in the realist tradition.
Authors and works of the Balai Pustaka Generation
Interlude: the '20s Generation
Meanwhile, not all publications in the languages of Indonesia appeared under the Balai Pustaka imprint. As mentioned, this publisher was a government-supervised concern, and it operated in the context of political and linguistic developments. Notable among these developments were an increasing consciousness of nationality, and the emergence of Indonesian as the embodiment of a national language.Nur Sutan Iskandar
Nur Sutan Iskandar
Muhammad Nur Sutan Iskandar, known as Nur Sutan Iskandar was born in Sungai Batang, West Sumatra on November 3, 1893 and died in Jakarta on November 28, 1975. He was prominent Indonesian author and most of productive writer in the Balai Pustaka generation. In 1919, he moved to Jakarta and joined to...
was the most active authors and he could be called as "the King of Balai Pustaka Generation". When viewed the original author, could said that the novels of a raised in the generation are "novel Sumatera", with the Minangkabau as the center point.
Politics
In 1908, Budi UtomoBudi Utomo
Budi Utomo , founded on May 20, 1908, was the first native political society in the Dutch East Indies...
, the first indigenous movement, was founded. Conceived as a political organization, it soon adapted its objectives under pressure from the Dutch government, and mainly restricted itself to cultural activities. Political concerns were more prominent in Sarekat Islam
Sarekat Islam
Sarekat Islam, formerly Sarekat Dagang Islam, was a Javanese batik traders's cooperative in Indonesia.Sarekat Dagang Islam was founded by Haji Samanhudi, a businessman in Surakarta, in 1905 or 1912. His business was trading in batik, the traditional cloth made in Java...
, founded in 1912 as a society of tradesmen, but which soon evolved into a nationalist movement, counting among its members the future President of the Republic, Soekarno, and the communist Semaun
Semaun
Semaun was the first chairman of the Communist Party of Indonesia .-Early life:Semaun was born in Curahmalang, Jombang, East Java. In 1915 at the age of sixteen, he was elected as one of the first Indonesian members of the Union of Train and Tramway Personnel , soon quitting his job as a railway...
. Meanwhile, other societies were founded, and a political party mainly aimed at halfcaste Dutch and Indonesian members appeared.
In due course, the Dutch colonizers followed suit, and a Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)
Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)
A People's Council for the Dutch East Indies was provided for by law in 1916. But was procrastinated until the actual installation of the Council in 1918. It was a hesitant and slow attempt at democratisation of the Dutch East Indies. The power of the Volksraad was limited as it only had advisory...
("People's Council") was founded in 1918. This Council was an assembly of Dutch and Indonesian members, whose powers, however, were severely restricted. It was a consultative committee advising the Governor General, the Dutch viceroy of the East-Indies, who could react to the Council's advice as he pleased.
Language
One of the first actions the Volksraad took was to request the sanction of the use of two official languages in its meetings: Dutch and Malay. Although until well into the 1930s only one Council member consistently used Malay, it was significant that the language had now acquired official status.In 1928, an association of young Javanese intellectuals referred to the language as "Bahasa Indonesia" ("Indonesian language
Indonesian language
Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. Indonesian is a normative form of the Riau Islands dialect of Malay, an Austronesian language which has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for centuries....
"), for the first time, thus emphasizing the notion of a national rather than an ethnic language. A few months later, on October 28, 1928, a congress of associations of young Indonesians, known as the Youth Congress (Sumpah Pemuda) adopted the principles of "one people, one nation, one language"., and this step may be regarded as the birth of the Indonesian language.
Literature
It was, however, still a language in development. Indonesian had never been a national language, and to most Indonesians it, or its ancestral Malay, had never been their mother tongue. For all this, in addition to the publications of Balai Pustaka and its magazine Panji Pustaka, various other magazines featured work by Indonesian writers as well, although there was not as yet one particular indigenous magazine devoted exclusively to the emerging literature. However, a notable source was Jong Sumatra, a magazine founded in 1918 as the platform of Jong Sumatranen Bond, the Association of Young Sumatran intellectuals.Forces towards renewal
As a result of all this, dominant factors in the literary landscape of the 1930s were the following:- National consciousness among young Indonesian intellectuals was well-developed.
- These intellectuals had formed various groups: there existed, then, a certain degree of organization.
- The need for a national language was felt, as was the need for literary expression in that language.
- While a platform for such expression existed in Balai Pustaka, this platform was considered unsatisfactory in that it was government-controlled, and therefore at odds with the urge for nationalist development. The intervention of Dutch language officials was felt to be censorship, and the editorial policy was regarded as an unwarranted harnessing of the emerging language. (Thus, certain words were invariably replaced by more "respectable" synonyms, which seemed to curtail language development as well as freedom of expression.)
- At the same time, young intellectuals felt that their classic Malay literature had congealed into set turns of phrase, clichéd descriptions and conventional plots. While literature cannot but operate between the polarities of convention and renewal, classic conventions were now felt to be over-constrictive, and their Western-style schooling had made them conscious of the possibilities for renewal.
A new magazine
Angkatan Pujangga Baru was created as a reaction to all this. This "Generation of the New Literates (or New Poets)" adopted its very name to emphasize its striving for renewal, attempting to break away both from the set forms of traditional Malay literature and from the yoke of colonial constraints: the objective was a new poetics and a new national consciousness.To this end, in 1933 they founded the first national literary magazine, Poedjangga Baroe, created by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana
Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana
Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana , was born in Natal, North Sumatra. His family came from Minangkabau who migration in 19th century. He was a founder and editor of Pujangga Baru. He became one of Indonesian literature's guiding lights in its formative years, particularly in the time around independence...
, Amir Hamzah (regarded as the greatest of the poets of the late colonial period), and Armijn Pane
Armijn Pane
Armijn Pane , also known as Adinata, A. Soul, Empe, A. Mada, A. Banner, and Kartono, was an Indonesian author.-Life:Armijn Pane was born in Muara Sipongi, Tapanui, Sumatra,, the third of eight children...
. Its main protagonists were the three founders, together with Sanusi Pane (brother of Armijn).
The magazine was published between 1933 and 1942. When the Japanese occupied the country, a request on the part of the editors for permission to continue publication went unanswered, and this was tantamount to a refusal. Publication was resumed in 1948, until the magazine finally folded in 1953. Although influential as the pioneering platform of an emerging Indonesian literature, sales had never been comfortable: Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana has revealed that the periodical's subscription was never much more than 150.
Characteristics
Poedjangga Baroe occasionally, and for reasons that have not been explained, included prose in English, and more regularly and perhaps understandably, prose and poetry in Dutch. However, the magazine was characterized by its position as the first literary periodical in the national language. In contrast with Panji Pustaka (the Balai Pustaka magazine), its editors were all Indonesians, who had as often as not received their editorial training by working for the government publishers in the 1920s. There was one exception: Beb VuykBeb Vuyk
Elizabeth Vuyk was a Dutch writer of Indo descent. Her Indo father was born in the Dutch East Indies and had a mother from Madura, but was ‘repatriated’ to the Netherlands on a very young age. He married into a typically Calvinist Dutch family and lived in the port city of Rotterdam...
, an Indo-European (Eurasian) author of Dutch nationality but with strong nationalist sympathies, was briefly on the editorial board before the war broke out.
The contents of the magazine were dominated by essays, often touching on the requirements and exigencies of the new literature; and by poetry in the modern vein. This modernism was a conscious breakaway from tradition, although two quite distinct tendencies were discernible.
Romanticism
On the one hand, poets (who usually had had a Dutch schooling) connected with a late Romantic movement in Dutch poetry, the Beweging van Tachtig. (Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana was the main proponent of this tendency.)- This "Movement of the 1880s" had put emphasis on the individual expression of emotions, and it is this emphasis which was reflected in the new Indonesian poetry. The central role of individual emotions is borne out by the titles of some poems; representative instances are: Mengeluh ("Complaint"), Kematian Anak ("The Death of a Child"), or Di Kakimu ("At Your Feet").
- Nature poetry, in addition, bore witness to the romantic nature of this movement, with titles such as Sawah ("Rice Fields") or Bintang ("Stars").
- A third aspect involved mysticism, Sanusi Pane's poem Do'a ("Prayer") perhaps the best-known instance, with its opening stanza:
- The influence of Romanticism was discernible, too, in the use of westernizing verse forms, notably the sonnetSonnetA sonnet is one of several forms of poetry that originate in Europe, mainly Provence and Italy. A sonnet commonly has 14 lines. The term "sonnet" derives from the Occitan word sonet and the Italian word sonetto, both meaning "little song" or "little sound"...
. This constituted a break with traditional syair and pantun. At the same time, practitioners of the new sonnet form maintained that it had its similarities with the pantun. A traditional sonnet had its volta, a thematic turn between the eighth and ninth verses, and likewise, a strong contrast is seen between the first and second couplets of a pantun.
The Dutch example was not followed slavishly. In particular, its emphasis on the strictly individual in human experience was rejected. It was the poets' task, Poedjangga Baroe maintained, to be a social agent, a force for national development. To some of its members, too, the role of the poet was a religious one.
The easterns tradition
On the other hand, some members of the movement were not unequivocally in favour of western influence. A countervailing tendency was found in traditional eastern literature. The influence of Rabindranath TagoreRabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore , sobriquet Gurudev, was a Bengali polymath who reshaped his region's literature and music. Author of Gitanjali and its "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse", he became the first non-European Nobel laureate by earning the 1913 Prize in Literature...
was felt. Amir Hamzah was greatly attracted to the Thousand and One Nights, although his intention to translate this work into Indonesian never materialized. The Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita
The ' , also more simply known as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, but is frequently treated as a freestanding text, and in particular, as an Upanishad in its own right, one of the several books that constitute general Vedic tradition...
was translated into Indonesian by him. Sanusi Pane's play Manusia Baru ("New Humanity") was set in India. Plays were based on Java's past. Amir Hamzah anthologized eastern poetry.
Other works
Some works of the Pujangga Baru generation are worthy of especial mention. Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana's short novel Layar Terkembang ("The Sail Unfolds") is a sensitive portrayal of young women in contemporary Indonesia. Rustam Effendi with his Bebasari wrote the first modern play (on a historical theme). Armijn Pane's Belenggu ("Shackles") dealt with extramarital relations, thus initially giving rise to controversy, but eventually the novel became a classic and has been described as the first psychological novel in Indonesian.Authors and works of the Pujangga Baru Generation
Angkatan 1945
The works of authors during this period are dominated by the thoughts of independence and political manner. The works created by angkatan '45 are mostly more realistic, compared to the works of pujangga baru, which are more romantic - idealistic.Authors and works of Angkatan '45
- Chairil AnwarChairil AnwarChairil Anwar was an Indonesian poet and member of the "1945 generation" of writers. He is estimated to have written 96 works, including 70 individual poems....
- Kerikil Tajam (1949)
- Deru Campur Debu (1949)
- Asrul SaniAsrul SaniAsrul Sani was born in Rao, Pasaman, West Sumatra on June 10th, 1926 and died on January 11 2004. He was a prominent Indonesian film producer and reporter. In 1946, along with Chairil Anwar and Rivai Apin, he founded "gelanggang seniman". He was editor of magazines such as Pujangga Baru, Gema,...
, with Rivai Apin and Chairil Anwar- Tiga Menguak Takdir (1950)
- IdrusIdrusIdrus was born in Padang, West Sumatera on September 21, 1921 and died on May 18, 1979. Idrus was a prominent Indonesian writer and pioneer of Generation '45. He was joined to Balai Pustaka, Jakarta and raised as a productive writer. In 1946, he married Ratna Suri and had six children...
- Dari Ave Maria ke Jalan Lain ke Roma (1948)
- Aki (1949)
- Perempuan dan Kebangsaan
- Achdiat Karta MihardjaAchdiat Karta MihardjaAchdiat Karta Mihardja was an Indonesian author, novelist and playwright. He is best known for his novel, Atheist, which was published in 1949. Atheist is considered one of Indonesia's most important literary works following World War II.| image = 09achdiat.gifMihardja was born on March 6, 1911,...
- Atheis (1949)
- Trisno Sumardjo
- Katahati dan Perbuatan (1952)
- Utuy Tatang SontaniUtuy Tatang SontaniUtuy Tatang Sontani was an Indonesian writer. He was born in Cianjur, Java. In 1938 he attend an adult school in Bandung, and then became a civil servant. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945, he successively worked for National Broadcasting Station and Books Compilation & Translation Bureau...
- Suling (1948)
- Tambera (1949)
- Awal dan Mira (1962)
- Suman Hs.
- Percobaan Setia (1940)
- Mencari Pencuri Anak Perawan (1957)
Angkatan 1950
Angkatan 1950 was characterized by the Kisah magazine, established by H.B. Jassin. This generation of Indonesian literature was dominated by collections of short stories and poetry. This generation was also characterized by the emergence of socialist and communist thought among its authors. Most of these authors were members of an organization called Lembaga Kebudajaan RakjatLembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat
The Lembaga Kebudajaan Rakjat was a literary and social movement associated with the Indonesian Communist Party. Founded in 1950, Lekra pushed for artists and writers to follow the doctrine of socialist realism...
(Lekra). The end of this literary generation came when political upheaval connected with the 30 September Movement
30 September Movement
The Thirtieth of September Movement ) was a self-proclaimed organization of Indonesian National Armed Forces members who, in the early hours of 1 October 1965, assassinated six Indonesian Army generals in an abortive coup d'état. Later that morning, the organization declared that it was in control...
erupted.
Authors and works of the Angkatan 50
Angkatan 1966
Angkatan '66 was marked by rising the Horison magazine, led by Mochtar LubisMochtar Lubis
Mochtar Lubis was an Indonesian Batak journalist and novelist who co-founded Indonesia Raya. His novel Senja di Jakarta was the first Indonesian novel to be translated into English. He was a critic of Sukarno and was imprisoned by him...
Authors and works of the Angkatan '66
Angkatan 1980-1990s
This generation of Indonesian literature was dominated by romance novel. Beside that, the 1980s generation marked by raised of popular stories, such as Lupus who wrote by Hilman Hariwijaya.Authors and works of the Angkatan 1980-1990s
- Ahmadun Yosi HerfandaAhmadun Yosi HerfandaAhmadun Yosi Herfanda , is an Indonesian journalist and poet. His name is also written as Ahmadun YH, Ahmadun Y. Herfanda, Ahmadun Herfanda, or AYH . Ahmadun's poetry focuses on social and religious themes and is informed by Sufism...
- Ladang Hijau (1980)
- Sajak Penari (1990)
- Sebelum Tertawa Dilarang (1997)
- Fragmen-fragmen Kekalahan (1997)
- Sembahyang Rumputan (1997)
- Y.B MangunwijayaMangunwijayaYusuf Bilyarta Mangunwijaya , was an Indonesian architect, writer, and Catholic religious leader. He was often called Romo Mangun .-Biography:...
- Burung-burung Manyar (1981)
- Darman Moenir
- Bako (1983)
- Dendang (1988)
- Budi DarmaBudi DarmaBudi Darma, BA, MA, Prof. Budi Darma, BA, MA, Prof. Budi Darma, BA, MA, Prof. (born April 25, 1937 in Rembang, Center Java, Indonesia, is one of the most influential Indonesian writers. He is currently teaching English Literature and Creative Writing at Surabaya State University (East...
- Olenka (1983)
- Rafilus (1988)
- Sindhunata
- Anak Bajang Menggiring Angin (1984)
- Arswendo Atmowiloto
- Canting (1986)
- Hilman Hariwijaya
- Lupus - 28 novel (1986–2007)
- Lupus Kecil - 13 novel (1989–2003)
- Olga Sepatu Roda (1992)
- Lupus ABG - 11 novel (1995–2005)
- Dorothea Rosa Herliany
- Nyanyian Gaduh (1987)
- Matahari yang Mengalir (1990)
- Kepompong Sunyi (1993)
- Nikah Ilalang (1995)
- Mimpi Gugur Daun Zaitun (1999)
- Afrizal Malna
- Abad Yang Berlari (1984)
- Yang Berdiam Dalam Mikropon (1990)
- Arsitektur Hujan (1995)
- Kalung Dari Teman (1998)
- Gustaf Rizal
- Segi Empat Patah Sisi (1990)
- Segi Tiga Lepas Kaki (1991)
- BenBenBen is often a shortened version of the given name Benjamin, Benvolio, Benedict, or less commonly Bentley, although it is also used as a formal given name in its own right...
(1992) - Kemilau Cahaya dan Perempuan Buta (1999)
- Remy Sylado
- Ca Bau Kan (1999)
- Kerudung Merah Kirmizi (2002)
Authors and works of the Angkatan Reformasi
- Widji ThukulWidji ThukulWidji Thukul is an Indonesian poet born in 1963. His work is political, often critical of the Indonesian government and the social conditions of the country. He has been missing since 1998.-Life:...
- Puisi Pelo
- Darman
Authors and works of the Angkatan 2000s
- Ayu UtamiAyu UtamiAyu Utami is a female Indonesian writer. She has written novels, short-stories, and articles. Saman is widely considered her masterpiece...
- Saman (1998)
- Larung (2001)
- Seno Gumira AjidarmaSeno Gumira AjidarmaSeno Gumira Ajidarma is an Indonesian author of short stories, essays, and movie scripts. He is also known as a journalist, photographer and lecturer. He won the 1997 S.E.A. Write Award...
- Atas Nama Malam
- Sepotong Senja untuk Pacarku
- Biola Tak Berdawai
- HerlinatiensHerlinatiensHerlinatiens is an author from Indonesia.-Biography:Herlinatiens' first novel, Garis Tepi Seorang Lesbian, is about a lesbian who is discriminated against by her culture and family. The book's first run sold out quickly and the publisher started a second run two weeks later...
- Garis Tepi Seorang Lesbian (2003)
- Dejavu, Sayap yang Pecah (2004)
- Dewi Lestari
- Supernova 1: Ksatria, Puteri dan Bintang Jatuh (2001)
- Supernova 2.1: Akar (2002)
- Supernova 2.2: Petir (2004)
- Raudal Tanjung Banua
- Pulau Cinta di Peta Buta (2003)
- Ziarah bagi yang Hidup (2004)
- Parang Tak Berulu (2005)
- Gugusan Mata Ibu (2005)
- Habiburrahman El Shirazy
- Ayat-Ayat Cinta (2004)
- Diatas Sajadah Cinta (2004)
- Ketika Cinta Berbuah Surga (2005)
- Pudarnya Pesona Cleopatra (2005)
- Ketika Cinta Bertasbih 1 (2007)
- Ketika Cinta Bertasbih 2 (2007)
- Dalam Mihrab Cinta (2007)
- Andrea Hirata
- Laskar Pelangi (2005)
- Sang PemimpiSang PemimpiThe Dreamer is the second novel in the tetralogy Laskar Pelangi by Andrea Hirata published by Bentang Pusaka in July 2006. In this novel, Hirata explores the relationship of friendship and brotherhood between Ikal and Arai.- Synopsis :...
(2006) - Edensor (2007)
- Maryamah Karpov (2008)
- Ahmad Fuadi
- Negeri 5 Menara (2009)
- Ranah 3 Warna (2011)