Hurricane Joan-Miriam
Encyclopedia
Hurricane Joan was a powerful hurricane that caused death and destruction in over a dozen countries in the Caribbean and Central America. Moving on a due west course for nearly two weeks in October 1988, Hurricane Joan caused widespread flooding and over 200 deaths after moving into Central America. Widespread suffering and economic crises were exacerbated by Joan, primarily across Nicaragua
, as heavy rains and high winds impacted those near the hurricane's path.
After crossing Central America into the Pacific, the cyclone
was renamed Tropical Storm Miriam, with the system's dissipation occurring southwest of Mexico. Joan-Miriam was the final hurricane of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season
and the final named storm of the Pacific hurricane season
.
s to form in any season, Joan formed from an area of convection in the intertropical convergence zone
that moved off the coast of Africa early in October. It developed banding and was upgraded to Tropical Depression Seventeen on October 10 and later designated as Tropical Storm Joan while located at low latitude in the central Atlantic Ocean.
Joan gradually strengthened as it passed over the southern Windward Islands
on October 15. It continued heading west in response to a strong Ridge
, and passed over the Guajira Peninsula
on October 17. After entering the extreme southwestern Caribbean Sea, Joan strengthened into a hurricane. It then slowly executed a small counterclockwise loop, possibly in response to the nearby Tropical Depression Eighteen. Upwelling caused by the quasi-stationary hurricane weakened the system. As the nearby depression dissipated, Joan resumed its westward track. A strong anticyclone
over the southwestern Caribbean Sea created an extremely favorable environment, and Joan underwent rapid deepening
at a rate of 38 millibars in the space of a day. With a minimum pressure of 932 millibars, Joan was one of the strongest October hurricanes since 1961. At the time, it was located at 12°N, the southernmost Category 4
hurricane ever recorded at the time. That record has since been broken by Hurricane Ivan
.
Joan made landfall just south of Bluefields on October 22. It passed over the northern portion of Lake Nicaragua
, passed over Managua, and entered the Pacific Ocean near Leon
on October 23. Joan remained a hurricane or tropical storm during its entire passage over Central America, and was a minimal tropical storm when it reached the Pacific. As per the policy at the time, Joan was renamed Miriam.
Tropical Storm Miriam hugged the coast of Central America and reached its peak of 986 millibars on October 24. Ordinarily, a pressure this low would indicate a Category 1 hurricane, but due to its disorganized convection, Miriam was not upgraded to a hurricane. Land interaction and wind shear
weakened Miriam to a tropical depression on October 26. Low-level winds carried the system out to sea, and its convection dissipated on October 28.
Miriam's remnants continued out to sea, and they regenerated on October 30. The tropical depression hung on for the next few days, until its second, and final, dissipation on November 2.
, although Hurricane Irene in 1971 took a path that was just north of Joan's. Joan-Miriam was also unusual in that it survived passage from the Atlantic
to Pacific Ocean or vice-versa. Only seven other storms have been known to survive the passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
and later warnings were issued for the Windward Islands as far north as Martinique
on October 13. They were dropped over the subsequent two days as Joan passed through. Along the coast of South America, additional warnings were raised and later dropped as Joan paralleled the coast.
The first hurricane watches were issued for parts of Panama
, and Providencia
starting on October 18. The watch area was expanded to include Costa Rica
and Nicaragua
on October 19 as the watches were upgraded to warnings. These warnings provided several hours' worth of lead time, allowing evacuations and preparations to be made. In addition, flash flood
and mudslide warnings were issued for western Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua starting on October 21.
In response to Miriam, the flood and mudslide warnings issued because of Joan were not lifted until October 23 and 25. Tropical Storm warnings were issued for the Pacific coast of Nicaragua, El Salvador
, and the Gulf of Fonseca
on October 24. They were dropped the next day. Guatemala was placed under a warning on October 24. In addition, new flash flood and mudslide warnings were raised for Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas
on October 24 and 25, respectively. All warnings and watches were discontinued later on October 25 as Miriam turned away from the coast.
Despite the dangers from the intense hurricane, evacuations in Bluefields were met with resistance and disbelief from residents. In Managua, 70,000 people were evacuated to safe areas. In the remaining areas of Nicaragua, 300,000 people were evacuated. In Costa Rica
, a total of 55,000 people were evacuated.
Hurricane Joan killed at least 216 people, with 118 unaccounted for. The total cost of damage was around 2 billion USD (1988 dollars). All of the deaths and most of the damage were due to the Joan portion of Hurricane Joan–Miriam.
, including Grenada, where, on October 15, Joan made landfall. There were also no casualties in any of Aruba
, Bonaire, or Curaçao
. It is not known if there was any damage in the Lesser Antilles. In Trinidad and Tobago
, Joan was described as a "minor inconvenience". Sustained winds up to 51 mph (82 km/h) with gusts up to 64 mph (103 km/h) were recorded on Grenada. Heavy rains amounted to 6 in (152.4 mm) in St. George's. Significant flooding was reported throughout the island, resulting in hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage. A rare invasion of African desert locust
s in the Windward Islands
were blamed on the storm.
, 11 people were killed due to flash-flooding caused by heavy rains. Landslides and flooding killed 25 people in Colombia
. The rains and flooding left 27,000 people homeless. Throughout Colombia, damages amounted to $1 billion.
. Throughout the country, 148 people perished, 184 were badly hurt, and 100 were unaccounted for. Roughly 23,300 homes were destroyed, with 6,000 being damaged. Many settlements on the Atlantic coast of the country were completely destroyed. The national electric company had 620 miles (997.8 km) of downed power lines, at the cost of 2.5 million USD (1988 dollars). A port being constructed with Bulgarian help at El Bluff
was severely damaged. On a brighter note, public health
measures managed to keep the death toll lower than it could have been.
Bluefields was hit with extreme impact. Almost all of the 7,500 structures in the city were demolished or had their roofs blown off. The majority of the main buildings in the city were destroyed. The hurricane also wreaked havoc on agriculture in the country. Around 15,700 head of cattle, 20,000 pigs, and 456,000 chickens were killed. The hurricane caused severe disruption in most of Nicaragua's remaining rain forests in the areas it hit, and also stripped trees of leaves. In the southeast rain forests, Joan toppled or snapped 80 percent of the trees and completely destroyed 500000 hectares (1,235,525.8 acre) of canopy. Hurricane Joan caused transportation difficulties in the country. Floodwaters destroyed 30 bridges and seriously damaged 36 others. Roads totaling 404 miles (650.2 km) in length were washed away.
In an unfortunate coincidence, Hurricane Joan hit shortly after an armed conflict in the region had started to cool off. The hurricane destroyed much of the infrastructure in Nicaragua, contributing to a recession
that was already underway. The losses to cash crop
s severely reduced exports to under 200 million dollars (1988 USD). These factors combined to aggravate a recession and deepen the economic crisis. Government spending to rebuild infrastructure negated recently-introduced anti-inflation
measures. Hurricane Joan was a partial cause of Nicaraguans being, on average, worse-off than they were in the 1970s. In all, the storm left at least 250,000 people homeless. Total damages in the country amounted to $751.1 million. Joan was the first major hurricane to strike Nicaragua since 1911.
, 28 people were killed, 75 were injured, and 18 were missing. Rainfall caused 20 rivers to burst their banks, flooding 75 settlements, including the city of Quepos, Costa Rica on the Pacific coast. At Ciudad Neily, Costa Rica, the Rio Corredores broke through a dike. In total, 7,500 Costa Ricans were rendered homeless. Damages in Costa Rica amounted to $65 million.
In the remaining portions of Central America
, heavy rainfall, locally exceeding 300 millimetres (11.8 in), was reported. These rains caused flooding and landslides, especially in mountainous regions. Those heavy rains caused seven deaths in Panama
and left $60 million in damages.
, heavy rainfall associated with Tropical Storm Miriam caused the cancellation of flights from the airport at Tuxtla Gutiérrez
. The highest rainfall reported recorded was 10.37 inches (263.4 mm) at Lazaro Cardenas. In small settlements, rivers were flooded and mudslides were reported. Casualties from the flooding are not known.
, and Mexico
collectively contributed around 2,500 tons of food and medicine. The Canadian
, Swedish
, West German
, Spanish, and Dutch Governments
contributed aid amounting to 2 million dollars (1988) each. No aid was sent by the United States government. The Soviet Union contributed an unknown sum. The slow response to requests for aid was contributed to by the Sandinista Government's actions, which was viewed by a few anonymous diplomats from other countries who commented to the press, as undermining the peace process championed by Óscar Arias
. Those actions were the July 10 arrests of opposition activists and the closing down of independent radio stations. In addition, the government also barred foreign humanitarian groups from receiving American aid, as well as turning back a relief shipment days before the storm.
On October 28, 1988, the United Nations General Assembly
passed without a vote Resolution 17 of its 43rd session in response to the disaster. The resolution called on countries to contribute to the relief effort.
. The name will never again be used in the Atlantic. The name Joyce, however, was not used until 2000 due to an El Niño in 1994 nor during 2006 for that same reason. Because the impact of the Miriam portion of the tropical cyclone was minimal, the name Miriam was not retired in the Pacific and is still on the list of names for that basin, slated to be used next in 2012.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
, as heavy rains and high winds impacted those near the hurricane's path.
After crossing Central America into the Pacific, the cyclone
Cyclone
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale...
was renamed Tropical Storm Miriam, with the system's dissipation occurring southwest of Mexico. Joan-Miriam was the final hurricane of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season
1988 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1988 Atlantic hurricane season was a moderately active season that proved costly and deadly, with 15 tropical cyclones directly affecting land. The season officially began on June 1, 1988, and lasted until November 30, 1988, although activity began on May 30 when a tropical...
and the final named storm of the Pacific hurricane season
1988 Pacific hurricane season
The 1988 Pacific hurricane season was a Pacific hurricane season that saw a below-average amount of tropical cyclones form, and that had only one landfalling storm. It officially began May 15, 1988 in the eastern Pacific, and June 1, 1988 in the central Pacific and lasted until November 30, 1988...
.
Meteorological history
One of the latest Cape Verde-type hurricaneCape Verde-type hurricane
A Cape Verde-type hurricane is an Atlantic hurricane that develops near the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. The average hurricane season has about two Cape Verde-type hurricanes, which are usually the largest and most intense storms of the season because they often have plenty of...
s to form in any season, Joan formed from an area of convection in the intertropical convergence zone
Intertropical Convergence Zone
The Intertropical Convergence Zone , known by sailors as The Doldrums, is the area encircling the earth near the equator where winds originating in the northern and southern hemispheres come together....
that moved off the coast of Africa early in October. It developed banding and was upgraded to Tropical Depression Seventeen on October 10 and later designated as Tropical Storm Joan while located at low latitude in the central Atlantic Ocean.
Joan gradually strengthened as it passed over the southern Windward Islands
Windward Islands
The Windward Islands are the southern islands of the Lesser Antilles, within the West Indies.-Name and geography:The Windward Islands are called such because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds in the...
on October 15. It continued heading west in response to a strong Ridge
Ridge (meteorology)
A ridge is an elongated region of relatively high atmospheric pressure, the opposite of a trough....
, and passed over the Guajira Peninsula
Guajira Peninsula
Guajira Peninsula , is a peninsula in northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela in the Caribbean Sea...
on October 17. After entering the extreme southwestern Caribbean Sea, Joan strengthened into a hurricane. It then slowly executed a small counterclockwise loop, possibly in response to the nearby Tropical Depression Eighteen. Upwelling caused by the quasi-stationary hurricane weakened the system. As the nearby depression dissipated, Joan resumed its westward track. A strong anticyclone
Anticyclone
An anticyclone is a weather phenomenon defined by the United States' National Weather Service's glossary as "[a] large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure, clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere"...
over the southwestern Caribbean Sea created an extremely favorable environment, and Joan underwent rapid deepening
Rapid deepening
Rapid deepening, also known as rapid intensification, is a meteorological condition that occurs when the minimum sea-level atmospheric pressure of a tropical cyclone decreases drastically in a short period of time. The National Weather Service describes rapid deepening as a decrease of...
at a rate of 38 millibars in the space of a day. With a minimum pressure of 932 millibars, Joan was one of the strongest October hurricanes since 1961. At the time, it was located at 12°N, the southernmost Category 4
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
The Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale , or the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale , classifies hurricanes — Western Hemisphere tropical cyclones that exceed the intensities of tropical depressions and tropical storms — into five categories distinguished by the intensities of their sustained winds...
hurricane ever recorded at the time. That record has since been broken by Hurricane Ivan
Hurricane Ivan
Hurricane Ivan was a large, long-lived, Cape Verde-type hurricane that caused widespread damage in the Caribbean and United States. The cyclone was the ninth named storm, the sixth hurricane and the fourth major hurricane of the active 2004 Atlantic hurricane season...
.
Joan made landfall just south of Bluefields on October 22. It passed over the northern portion of Lake Nicaragua
Lake Nicaragua
Lake Nicaragua or Cocibolca or Granada or is a vast freshwater lake in Nicaragua of tectonic origin. With an area of , it is the largest lake in Central America, the 19th largest lake in the world and the 9th largest in the Americas. It is slightly smaller than Lake Titicaca. With an elevation...
, passed over Managua, and entered the Pacific Ocean near Leon
León, Nicaragua
León is a department in northwestern Nicaragua . It is also the second largest city in Nicaragua, after Managua. It was founded by the Spaniards as Santiago de los Caballeros de León and rivals Granada, Nicaragua, in the number of historic Spanish colonial homes and churches...
on October 23. Joan remained a hurricane or tropical storm during its entire passage over Central America, and was a minimal tropical storm when it reached the Pacific. As per the policy at the time, Joan was renamed Miriam.
Tropical Storm Miriam hugged the coast of Central America and reached its peak of 986 millibars on October 24. Ordinarily, a pressure this low would indicate a Category 1 hurricane, but due to its disorganized convection, Miriam was not upgraded to a hurricane. Land interaction and wind shear
Wind shear
Wind shear, sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere...
weakened Miriam to a tropical depression on October 26. Low-level winds carried the system out to sea, and its convection dissipated on October 28.
Miriam's remnants continued out to sea, and they regenerated on October 30. The tropical depression hung on for the next few days, until its second, and final, dissipation on November 2.
Unusual path
Hurricane Joan's path through the southern Caribbean in late October was highly unusual. Most October storms in the Atlantic gravitate towards the northern portion of the Caribbean, and often recurve quickly. Joan took the southernmost path of a tropical cyclone since a June system in 19331933 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1933 Atlantic hurricane season was the second most active Atlantic hurricane season on record, with 21 storms forming during that year in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. The season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1933, and was surpassed in total number of tropical cyclones by...
, although Hurricane Irene in 1971 took a path that was just north of Joan's. Joan-Miriam was also unusual in that it survived passage from the Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
to Pacific Ocean or vice-versa. Only seven other storms have been known to survive the passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Preparations
Tropical Storm watchesTropical cyclone warnings and watches
Warnings and watches are two levels of alert issued by national weather forecasting bodies to coastal areas threatened by the imminent approach of a tropical cyclone of tropical storm or hurricane intensity. They are notices to the local population and civil authorities to make appropriate...
and later warnings were issued for the Windward Islands as far north as Martinique
Martinique
Martinique is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, with a land area of . Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. To the northwest lies Dominica, to the south St Lucia, and to the southeast Barbados...
on October 13. They were dropped over the subsequent two days as Joan passed through. Along the coast of South America, additional warnings were raised and later dropped as Joan paralleled the coast.
The first hurricane watches were issued for parts of Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
, and Providencia
Providencia Island
Isla de Providencia or Old Providence is a mountainous Caribbean island. Though it is closer to Nicaragua, it is part of the Archipelago of San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina, a department of Colombia, lying midway between Costa Rica and Jamaica...
starting on October 18. The watch area was expanded to include Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
and Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
on October 19 as the watches were upgraded to warnings. These warnings provided several hours' worth of lead time, allowing evacuations and preparations to be made. In addition, flash flood
Flash flood
A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas—washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a storm, hurricane, or tropical storm or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields...
and mudslide warnings were issued for western Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras, and Nicaragua starting on October 21.
In response to Miriam, the flood and mudslide warnings issued because of Joan were not lifted until October 23 and 25. Tropical Storm warnings were issued for the Pacific coast of Nicaragua, El Salvador
El Salvador
El Salvador or simply Salvador is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital city and largest city is San Salvador; Santa Ana and San Miguel are also important cultural and commercial centers in the country and in all of Central America...
, and the Gulf of Fonseca
Gulf of Fonseca
The Gulf of Fonseca , part of the Pacific Ocean, is a gulf in Central America, bordering El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua.-History:Fonseca Bay was discovered in 1522 by Gil Gonzalez de Avila, and named by him after his patron, Archbishop Juan Fonseca, the implacable enemy of Columbus.In 1849, E. G...
on October 24. They were dropped the next day. Guatemala was placed under a warning on October 24. In addition, new flash flood and mudslide warnings were raised for Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas
Chiapas
Chiapas officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Chiapas is one of the 31 states that, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 118 municipalities and its capital city is Tuxtla Gutierrez. Other important cites in Chiapas include San Cristóbal de las...
on October 24 and 25, respectively. All warnings and watches were discontinued later on October 25 as Miriam turned away from the coast.
Despite the dangers from the intense hurricane, evacuations in Bluefields were met with resistance and disbelief from residents. In Managua, 70,000 people were evacuated to safe areas. In the remaining areas of Nicaragua, 300,000 people were evacuated. In Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
, a total of 55,000 people were evacuated.
Impact
| Impact by Country | ||
|---|---|---|
| Country | Deaths | Damage |
| Nicaragua Nicaragua Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean... |
148-248 | $751.1 million |
| Costa Rica Costa Rica Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east.... |
28-46 | $60 million |
| Colombia Colombia Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the... |
25 | $1 billion |
| Venezuela Venezuela Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south... |
11 | Unknown |
| Panama Panama Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The... |
7 | $60 million |
| Total | 219-337 | $1.85 billion |
Hurricane Joan killed at least 216 people, with 118 unaccounted for. The total cost of damage was around 2 billion USD (1988 dollars). All of the deaths and most of the damage were due to the Joan portion of Hurricane Joan–Miriam.
Lesser Antilles
No casualties were reported in the Windward IslandsWindward Islands
The Windward Islands are the southern islands of the Lesser Antilles, within the West Indies.-Name and geography:The Windward Islands are called such because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds in the...
, including Grenada, where, on October 15, Joan made landfall. There were also no casualties in any of Aruba
Aruba
Aruba is a 33 km-long island of the Lesser Antilles in the southern Caribbean Sea, located 27 km north of the coast of Venezuela and 130 km east of Guajira Peninsula...
, Bonaire, or Curaçao
Curaçao
Curaçao is an island in the southern Caribbean Sea, off the Venezuelan coast. The Country of Curaçao , which includes the main island plus the small, uninhabited island of Klein Curaçao , is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands...
. It is not known if there was any damage in the Lesser Antilles. In Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is an archipelagic state in the southern Caribbean, lying just off the coast of northeastern Venezuela and south of Grenada in the Lesser Antilles...
, Joan was described as a "minor inconvenience". Sustained winds up to 51 mph (82 km/h) with gusts up to 64 mph (103 km/h) were recorded on Grenada. Heavy rains amounted to 6 in (152.4 mm) in St. George's. Significant flooding was reported throughout the island, resulting in hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage. A rare invasion of African desert locust
Desert locust
Plagues of the desert locust have threatened agricultural production in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia for centuries. The livelihood of at least one-tenth of the world’s human population can be affected by this voracious insect...
s in the Windward Islands
Windward Islands
The Windward Islands are the southern islands of the Lesser Antilles, within the West Indies.-Name and geography:The Windward Islands are called such because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds in the...
were blamed on the storm.
South America
In VenezuelaVenezuela
Venezuela , officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela , is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south...
, 11 people were killed due to flash-flooding caused by heavy rains. Landslides and flooding killed 25 people in Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
. The rains and flooding left 27,000 people homeless. Throughout Colombia, damages amounted to $1 billion.
Nicaragua
Most of the destruction was in NicaraguaNicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
. Throughout the country, 148 people perished, 184 were badly hurt, and 100 were unaccounted for. Roughly 23,300 homes were destroyed, with 6,000 being damaged. Many settlements on the Atlantic coast of the country were completely destroyed. The national electric company had 620 miles (997.8 km) of downed power lines, at the cost of 2.5 million USD (1988 dollars). A port being constructed with Bulgarian help at El Bluff
El Bluff
El Bluff is a port city on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua within the bay of Bluefields. El Bluff handles limited cargo and has basic piers. It is also a base for the fishing vessels serving the Nicaraguan east coast going out to sea.-See also:Nicaragua...
was severely damaged. On a brighter note, public health
Public health
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" . It is concerned with threats to health based on population health...
measures managed to keep the death toll lower than it could have been.
Bluefields was hit with extreme impact. Almost all of the 7,500 structures in the city were demolished or had their roofs blown off. The majority of the main buildings in the city were destroyed. The hurricane also wreaked havoc on agriculture in the country. Around 15,700 head of cattle, 20,000 pigs, and 456,000 chickens were killed. The hurricane caused severe disruption in most of Nicaragua's remaining rain forests in the areas it hit, and also stripped trees of leaves. In the southeast rain forests, Joan toppled or snapped 80 percent of the trees and completely destroyed 500000 hectares (1,235,525.8 acre) of canopy. Hurricane Joan caused transportation difficulties in the country. Floodwaters destroyed 30 bridges and seriously damaged 36 others. Roads totaling 404 miles (650.2 km) in length were washed away.
In an unfortunate coincidence, Hurricane Joan hit shortly after an armed conflict in the region had started to cool off. The hurricane destroyed much of the infrastructure in Nicaragua, contributing to a recession
Recession
In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction, a general slowdown in economic activity. During recessions, many macroeconomic indicators vary in a similar way...
that was already underway. The losses to cash crop
Cash crop
In agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for profit.The term is used to differentiate from subsistence crops, which are those fed to the producer's own livestock or grown as food for the producer's family...
s severely reduced exports to under 200 million dollars (1988 USD). These factors combined to aggravate a recession and deepen the economic crisis. Government spending to rebuild infrastructure negated recently-introduced anti-inflation
Inflation
In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a period of time.When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation also reflects an erosion in the purchasing power of money – a...
measures. Hurricane Joan was a partial cause of Nicaraguans being, on average, worse-off than they were in the 1970s. In all, the storm left at least 250,000 people homeless. Total damages in the country amounted to $751.1 million. Joan was the first major hurricane to strike Nicaragua since 1911.
Rest of Central America
In Costa RicaCosta Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
, 28 people were killed, 75 were injured, and 18 were missing. Rainfall caused 20 rivers to burst their banks, flooding 75 settlements, including the city of Quepos, Costa Rica on the Pacific coast. At Ciudad Neily, Costa Rica, the Rio Corredores broke through a dike. In total, 7,500 Costa Ricans were rendered homeless. Damages in Costa Rica amounted to $65 million.
In the remaining portions of Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
, heavy rainfall, locally exceeding 300 millimetres (11.8 in), was reported. These rains caused flooding and landslides, especially in mountainous regions. Those heavy rains caused seven deaths in Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
and left $60 million in damages.
Mexico
In MexicoMexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
, heavy rainfall associated with Tropical Storm Miriam caused the cancellation of flights from the airport at Tuxtla Gutiérrez
Tuxtla Gutiérrez
Tuxtla Gutiérrez is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Chiapas. It is considered to be the state’s most modern city, with most of its public buildings dating from the 20th century. One exception to this is the San Marcos Cathedral which began as a Dominican parish church built in...
. The highest rainfall reported recorded was 10.37 inches (263.4 mm) at Lazaro Cardenas. In small settlements, rivers were flooded and mudslides were reported. Casualties from the flooding are not known.
Aftermath
The response to requests for international aid was moderate. American church groups, CubaCuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
, and Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
collectively contributed around 2,500 tons of food and medicine. The Canadian
Government of Canada
The Government of Canada, formally Her Majesty's Government, is the system whereby the federation of Canada is administered by a common authority; in Canadian English, the term can mean either the collective set of institutions or specifically the Queen-in-Council...
, Swedish
Government of Sweden
The Government of the Kingdom of Sweden is the supreme executive authority of Sweden. It consists of the Prime Minister and cabinet ministers appointed by the Prime Minister. The Government is responsible for their actions to the Riksdag, which is the legislative assembly...
, West German
West Germany
West Germany is the common English, but not official, name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990....
, Spanish, and Dutch Governments
Cabinet of the Netherlands
The cabinet of the Netherlands is the main executive body of the Dutch government. The current cabinet of the Netherlands is the Rutte cabinet.-Composition and role:...
contributed aid amounting to 2 million dollars (1988) each. No aid was sent by the United States government. The Soviet Union contributed an unknown sum. The slow response to requests for aid was contributed to by the Sandinista Government's actions, which was viewed by a few anonymous diplomats from other countries who commented to the press, as undermining the peace process championed by Óscar Arias
Óscar Arias
Óscar Arias Sánchez is a Costa Rican politician who was President of Costa Rica from 2006 to 2010. He previously served as President from 1986 to 1990 and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to end civil wars then raging in several other Central American countries.He is also a...
. Those actions were the July 10 arrests of opposition activists and the closing down of independent radio stations. In addition, the government also barred foreign humanitarian groups from receiving American aid, as well as turning back a relief shipment days before the storm.
On October 28, 1988, the United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly, see:* General Assembly members* General Assembly observersThe United Nations General Assembly is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation...
passed without a vote Resolution 17 of its 43rd session in response to the disaster. The resolution called on countries to contribute to the relief effort.
Retirement
The name Joan was retired in 1989 and replaced by Joyce on the list for the 1994 season1994 Atlantic hurricane season
The 1994 Atlantic hurricane seasonofficially began June 1, 1994, and officially ended November 30, 1994. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin....
. The name will never again be used in the Atlantic. The name Joyce, however, was not used until 2000 due to an El Niño in 1994 nor during 2006 for that same reason. Because the impact of the Miriam portion of the tropical cyclone was minimal, the name Miriam was not retired in the Pacific and is still on the list of names for that basin, slated to be used next in 2012.
See also
- Hurricane Irene–OliviaHurricane Irene–OliviaHurricane Irene–Olivia was the first actively tracked tropical cyclone which moved into the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Atlantic basin. It originated as a tropical depression on September 11, 1971, in the tropical Atlantic. The cyclone tracked nearly due westward at a low latitude, passing...
of 1971 - List of tropical cyclones
- List of South America cyclones
- List of Atlantic hurricanes
- List of Atlantic–Pacific crossover hurricanes
