Heraclius the Elder
Encyclopedia
Heraclius the Elder (died 610) was an East Roman (Byzantine)
general and the father of Byzantine
Emperor Heraclius
(r. 610–641). Of Armenian origin, the elder Heraclius distinguished himself in the wars against the Sassanid Persians in the 580s. Ca. 600, he was appointed as the Exarch
of Africa
. In 608, he rebelled with his son against the usurper Phocas
(r. 602–610). Using Africa as a base, the younger Heraclius managed to overthrow Phocas, beginning the Heraclian dynasty, which would rule Byzantium for a century. Heraclius the Elder died soon after receiving news of his son's accession.
origin. His origin is deduced by a passage of Theophylact Simocatta
which considers him a native of Byzantine Armenia
. The passage reports "And so Philippicus
had learned during his journey that Priscus
had been accredited as general by the emperor (Maurice
); on reaching Tarsus
he composed messages to Heraclius which indicated that, after leaving the army, he should return to his own city when he came to Armenia, and surrender the army to Narses, the commander of the city of Constantina
". Heraclius' own city is not specifically mentioned. Mary and Michael Whitby suggest that Heraclius was at the time the magister militum
per Armeniam
. If so, "his city" was Theodosiopolis (modern Erzurum
), the headquarters of the Roman forces in Armenia. As the chief military stronghold along the northeastern border of the empire, Theodosiopolis held a highly important strategic location and was fiercely contested in wars
between the Byzantines and Persians. Emperors Anastasius I
and Justinian I
both refortified the city and built new defenses during their reigns.
Nothing is known of the specific ancestry of Heraclius the Elder, but this has not prevented modern historians from speculating on the matter. Cyril Mango
has supported a theory which suggests that he was a namesake descendant of Heraclius of Edessa
, a 5th-century Roman general. A passage from Sebeos
' History has been understood to suggest an Arsacid
origin of Heraclius. This theory was strongly supported by Cyril Toumanoff
, while considered likely by Alexander Vasiliev and Irfan Shahîd
. John of Nikiû
and Constantine Manasses
seem to consider his son, Heraclius the Younger, to be a Cappadocia
n, which might indicate his place of birth rather than actual ancestry.
. Theophanes the Confessor
mentions Epiphania as the mother of Emperor Heraclius, thus wife of Heraclius the Elder. Heraclius the Elder is mentioned as the father of Emperor Heraclius in several sources, including Theophylact, John of Nikiû
, Nikephoros I, Theophanes, Agapius the historian
, the Suda
, Georgios Kedrenos, Joannes Zonaras
, Michael the Syrian
, the Chronicle of 1234
and Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos. In contrast, there is no source mentioning him in the same sentence as the siblings of Emperor Heraclius. That he was their father can be safely assumed though.
The best attested sibling of Heraclius the Younger was arguably Theodore
. Maria, sister of Heraclius the Younger, is mentioned by Nikephoros I and identified as mother of Martina, whom Heraclius theYounger would go on to marry. It should be noted however that both Kedrenos and Michael the Syrian consider Martina to have been a daughter of an unnamed brother of Heraclius the Younger, thus casting some doubt on the precise relation. Finally, Theophanes briefly mentions another Gregoras as a brother of Heraclius the Younger on the occasion of the former's death at Heliopolis (modern Baalbek
) c. 652/653. This is the only mention of this sibling. Theophanes however might have misunderstood the relation between Gregoras and the emperor.
during the Roman–Persian War of 572–591. Heraclius commanded the center of the Byzantine army at the Battle of Solachon
in spring 586. Following the battle, he was sent on a scouting mission to confirm the rumour of the arrival of Persian reinforcements.
The Byzantine force went on to invade Arzanene
. Philippicus besieged Chlomaron, the chief city of the area. At this point Jovius and Maruthas, two local leaders, defected to the Byzantines. They promised to help locate the ideal positions for building impregnable forts that would control the passage through the Taurus Mountains
and Hakkâri
, allowing the Byzantines to control the routes that connected Arzanene with Persarmenia
and Lower Mesopotamia. Philippicus assigned Heraclius, noted at this point as his second-in-command (hypostrategos), to follow the guides to the strong points indicated.
Twenty men accompanied Heraclius in the mission. They left without their armour. Their party soon encountered Kardarigan
leading a new Persian army. Theophylact notes that "Kardarigan was marching against the Romans, having enrolled throngs, who were not soldiers but men inexperienced in martial clamour; he had in addition assembled a herd of baggage animals and camels, and was moving forwards." Nevertheless, Kardarigan attempted to attack Heraclius' ill-equipped unit, and Heraclius had to escape by moving from ridge
to ridge. By night, he sent a messenger to warn Philippicus of the approaching threat.
Philippicus' forces fled in disorder back into Roman territory. He managed to reach Amida
and then set about restoring the old forts on Mount Izala
. There, possibly due to illness, he handed over command of his army to Heraclius. Theophylact narrates: " He [Philippicus] gave part of the army to Heraclius, since he was himself overwhelmed by pain and unable to fight. Heraclius marshaled his soldiery and camped opposite the foothills of Izala, or rather the banks of the river Tigris
. Accordingly Heraclius left Thamanon [a location on the eastern banks of the Tigris], advanced towards the southern parts of Media
, and ravaged the whole of that area. He even traversed the Tigris and urged the army forward, burning everything of importance in that part of Media. Then he re-entered the Roman state, circled past Theodosiopolis, and once again rejoined the men with Philippicus". Theophylact indicates Philipiccus and Heraclius wintered together at Theodosiopolis.
In spring 587, Philippicus was again ill, and unable to campaign in person. He assigned two thirds of his army to Heraclius and the remainder to generals Theodore and Andreas, and sent them to raid Persian territory. Heraclius besieged an unnamed strong fort, relentlessly using his siege engine
s day and night until it fell. After installing a garrison in the captured fort, Theophanes the Confessor reports that Heraclius proceeded to join general Theodore at the siege of Beioudaes, but this seems to be an error. Theophanes seems to have misunderstood the relevant passage of Theophylact which has Theodore and Andreas joining at that siege.
In late 587, Philippicus planned to return to Constantinople
, leaving Heraclius in charge of the army for the winter season. Heraclius took measures to restore discipline to the troops. According to Theophylact, "Heraclius inflicted penalties for desertion on the vagrants from the Roman force; and those who had bidden farewell to labour, and who were aimlessly wandering hither and thither, were converted to good sense by punishments." In early 588, Emperor Maurice
(r. 582–602) replaced Philippicus with Priscus
. Philippicus wrote to Heraclius, ordering him to leave the army in the care of Narses
and return to Armenia. But the same letters notified the soldiers of an imperial decree which reduced their pay by one-quarter. This led to a mutiny of the troops, who refused to follow Priscus' orders. The mutiny was only ended when the order was rescinded and Philippicus re-appointed as commander of the eastern army.
, in the Battle of Sisarbanon (autumn 589), in the vicinity of Nisibis. According to the account of Theophylact, Comentiolus supposedly fled towards Theodosiopolis (modern Ra's al-'Ayn
) while the battle was still ongoing. Heraclius took charge of the remaining troops and led them to victory. Theophylact however lived and wrote during the reign of Heraclius the Younger, and is strongly biased in favour of his father. His account is thus suspect of exaggerating or even inventing Comentiolus' cowardice with the aim of glorifying Heraclius. The contemporary Evagrius Scholasticus
for instance credits Comentiolus with being in the thick of combat, and does not mention Heraclius the Elder at all.
. The history of Sebeos
provides the main account of his term. He was sent by Maurice to face Armenian rebels led by Samuel Vahewuni and Atat Khorkhoruni. Heraclius was assisted by Hamazasp Mamikonian
.
""Then [the emperor] ordered the general Heraclius who was located in the country of Armenia to take his troops and go against [the rebels] in battle. ... Then [the rebels] looted whatever they found, taking a great deal of booty, and departed to the secure Korduats' country. They wanted to have the stronghold there. Now the Byzantine forces with general Heraclius and Hamazasp Mamikonean pursued them. [The rebels] approached the stronghold, crossing by bridge the river called Jermay (which is styled Daniel's bridge). They cut down the bridge and fortified themselves in a pass where they held the site of the bridge. [The Byzantines] were on the [opposite] riverbank wondering what to do. Because they were unable to find a ford, they wanted to depart. But unexpectedly, a traveling priest strayed into their midst. They seized him and said: "If you do not show us the river's ford, we will kill you." [The traveller] took the forces and showed them the ford [at a place] below where they were. All the troops crossed the river. Some of them held [watch over] the stronghold, others the bridgehead. [Some] held the mouth of the valley, others entered the stronghold and battled with them. The devastation was enormous, and [the rebels] were worn out."
"Killed in the battle were Nerses, Vstam, and Samuel, who killed quite a few [warriors] around them in fight. But Sargis and Varaz Nerseh were arrested along with some others. They were taken to the city of Karin
and later beheaded. When they were about to be beheaded, Varaz Nerseh said to Sargis: "Let's cast lots to see whom they kill first." But Sargis replied: "I am an old, blame-worthy man. I beg you, grant me this little respite, that I not see your death." So they beheaded him first. Now T'eodoros Trpatuni fled to the court of the Iranian king (Khosrau II
), for refuge. But [the king] ordered him bound and delivered into the hands of his enemies to be put to death. And [the king] visited severe misfortunes upon him.
Heraclius seems to have been replaced by Suren. His service in Armenia was brief, but arguably reinforced his ties to the country.
. According to Patriarch Nikephoros, Heraclius had been appointed to the position by Maurice, thus prior to the latter's deposition and death in 602. He might have replaced Innocentius, a temporary exarch appointed between 598 and 600. The appointment suggests that Heraclius enjoyed the favor of Maurice and would have reason to remain loyal to him. Heraclius and his African court notably lamented the death and execution of Maurice and posthumously praised the fallen emperor.
The exarchs of Africa were effectively Governor-General
s with both civilian and military powers. Their seat of power was Carthage
. Historians of the late 19th and early 20th century ascribed much significance to this appointment, even suggesting it would require prominent ties of Heraclius to Africa or the wider Western Roman Empire
. Later historians pointed however that this appointment was part of a wider pattern. In the 6th century, several prominent Byzantine military commanders had started their careers in the eastern regions of the Empire, often in the vicinity of Upper Mesopotamia. Then they were transferred to North Africa
at some point in their respective careers. There is therefore no indication that this rotation from the eastern to the western provinces was unusual.
Charles Diehl
regarded early 7th-century Byzantine Africa to have undergone an economic and demographic decline, being under constant threat by hostile Berbers
. Later historians have had to revise this pictures in light of archaeological
evidence, however: the Exarchate was among the most affluent areas of the Byzantine Empire, though of lesser wealth and significance than Egypt. It seems to have seen much less warfare than the Balkans
, Mesopotamia
and the Caucasus
did in that era, thus allowing its residents a safer way of life. There is evidence of ongoing trade between Byzantine Africa and Frankish Gaul during the 7th century. Agriculture
was thriving, particularly in the vicinity of the Medjerda River
. The production of grain, olive oil and wine kept the local population well-fed and probably supplied their maritime trade. Fishing
seems to have been another thriving field. The local elite seems to have invested in the building of churches. The main testaments to their existence and activities are examples of funerary art
, particularly mosaic
s. Heraclius seems to have established ties with this elite. His son, Heraclius the Younger, married his first wife Eudokia during the 600s. Her father was Rogas, a landowner in the Exarchate.
. The subsequent campaign against Phocas was portrayed by Byzantine historians as avenging the death of Maurice, which might have been part of the motivation of this revolt. The other part however would be what Walter Emil Kaegi termed "cold political calculations": Carthage was at a safe distance from Constantinople and Phocas could not easily launch an attack against it. The relative wealth of the Exarchate of Africa could well enough finance a revolt. Phocas' regime arguably needed the grain and revenues from Africa, while the Exarchate sustained itself with relative ease. Meanwhile, the Persiah shah Khosrau II
had secured control of Dara
and was mobilizing his troops for a large-scale invasion into Byzantine territories. News of this campaign could have well reached Heraclius. With Phocas facing two separate military fronts
, the emperor would be unable to concentrate the majority of his troops on either one of them, encouraging Heraclius of his chances to succeed in this confrontation.
After their revolt, Heraclius the Elder and Heraclius the Younger were proclaimed joint consuls
. There is no indication in the sources on how this was achieved, i.e. whether Heraclius was self-appointed or officially proclaimed by the Senate of Carthage, "whose members had no legal right to designate a Roman consul". Nevertheless, the significance of the proclamation was evident. No private individuals had been proclaimed consuls since the reign of Justinian I
(527–565). Since then it was merely another title exclusively used by the Byzantine Emperors. By this proclamation Heraclius was arguably making a first step towards becoming emperor himself, while legitimizing his connection to the long history of Rome. The mints of Carthage and later Alexandria
produced coins depicting Heraclius and his namesake son wearing consular robes.
John of Antioch
and the Patriarch Nikephoros both report that Heraclius the elder maintained correspondence with Priscus, the Count of the Excubitors and former commander of the army. By that time Priscus was the son-in-law of Phocas but reportedly held a grudge against the emperor. He allegedly promised Heraclius support in case of a rebellion and confirmed it once the rebellion had started. The story is somewhat suspect. While there was major dissension in Constantinople and Priscus did in time defect to Heraclius, there is nothing to suggest that Priscus helped incite the revolt. Patriarch Nikephoros reports that Heraclius the Elder held council with his brother Gregoras before proclaiming his revolt, possibly indicating that Gregoras was acting as his advisor. He also reports that Gregoras hoped to promote his own son Nicetas to the throne, although this is considered unlikely at best by modern historians.
The situation in 609–610 was quickly becoming dire for Phocas and his loyalists. Their defense against the Sassanid Empire
had failed. There were Persian forces in Mesopotamia
, Armenia, Syria
and the Anatolia
n provinces. Rebel Byzantine forces held Africa and Egypt. Slavs
were occupying northern Illyricum
. In Thessalonica
and various towns of Anatolia and Syria, the Blues and Greens
were settling their differences with open conflict. In areas of Syria, the Jews
were revolting and lynching Christians. Even in Constantinople, the crowds taunted Phocas for his love of liquor
, implying alcoholism
.
In 610, the Persian general Shahrbaraz
was approaching Antioch
. But the Persian front was not the immediate threat: the rebels of Africa were. Having secured control of Egypt, they proceeded to invade Syria and Cyprus
while a large fleet under Heraclius the Younger set sail for Constantinople. Supporters from Sicily
, Crete
and Thessalonica were joining his campaign. The rebels reached Constantinople in October 610. The only forces available to Phocas to defend the city were the Excubitors
of his bodyguard and the irregular forces of the Blues and Greens, the city's racing factions. Priscus, the commander of the Excubitors, chose the moment to reveal his allegiance to Heraclius. The Greens also changed sides. Constantinople fell with relative ease.
Heraclius the Younger became the new emperor. Phocas was executed, along with several of his kinsmen and loyalists. According to John of Nikiu
, Heraclius the Elder rejoiced at the news of his son rising to the throne, but died soon afterwards.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
general and the father of Byzantine
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
Emperor Heraclius
Heraclius
Heraclius was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641.He was responsible for introducing Greek as the empire's official language. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, successfully led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas.Heraclius'...
(r. 610–641). Of Armenian origin, the elder Heraclius distinguished himself in the wars against the Sassanid Persians in the 580s. Ca. 600, he was appointed as the Exarch
Exarch
In the Byzantine Empire, an exarch was governor with extended authority of a province at some remove from the capital Constantinople. The prevailing situation frequently involved him in military operations....
of Africa
Exarchate of Africa
The Exarchate of Africa or of Carthage, after its capital, was the name of an administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire encompassing its possessions on the Western Mediterranean, ruled by an exarch, or viceroy...
. In 608, he rebelled with his son against the usurper Phocas
Phocas
Phocas was Byzantine Emperor from 602 to 610. He usurped the throne from the Emperor Maurice, and was himself overthrown by Heraclius after losing a civil war.-Origins:...
(r. 602–610). Using Africa as a base, the younger Heraclius managed to overthrow Phocas, beginning the Heraclian dynasty, which would rule Byzantium for a century. Heraclius the Elder died soon after receiving news of his son's accession.
Origin
Heraclius was of ArmenianArmenians
Armenian people or Armenians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.The largest concentration is in Armenia having a nearly-homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian....
origin. His origin is deduced by a passage of Theophylact Simocatta
Theophylact Simocatta
Theophylact Simocatta was an early seventh-century Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as the last historian of Late Antiquity, writing in the time of Heraclius about the late Emperor Maurice .-Life:His history of the reign of emperor Maurice is in eight books...
which considers him a native of Byzantine Armenia
Byzantine Armenia
Byzantine Armenia is the name given to the Armenian part of the Byzantine Empire. The size of the territory varied over time, depending on the degree of control the Byzantines had over Armenia....
. The passage reports "And so Philippicus
Philippicus (general)
Philippicus or Philippikos was an East Roman general, comes excubitorum, and brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice. His successful career as a general spanned several decades, chiefly against the Persians.- Under Maurice :...
had learned during his journey that Priscus
Priscus (general)
Priscus was a leading East Roman general during the reigns of the Byzantine emperors Maurice , Phocas and Heraclius . Although the contemporary sources are markedly biased in his favour, Priscus comes across as an effective and capable military leader...
had been accredited as general by the emperor (Maurice
Maurice (emperor)
Maurice was Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602.A prominent general in his youth, Maurice fought with success against the Sassanid Persians...
); on reaching Tarsus
Tarsus, Mersin
Tarsus is a historic city in south-central Turkey, 20 km inland from the Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Adana-Mersin Metropolitan Area, the fourth-largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of 2.75 million...
he composed messages to Heraclius which indicated that, after leaving the army, he should return to his own city when he came to Armenia, and surrender the army to Narses, the commander of the city of Constantina
Viransehir
Viranşehir is a market town serving a cotton-growing area of Şanlıurfa Province, in southeastern Turkey, 93 km east of Şanlıurfa city and 53 km north-west of the Syrian border at Ceylanpınar...
". Heraclius' own city is not specifically mentioned. Mary and Michael Whitby suggest that Heraclius was at the time the magister militum
Magister militum
Magister militum was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine. Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer of the Empire...
per Armeniam
Roman Armenia
From the end of the 1st century BC onwards, Armenia was, in part or whole, subject to the Roman Empire and its successor, the East Roman or Byzantine Empire...
. If so, "his city" was Theodosiopolis (modern Erzurum
Erzurum
Erzurum is a city in Turkey. It is the largest city, the capital of Erzurum Province. The city is situated 1757 meters above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 361,235 in the 2000 census. .Erzurum, known as "The Rock" in NATO code, served as NATO's southeastern-most air force post during the...
), the headquarters of the Roman forces in Armenia. As the chief military stronghold along the northeastern border of the empire, Theodosiopolis held a highly important strategic location and was fiercely contested in wars
Roman-Persian Wars
The Roman–Persian Wars were a series of conflicts between states of the Greco-Roman world and two successive Iranic empires: the Parthian and the Sassanid. Contact between the Parthian Empire and the Roman Republic began in 92 BC; wars began under the late Republic, and continued...
between the Byzantines and Persians. Emperors Anastasius I
Anastasius I
Anastasius I or Anastasios I may refer to:*Anastasius I , Roman Emperor from 491 to 518*Pope Anastasius I , pope from November 27, 399 to 401...
and Justinian I
Justinian I
Justinian I ; , ; 483– 13 or 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.One of the most important figures of...
both refortified the city and built new defenses during their reigns.
Nothing is known of the specific ancestry of Heraclius the Elder, but this has not prevented modern historians from speculating on the matter. Cyril Mango
Cyril Mango
Cyril Alexander Mango is a British scholar in the history, art, and architecture of the Byzantine Empire. He is a former King's College London and Oxford professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek Language and Literature. He is the brother of Andrew Mango.One of his major works The Mosaics of St...
has supported a theory which suggests that he was a namesake descendant of Heraclius of Edessa
Heraclius of Edessa
Heraclius of Edessa was an Eastern Roman Empire general who took part in the failed campaign against the Vandals in 468.- Biography :...
, a 5th-century Roman general. A passage from Sebeos
Sebeos
Sebeos was a 7th century Armenian bishop and historian who participated in the first Council of Dvin in 645.The history of Sebeos contains detailed descriptions from the period of Sassanid supremacy in Armenia up to the Islamic conquest in 661...
' History has been understood to suggest an Arsacid
Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia
The Arsacid dynasty or Arshakuni dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Armenia from 54 AD to 428 AD. Formerly a branch of the Iranian Parthian Arsacids, they became a distinctly Armenian dynasty. Arsacid Kings reigned intermittently throughout the chaotic years following the fall of the Artaxiad Dynasty...
origin of Heraclius. This theory was strongly supported by Cyril Toumanoff
Cyril Toumanoff
Cyril Leo Heraclius, Prince Toumanoff was an United States-based historian and genealogist who mostly specialized in the history and genealogies of medieval Georgia, Armenia, the Byzantine Empire, and Iran...
, while considered likely by Alexander Vasiliev and Irfan Shahîd
Irfan Shahid
Irfan Shahid, also written Shahîd in Arabic: عرفان شهيد, is Professor Emeritus at Georgetown University. Since 1982 he has been the Oman Professor of Arabic and Islamic Studies....
. John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû was an Egyptian Coptic bishop of Nikiû/Pashati in the Nile Delta and appointed general administrator of the monasteries of Upper Egypt in 696...
and Constantine Manasses
Constantine Manasses
Constantine Manasses was a Byzantine chronicler who flourished in the 12th century during the reign of Manuel I Komnenos . He was the author of a chronicle or historical synopsis of events from the creation of the world to the end of the reign of Nikephoros Botaneiates , sponsored by Irene...
seem to consider his son, Heraclius the Younger, to be a Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
n, which might indicate his place of birth rather than actual ancestry.
Family
The Historia syntomos of Patriarch Nikephoros I of Constantinople mentions a single brother of Heraclius the Elder, named Gregoras, who was the father of NicetasNicetas (cousin of Heraclius)
Nicetas was the cousin of Emperor Heraclius, helping him the wars against Phocas and the Persians in the Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628. He helped Heraclius revolt against Phocas by conquering Egypt in 610. At Egypt, Nicetas established a power base because of his friendship with Patriarch John...
. Theophanes the Confessor
Theophanes the Confessor
Saint Theophanes Confessor was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy, who became a monk and chronicler. He is venerated on March 12 in the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church .-Biography:Theophanes was born in Constantinople of wealthy and noble iconodule parents: Isaac,...
mentions Epiphania as the mother of Emperor Heraclius, thus wife of Heraclius the Elder. Heraclius the Elder is mentioned as the father of Emperor Heraclius in several sources, including Theophylact, John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû was an Egyptian Coptic bishop of Nikiû/Pashati in the Nile Delta and appointed general administrator of the monasteries of Upper Egypt in 696...
, Nikephoros I, Theophanes, Agapius the historian
Agapius the historian
Agapius son of Constantine was a 10th century Arabic Christian writer, best known for his lengthy Kitab al-'Unwan . He was the Melkite bishop of Manbij .He was contemporary with the annalist Eutychius , also a Melchite...
, the Suda
Suda
The Suda or Souda is a massive 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Suidas. It is an encyclopedic lexicon, written in Greek, with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often...
, Georgios Kedrenos, Joannes Zonaras
Joannes Zonaras
Ioannes Zonaras was a Byzantine chronicler and theologian, who lived at Constantinople.Under Emperor Alexios I Komnenos he held the offices of head justice and private secretary to the emperor, but after Alexios' death, he retired to the monastery of St Glykeria, where he spent the rest of his...
, Michael the Syrian
Michael the Syrian
Michael the Syrian , also known as Michael the Great or Michael Syrus or Michael the Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew, was a patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church from 1166 to 1199. He is best known today as the author of the largest medieval Chronicle, which he composed in Syriac...
, the Chronicle of 1234
Chronicle of 1234
The Chronicle of 1234 is an anonymous West Syriac universal history from Creation until AD 1234. The unknown author was probably from Edessa. The Chronicle only survives in fragments, from which it is known to be divided into two parts: the first on ecclesiastical history, the second on secular...
and Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos. In contrast, there is no source mentioning him in the same sentence as the siblings of Emperor Heraclius. That he was their father can be safely assumed though.
The best attested sibling of Heraclius the Younger was arguably Theodore
Theodore (brother of Heraclius)
Theodore was the brother of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius , a curopalates and leading general in Heraclius' wars against the Persians and against the Arab invasions.-Life:...
. Maria, sister of Heraclius the Younger, is mentioned by Nikephoros I and identified as mother of Martina, whom Heraclius theYounger would go on to marry. It should be noted however that both Kedrenos and Michael the Syrian consider Martina to have been a daughter of an unnamed brother of Heraclius the Younger, thus casting some doubt on the precise relation. Finally, Theophanes briefly mentions another Gregoras as a brother of Heraclius the Younger on the occasion of the former's death at Heliopolis (modern Baalbek
Baalbek
Baalbek is a town in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon, altitude , situated east of the Litani River. It is famous for its exquisitely detailed yet monumentally scaled temple ruins of the Roman period, when Baalbek, then known as Heliopolis, was one of the largest sanctuaries in the Empire...
) c. 652/653. This is the only mention of this sibling. Theophanes however might have misunderstood the relation between Gregoras and the emperor.
Under Philippicus
Heraclius the Elder is first mentioned in 586 as a general serving under PhilippicusPhilippicus (general)
Philippicus or Philippikos was an East Roman general, comes excubitorum, and brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice. His successful career as a general spanned several decades, chiefly against the Persians.- Under Maurice :...
during the Roman–Persian War of 572–591. Heraclius commanded the center of the Byzantine army at the Battle of Solachon
Battle of Solachon
The Battle of Solachon was fought in 586 CE in northern Mesopotamia between the East Roman forces, led by General Philippicus, the brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice The Battle of Solachon was fought in 586 CE in northern Mesopotamia between the East Roman (Byzantine) forces, led by General...
in spring 586. Following the battle, he was sent on a scouting mission to confirm the rumour of the arrival of Persian reinforcements.
Aghdznik
Aghdznik , also known as Altzniq or Arzanene, was a province of Greater Armenia. It covered an area of , divided into 11 districts:*Angegh-home*Tigranakert*Arzn*Qagh*Ketik*Tatik*Aznvadzor*Erkhetq*Gzeghq*Salnodzor*Sasun....
. Philippicus besieged Chlomaron, the chief city of the area. At this point Jovius and Maruthas, two local leaders, defected to the Byzantines. They promised to help locate the ideal positions for building impregnable forts that would control the passage through the Taurus Mountains
Taurus Mountains
Taurus Mountains are a mountain complex in southern Turkey, dividing the Mediterranean coastal region of southern Turkey from the central Anatolian Plateau. The system extends along a curve from Lake Eğirdir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in the east...
and Hakkâri
Hakkari
Hakkâri , is a city and the capital of the Hakkâri Province of Turkey. The name Hakkâri is derived from the Syriac word, Akkare, meaning farmers...
, allowing the Byzantines to control the routes that connected Arzanene with Persarmenia
Persarmenia
Nor-Shirakan or Persarmenia , also known as Adiabene, was part of Greater Armenia, but now situated on the western shore of Lake Urmia in northern Iran. Following the partition of Greater Armenia between the Roman Empire and Sassanid Empire in 387, the territory under Sassanid influence became to...
and Lower Mesopotamia. Philippicus assigned Heraclius, noted at this point as his second-in-command (hypostrategos), to follow the guides to the strong points indicated.
Twenty men accompanied Heraclius in the mission. They left without their armour. Their party soon encountered Kardarigan
Kardarigan (6th century)
Kardarigan was a Sassanid Persian general of the late 6th century, who fought in the Byzantine–Persian War of 572–591. Since he is recorded as being old enough to have an adult nephew in 586, it is uncertain whether he is the same as the general of the same name who fought in the later wars of the...
leading a new Persian army. Theophylact notes that "Kardarigan was marching against the Romans, having enrolled throngs, who were not soldiers but men inexperienced in martial clamour; he had in addition assembled a herd of baggage animals and camels, and was moving forwards." Nevertheless, Kardarigan attempted to attack Heraclius' ill-equipped unit, and Heraclius had to escape by moving from ridge
Ridge
A ridge is a geological feature consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that form a continuous elevated crest for some distance. Ridges are usually termed hills or mountains as well, depending on size. There are several main types of ridges:...
to ridge. By night, he sent a messenger to warn Philippicus of the approaching threat.
Philippicus' forces fled in disorder back into Roman territory. He managed to reach Amida
Amida (Roman city)
Amida was an ancient city located where modern Diyarbakır, Turkey. The Roman writers Ammianus Marcellinus and Procopius consider it a city of Mesopotamia, but it may be more properly viewed as belonging to Armenia Major....
and then set about restoring the old forts on Mount Izala
Mount Izla
Mt. Izla , also Mountain of Nisibis, or briefly in the 9th century, Mt. Kashyari, is a low mountain or ridge near Nisibis in what once was Sassanid Persia, but is now southeastern Turkey, along the border with Syria. The ridge is the location of dozens of ancient monasteries which were built in...
. There, possibly due to illness, he handed over command of his army to Heraclius. Theophylact narrates: " He [Philippicus] gave part of the army to Heraclius, since he was himself overwhelmed by pain and unable to fight. Heraclius marshaled his soldiery and camped opposite the foothills of Izala, or rather the banks of the river Tigris
Tigris
The Tigris River is the eastern member of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of southeastern Turkey through Iraq.-Geography:...
. Accordingly Heraclius left Thamanon [a location on the eastern banks of the Tigris], advanced towards the southern parts of Media
Medes
The MedesThe Medes...
, and ravaged the whole of that area. He even traversed the Tigris and urged the army forward, burning everything of importance in that part of Media. Then he re-entered the Roman state, circled past Theodosiopolis, and once again rejoined the men with Philippicus". Theophylact indicates Philipiccus and Heraclius wintered together at Theodosiopolis.
In spring 587, Philippicus was again ill, and unable to campaign in person. He assigned two thirds of his army to Heraclius and the remainder to generals Theodore and Andreas, and sent them to raid Persian territory. Heraclius besieged an unnamed strong fort, relentlessly using his siege engine
Siege engine
A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some have been operated close to the fortifications, while others have been used to attack from a distance. From antiquity, siege engines were constructed largely of wood and...
s day and night until it fell. After installing a garrison in the captured fort, Theophanes the Confessor reports that Heraclius proceeded to join general Theodore at the siege of Beioudaes, but this seems to be an error. Theophanes seems to have misunderstood the relevant passage of Theophylact which has Theodore and Andreas joining at that siege.
In late 587, Philippicus planned to return to Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, leaving Heraclius in charge of the army for the winter season. Heraclius took measures to restore discipline to the troops. According to Theophylact, "Heraclius inflicted penalties for desertion on the vagrants from the Roman force; and those who had bidden farewell to labour, and who were aimlessly wandering hither and thither, were converted to good sense by punishments." In early 588, Emperor Maurice
Maurice (emperor)
Maurice was Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602.A prominent general in his youth, Maurice fought with success against the Sassanid Persians...
(r. 582–602) replaced Philippicus with Priscus
Priscus (general)
Priscus was a leading East Roman general during the reigns of the Byzantine emperors Maurice , Phocas and Heraclius . Although the contemporary sources are markedly biased in his favour, Priscus comes across as an effective and capable military leader...
. Philippicus wrote to Heraclius, ordering him to leave the army in the care of Narses
Narses (general under Maurice)
Narses was a Byzantine general of Armenian ancestry active during the reigns of the emperors Maurice and Phocas in the late sixth and early seventh centuries. He commanded the army in Mesopotamia under Maurice; when Phocas overthrew Maurice and seized the throne, Narses refused to recognize the...
and return to Armenia. But the same letters notified the soldiers of an imperial decree which reduced their pay by one-quarter. This led to a mutiny of the troops, who refused to follow Priscus' orders. The mutiny was only ended when the order was rescinded and Philippicus re-appointed as commander of the eastern army.
Under Comentiolus
Heraclius resurfaces a year later, under the command of ComentiolusComentiolus
Comentiolus was a prominent Eastern Roman general at the close of the 6th century, during the reign of Emperor Maurice . He played a major role in Maurice's Balkan campaigns, and fought also in the East against the Persians.- Life :...
, in the Battle of Sisarbanon (autumn 589), in the vicinity of Nisibis. According to the account of Theophylact, Comentiolus supposedly fled towards Theodosiopolis (modern Ra's al-'Ayn
Ra's al-'Ayn
Ra's al-'Ayn is a Syrian city administratively belonging to Al-Hasakah Governorate. Ra's al-'Ayn has an altitude of 360 m. It has a population of 55,247, many of them being Assyrian/Syriacs, Arabs, Kurds, Armenians, Chechens, or Syrian Turkmen. There is a border crossing to Ceylanpınar in Turkey...
) while the battle was still ongoing. Heraclius took charge of the remaining troops and led them to victory. Theophylact however lived and wrote during the reign of Heraclius the Younger, and is strongly biased in favour of his father. His account is thus suspect of exaggerating or even inventing Comentiolus' cowardice with the aim of glorifying Heraclius. The contemporary Evagrius Scholasticus
Evagrius Scholasticus
Evagrius Scholasticus was a Syrian scholar and intellectual living in the 6th century AD, and an aide to the patriarch Gregory of Antioch. His surviving work, Ecclesiastical History, comprises a six-volume collection concerning the Church's history from the First Council of Ephesus to Maurice’s...
for instance credits Comentiolus with being in the thick of combat, and does not mention Heraclius the Elder at all.
Armenian revolt
Heraclius is mentioned again c. 595 as magister militum per Armeniam, probably succeeding John MystaconJohn Mystacon
John, surnamed Mystacon, "the mustachioed", , was a prominent East Roman general in the wars with Sassanid Persia during the reigns of Byzantine emperors Tiberius II and Maurice ....
. The history of Sebeos
Sebeos
Sebeos was a 7th century Armenian bishop and historian who participated in the first Council of Dvin in 645.The history of Sebeos contains detailed descriptions from the period of Sassanid supremacy in Armenia up to the Islamic conquest in 661...
provides the main account of his term. He was sent by Maurice to face Armenian rebels led by Samuel Vahewuni and Atat Khorkhoruni. Heraclius was assisted by Hamazasp Mamikonian
Mamikonian
Mamikonian, Mamikoneans, or Mamigonian was a noble family which dominated Armenian politics between the 4th and 8th century. They ruled the Armenian regions of Taron, Sasun, Bagrevand and others...
.
""Then [the emperor] ordered the general Heraclius who was located in the country of Armenia to take his troops and go against [the rebels] in battle. ... Then [the rebels] looted whatever they found, taking a great deal of booty, and departed to the secure Korduats' country. They wanted to have the stronghold there. Now the Byzantine forces with general Heraclius and Hamazasp Mamikonean pursued them. [The rebels] approached the stronghold, crossing by bridge the river called Jermay (which is styled Daniel's bridge). They cut down the bridge and fortified themselves in a pass where they held the site of the bridge. [The Byzantines] were on the [opposite] riverbank wondering what to do. Because they were unable to find a ford, they wanted to depart. But unexpectedly, a traveling priest strayed into their midst. They seized him and said: "If you do not show us the river's ford, we will kill you." [The traveller] took the forces and showed them the ford [at a place] below where they were. All the troops crossed the river. Some of them held [watch over] the stronghold, others the bridgehead. [Some] held the mouth of the valley, others entered the stronghold and battled with them. The devastation was enormous, and [the rebels] were worn out."
"Killed in the battle were Nerses, Vstam, and Samuel, who killed quite a few [warriors] around them in fight. But Sargis and Varaz Nerseh were arrested along with some others. They were taken to the city of Karin
Karin, Armenia
Karin is a town in the Aragatsotn Province of Armenia. The town is in the community of Sasunik....
and later beheaded. When they were about to be beheaded, Varaz Nerseh said to Sargis: "Let's cast lots to see whom they kill first." But Sargis replied: "I am an old, blame-worthy man. I beg you, grant me this little respite, that I not see your death." So they beheaded him first. Now T'eodoros Trpatuni fled to the court of the Iranian king (Khosrau II
Khosrau II
250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II (Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" – (in Persian: خسرو پرویز), was the twenty-second Sassanid King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628...
), for refuge. But [the king] ordered him bound and delivered into the hands of his enemies to be put to death. And [the king] visited severe misfortunes upon him.
Heraclius seems to have been replaced by Suren. His service in Armenia was brief, but arguably reinforced his ties to the country.
Exarch of Africa
Heraclius is next mentioned in 608 as Patrician and Exarch of AfricaExarchate of Africa
The Exarchate of Africa or of Carthage, after its capital, was the name of an administrative division of the Eastern Roman Empire encompassing its possessions on the Western Mediterranean, ruled by an exarch, or viceroy...
. According to Patriarch Nikephoros, Heraclius had been appointed to the position by Maurice, thus prior to the latter's deposition and death in 602. He might have replaced Innocentius, a temporary exarch appointed between 598 and 600. The appointment suggests that Heraclius enjoyed the favor of Maurice and would have reason to remain loyal to him. Heraclius and his African court notably lamented the death and execution of Maurice and posthumously praised the fallen emperor.
The exarchs of Africa were effectively Governor-General
Governor-General
A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...
s with both civilian and military powers. Their seat of power was Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
. Historians of the late 19th and early 20th century ascribed much significance to this appointment, even suggesting it would require prominent ties of Heraclius to Africa or the wider Western Roman Empire
Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire was the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 285; the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly referred to today as the Byzantine Empire....
. Later historians pointed however that this appointment was part of a wider pattern. In the 6th century, several prominent Byzantine military commanders had started their careers in the eastern regions of the Empire, often in the vicinity of Upper Mesopotamia. Then they were transferred to North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
at some point in their respective careers. There is therefore no indication that this rotation from the eastern to the western provinces was unusual.
Charles Diehl
Charles Diehl
Charles Diehl was a French historian who was a native of Strasbourg. He was a leading authority on Byzantine art and history....
regarded early 7th-century Byzantine Africa to have undergone an economic and demographic decline, being under constant threat by hostile Berbers
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
. Later historians have had to revise this pictures in light of archaeological
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
evidence, however: the Exarchate was among the most affluent areas of the Byzantine Empire, though of lesser wealth and significance than Egypt. It seems to have seen much less warfare than the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
, Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (Roman province)
Mesopotamia was the name of two distinct Roman provinces, the one a short-lived creation of the Roman Emperor Trajan in 116–117 and the other established by Emperor Septimius Severus in ca. 198, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century....
and the Caucasus
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia , is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea...
did in that era, thus allowing its residents a safer way of life. There is evidence of ongoing trade between Byzantine Africa and Frankish Gaul during the 7th century. Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
was thriving, particularly in the vicinity of the Medjerda River
Medjerda River
The Mejerda River is a river in Algeria and Tunisia. With a length of 450 km it is the longest river of Tunisia. It originates in northeastern Algeria and then flows eastwards to Tunisia, then entering the Gulf of Utica of the Mediterranean Sea...
. The production of grain, olive oil and wine kept the local population well-fed and probably supplied their maritime trade. Fishing
Fishing
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....
seems to have been another thriving field. The local elite seems to have invested in the building of churches. The main testaments to their existence and activities are examples of funerary art
Funerary art
Funerary art is any work of art forming, or placed in, a repository for the remains of the dead. Tomb is a general term for the repository, while grave goods are objects—other than the primary human remains—which have been placed inside...
, particularly mosaic
Mosaic
Mosaic is the art of creating images with an assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It may be a technique of decorative art, an aspect of interior decoration, or of cultural and spiritual significance as in a cathedral...
s. Heraclius seems to have established ties with this elite. His son, Heraclius the Younger, married his first wife Eudokia during the 600s. Her father was Rogas, a landowner in the Exarchate.
Revolt against Phocas
In 608, the Exarchate of Africa under Heraclius the Elder revolted against Emperor PhocasPhocas
Phocas was Byzantine Emperor from 602 to 610. He usurped the throne from the Emperor Maurice, and was himself overthrown by Heraclius after losing a civil war.-Origins:...
. The subsequent campaign against Phocas was portrayed by Byzantine historians as avenging the death of Maurice, which might have been part of the motivation of this revolt. The other part however would be what Walter Emil Kaegi termed "cold political calculations": Carthage was at a safe distance from Constantinople and Phocas could not easily launch an attack against it. The relative wealth of the Exarchate of Africa could well enough finance a revolt. Phocas' regime arguably needed the grain and revenues from Africa, while the Exarchate sustained itself with relative ease. Meanwhile, the Persiah shah Khosrau II
Khosrau II
250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II (Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" – (in Persian: خسرو پرویز), was the twenty-second Sassanid King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628...
had secured control of Dara
Dara (Mesopotamia)
Dara or Daras was an important East Roman fortress city in northern Mesopotamia on the border with the Sassanid Empire. Because of its great strategic importance, it featured prominently in the Roman-Persian conflicts of the 6th century, with the famous Battle of Dara taking place before its walls...
and was mobilizing his troops for a large-scale invasion into Byzantine territories. News of this campaign could have well reached Heraclius. With Phocas facing two separate military fronts
Front (military)
A military front or battlefront is a contested armed frontier between opposing forces. This can be a local or tactical front, or it can range to a theater...
, the emperor would be unable to concentrate the majority of his troops on either one of them, encouraging Heraclius of his chances to succeed in this confrontation.
After their revolt, Heraclius the Elder and Heraclius the Younger were proclaimed joint consuls
Roman consul
A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...
. There is no indication in the sources on how this was achieved, i.e. whether Heraclius was self-appointed or officially proclaimed by the Senate of Carthage, "whose members had no legal right to designate a Roman consul". Nevertheless, the significance of the proclamation was evident. No private individuals had been proclaimed consuls since the reign of Justinian I
Justinian I
Justinian I ; , ; 483– 13 or 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.One of the most important figures of...
(527–565). Since then it was merely another title exclusively used by the Byzantine Emperors. By this proclamation Heraclius was arguably making a first step towards becoming emperor himself, while legitimizing his connection to the long history of Rome. The mints of Carthage and later Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
produced coins depicting Heraclius and his namesake son wearing consular robes.
John of Antioch
John of Antioch (chronicler)
John of Antioch was chronicler in the 7th century. He was a monk, apparently contemporary with Emperor Heraclius . Gelzer identifies the author with the Monophysite Patriarch John of Antioch, who ruled from 630 to 648.John of Antioch's chronicle, Historia chronike, is a universal history...
and the Patriarch Nikephoros both report that Heraclius the elder maintained correspondence with Priscus, the Count of the Excubitors and former commander of the army. By that time Priscus was the son-in-law of Phocas but reportedly held a grudge against the emperor. He allegedly promised Heraclius support in case of a rebellion and confirmed it once the rebellion had started. The story is somewhat suspect. While there was major dissension in Constantinople and Priscus did in time defect to Heraclius, there is nothing to suggest that Priscus helped incite the revolt. Patriarch Nikephoros reports that Heraclius the Elder held council with his brother Gregoras before proclaiming his revolt, possibly indicating that Gregoras was acting as his advisor. He also reports that Gregoras hoped to promote his own son Nicetas to the throne, although this is considered unlikely at best by modern historians.
The situation in 609–610 was quickly becoming dire for Phocas and his loyalists. Their defense against the Sassanid Empire
Sassanid Empire
The Sassanid Empire , known to its inhabitants as Ērānshahr and Ērān in Middle Persian and resulting in the New Persian terms Iranshahr and Iran , was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 to 651...
had failed. There were Persian forces in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (Roman province)
Mesopotamia was the name of two distinct Roman provinces, the one a short-lived creation of the Roman Emperor Trajan in 116–117 and the other established by Emperor Septimius Severus in ca. 198, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century....
, Armenia, Syria
Syria (Roman province)
Syria was a Roman province, annexed in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursuing victory in the Third Mithridatic War. It remained under Roman, and subsequently Byzantine, rule for seven centuries, until 637 when it fell to the Islamic conquests.- Principate :The...
and the Anatolia
Anatolia
Anatolia is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey...
n provinces. Rebel Byzantine forces held Africa and Egypt. Slavs
Slavic peoples
The Slavic people are an Indo-European panethnicity living in Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia. The term Slavic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people, who speak languages belonging to the Slavic language family and share, to varying degrees, certain...
were occupying northern Illyricum
Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum
The praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was one of four praetorian prefectures into which the Late Roman Empire was divided.The administrative centre of the prefecture was Sirmium , and, after 379, Thessalonica...
. In Thessalonica
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki , historically also known as Thessalonica, Salonika or Salonica, is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the region of Central Macedonia as well as the capital of the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace...
and various towns of Anatolia and Syria, the Blues and Greens
Hippodrome of Constantinople
The Hippodrome of Constantinople was a circus that was the sporting and social centre of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. Today it is a square named Sultanahmet Meydanı in the Turkish city of Istanbul, with only a few fragments of the original structure surviving...
were settling their differences with open conflict. In areas of Syria, the Jews
Jews of the Byzantine Empire
The history of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire has been well-recorded and preserved.-Background and legal standing:The juridical standing of the Jews of the Byzantine Empire was unique during the entire history of the Empire; they did not belong to the Christian Eastern Orthodox faith, which was...
were revolting and lynching Christians. Even in Constantinople, the crowds taunted Phocas for his love of liquor
Alcoholic beverage
An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three general classes: beers, wines, and spirits. They are legally consumed in most countries, and over 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption...
, implying alcoholism
Alcoholism
Alcoholism is a broad term for problems with alcohol, and is generally used to mean compulsive and uncontrolled consumption of alcoholic beverages, usually to the detriment of the drinker's health, personal relationships, and social standing...
.
In 610, the Persian general Shahrbaraz
Shahrbaraz
Shahrbaraz or Shahrwaraz was a general, with the rank of Eran Spahbod under Khosrau II . His name was Farrokhan, and Shahrbaraz was his title...
was approaching Antioch
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the...
. But the Persian front was not the immediate threat: the rebels of Africa were. Having secured control of Egypt, they proceeded to invade Syria and Cyprus
Cyprus in the Middle Ages
The Medieval history of Cyprus starts with the division of the Roman Empire into an Eastern and Western half.-Byzantine period:After the division of the Roman Empire into an eastern half and a western half, Cyprus came under the rule of Byzantium...
while a large fleet under Heraclius the Younger set sail for Constantinople. Supporters from Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
and Thessalonica were joining his campaign. The rebels reached Constantinople in October 610. The only forces available to Phocas to defend the city were the Excubitors
Excubitors
The Excubitors were founded in circa 460 AD as the imperial guards of the early Byzantine emperors. Their commanders soon acquired great influence and provided a series of emperors in the 6th century...
of his bodyguard and the irregular forces of the Blues and Greens, the city's racing factions. Priscus, the commander of the Excubitors, chose the moment to reveal his allegiance to Heraclius. The Greens also changed sides. Constantinople fell with relative ease.
Heraclius the Younger became the new emperor. Phocas was executed, along with several of his kinsmen and loyalists. According to John of Nikiu
John of Nikiû
John of Nikiû was an Egyptian Coptic bishop of Nikiû/Pashati in the Nile Delta and appointed general administrator of the monasteries of Upper Egypt in 696...
, Heraclius the Elder rejoiced at the news of his son rising to the throne, but died soon afterwards.