Battle of Solachon
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Solachon was fought in 586 CE in northern Mesopotamia
between the East Roman (Byzantine)
forces, led by General Philippicus
, the brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice
(r. 582–602), and the Sassanid Persians under Kardarigan
.
The Roman–Persian War of 572–591 had been going on inconclusively for several years by 586, with both sides roughly evenly balanced, and periods of truce and negotiations succeeding periods of active warfare. In 586, hostilities resumed, and Philippicus moved to intercept the anticipated Persian invasion. He strategically located his army at Solachon, controlling the various routes of the Mesopotamian plain, and especially access to the main local watering source, the Arzamon river. Kardarigan advanced against him and met the Byzantine force already deployed in battle order. The Persians attacked and prevailed in the centre, but the Byzantines held and their wings broke through the Persians in the flanks. The Persian army collapsed and fled, with many dying in the desert of thirst or from water poisoning. Kardarigan himself survived and held out with a part of his army on a hillock for several days against Byzantine attacks.
The battle, although a major Byzantine victory which improved the Byzantine position in Mesopotamia, was not in the end decisive. The war dragged on until 591, when it ended with a negotiated settlement between Maurice and shah Khosrau II
(r. 590–628).
(r. 565–578) refused to renew the annual payments to Persia that had been part of the peace agreement concluded by his uncle, Justinian I
(r. 527–565) and the Persian shah Khosrau I
(r. 531–579) in 562. This marked the culmination of the progressive deterioration between the two powers' relations over the previous years, following Byzantine contacts with the Göktürks
for a joint effort against Persia, the Persian intervention in Yemen
against Axumite rule there, and the outbreak of a major revolt in Persian Armenia.
Justin's refusal was tantamount to a declaration of war, the fourth fought between the two great powers of Late Antiquity
in the 6th century. The conflict proved inconclusive, and became a drawn-out affair, with Byzantine victories followed by Persian successes, intermittent negotiations and temporary truces. In 582, Maurice
, who had served as a general in the war, ascended the throne at Constantinople
; by that time, the Persians had gained the upper hand in Mesopotamia
, where they had captured the major fortress of Dara
in 574, while the Byzantines prevailed in Arzanene. For the next few years, both states refrained from major operations.
per Orientem
, i.e. the commander-in-chief for the Mesopotamian front. In 586, after Maurice rejected new Persian peace proposals, Philippicus advanced south from his base at Amida
, crossed the Arzamon river (modern Zergan) to its eastern bank and advanced some 15 km east to the plain of Solachon, where he pitched his camp. This position, south of the fortresses of Mardes (modern Mardin
) and Dara, allowed his army to control the passage of the Arzamon river, and meant that the Persian army under Kardarigan ("black hawk", a honorific title rather than a proper name) would have to advance across the waterless plain away from their supply routes before meeting his force.
On the Persian side, Kardarigan was confident in his army. He arranged to be escorted by many camels carrying water for his troops in case the Byzantines refused to engage but continued to block access to the Arzamon, and had allegedly prepared iron bars and chains for the prisoners he would take. His movements, however, were detected when the Byzantines' Arab foederati
captured a few of his men, allowing Philippicus to prepare his forces. This was of particular importance since Kardarigan intended to attack on Sunday, a day of rest for the Christian Byzantines.
units included. When Philippicus' scouts reported the Persians' approach, he positioned his men on elevated ground facing the direction from which the Persian army approached, with his left flank protected by the foothills of Mount Izalas. The Byzantines appear to have been arranged in a single battle line with three divisions. The left division was commanded by Eiliphredas, the dux
of Phoenice Libanensis, and included a Hunnic
contingent of horse-archers under Apsich. The center was commanded by the general Heraclius the Elder
, later Exarch of Africa and father of Emperor Heraclius
(r. 610–641), while the right wing was commanded by the taxiarchos Vitalius. This arrangement was also adopted by the Persians as soon as they came into view of the Byzantine army. On the Persian side, the right division was under Mebodes, the center under Kardarigan himself, and the left wing under Kardarigan's nephew, Aphraates. Unlike the Persian general, Philippicus remained with a small force at some distance behind the main battle line, from where he could direct the battle.
After a short halt to leave their baggage train behind and form a battle line, the Persian army quickly advanced on the Byzantines, shooting arrows as they approached. The Byzantines responded in kind, and then sallied forth to meet the oncoming enemy. On the Byzantine right, Vitalius was quickly victorious, his heavy cavalry breaking through the Persian flank and pushing his opponents to the left behind their own main line. At this point, however, disaster threatened as many of Vitalius' troopers broke formation and headed towards the enemy camp, intending to loot it. Philippicus, however, saw what had happened and reacted quickly. He gave his distinctive helmet to one of his bodyguards, and sent him to rally the cavalry on pain of punishment by the army commander himself. The ruse worked: the men recognized the helmet and returned to order, just in time, for in the center, the Persians had regrouped and were pushing the numerically inferior Byzantines back.
To counter this, Philippicus ordered the men of the central division to dismount and form a shield-wall with their lances projecting from it (the fulcum tactic). It is not clear what happened next, but apparently the Byzantine archers shot at the Persians' horses, breaking their momentum. At the same time, the Byzantine left managed to launch a successful counter-thrust which drove back the opposing Persian right in disarray. Soon, the Persian right broke and fled, pursued by the Byzantines. With both wings having disintegrated, the Persian center was now subject to an attack from the reformed Byzantine right, which drove them towards the area once occupied by the Persian right. Outnumbered and attacked from several sides, the Persians soon began to break and flee.
The defeated army suffered greatly, not only from the Byzantine pursuit, but also due to lack of water: before the battle, Kardarigan had ordered the water supplies shed to the ground, trying to make his men fight harder to break through the Byzantine army and reach the Arzamon. In addition, the surviving Persians were refused entry into Dara. As Theophylact Simocatta
narrates, many Persians died of thirst or from water poisoning when they drank too much water after their ordeal. Kardarigan himself had managed to find refuge on a nearby hilltop with a small detachment, and withstood several Byzantine attacks. Finally, after three or four days, the Byzantines, not aware that the enemy commander was there, abandoned the effort. Kardarigan thus escaped, although his men suffered further casualties, up to a thousand according to Theophylact, in the process from Byzantine patrols.
, and in its aftermath they began to re-establish their control over the region around Dara. War, however, continued for a few years without a decision, until the revolt of Bahram Chobin
caused the rightful Persian shah, Khosrau II
(r. 590–628), to find refuge in Byzantine territory. A joint expedition restored him to his throne, and a peace treaty was concluded in 591 which left most of Armenia in Byzantine hands.
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
between the East Roman (Byzantine)
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
forces, led by General Philippicus
Philippicus (general)
Philippicus or Philippikos was an East Roman general, comes excubitorum, and brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice. His successful career as a general spanned several decades, chiefly against the Persians.- Under Maurice :...
, the brother-in-law of Emperor Maurice
Maurice (emperor)
Maurice was Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602.A prominent general in his youth, Maurice fought with success against the Sassanid Persians...
(r. 582–602), and the Sassanid Persians under Kardarigan
Kardarigan (6th century)
Kardarigan was a Sassanid Persian general of the late 6th century, who fought in the Byzantine–Persian War of 572–591. Since he is recorded as being old enough to have an adult nephew in 586, it is uncertain whether he is the same as the general of the same name who fought in the later wars of the...
.
The Roman–Persian War of 572–591 had been going on inconclusively for several years by 586, with both sides roughly evenly balanced, and periods of truce and negotiations succeeding periods of active warfare. In 586, hostilities resumed, and Philippicus moved to intercept the anticipated Persian invasion. He strategically located his army at Solachon, controlling the various routes of the Mesopotamian plain, and especially access to the main local watering source, the Arzamon river. Kardarigan advanced against him and met the Byzantine force already deployed in battle order. The Persians attacked and prevailed in the centre, but the Byzantines held and their wings broke through the Persians in the flanks. The Persian army collapsed and fled, with many dying in the desert of thirst or from water poisoning. Kardarigan himself survived and held out with a part of his army on a hillock for several days against Byzantine attacks.
The battle, although a major Byzantine victory which improved the Byzantine position in Mesopotamia, was not in the end decisive. The war dragged on until 591, when it ended with a negotiated settlement between Maurice and shah Khosrau II
Khosrau II
250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II (Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" – (in Persian: خسرو پرویز), was the twenty-second Sassanid King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628...
(r. 590–628).
Background
In 572, the then Byzantine ruler Justin IIJustin II
Justin II was Byzantine Emperor from 565 to 578. He was the husband of Sophia, nephew of Justinian I and the late Empress Theodora, and was therefore a member of the Justinian Dynasty. His reign is marked by war with Persia and the loss of the greater part of Italy...
(r. 565–578) refused to renew the annual payments to Persia that had been part of the peace agreement concluded by his uncle, Justinian I
Justinian I
Justinian I ; , ; 483– 13 or 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.One of the most important figures of...
(r. 527–565) and the Persian shah Khosrau I
Khosrau I
Khosrau I , also known as Anushiravan the Just or Anushirawan the Just Khosrau I (also called Chosroes I in classical sources, most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan or Anushirwan, Persian: انوشيروان meaning the immortal soul), also known as Anushiravan the Just or Anushirawan the Just...
(r. 531–579) in 562. This marked the culmination of the progressive deterioration between the two powers' relations over the previous years, following Byzantine contacts with the Göktürks
Göktürks
The Göktürks or Kök Türks, were a nomadic confederation of peoples in medieval Inner Asia. Known in Chinese sources as 突厥 , the Göktürks under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan The Göktürks or Kök Türks, (Old Turkic: Türük or Kök Türük or Türük; Celestial Turks) were a nomadic confederation of...
for a joint effort against Persia, the Persian intervention in Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
against Axumite rule there, and the outbreak of a major revolt in Persian Armenia.
Justin's refusal was tantamount to a declaration of war, the fourth fought between the two great powers of Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world. Precise boundaries for the period are a matter of debate, but noted historian of the period Peter Brown proposed...
in the 6th century. The conflict proved inconclusive, and became a drawn-out affair, with Byzantine victories followed by Persian successes, intermittent negotiations and temporary truces. In 582, Maurice
Maurice (emperor)
Maurice was Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602.A prominent general in his youth, Maurice fought with success against the Sassanid Persians...
, who had served as a general in the war, ascended the throne at Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
; by that time, the Persians had gained the upper hand in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.Widely considered to be the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer and the...
, where they had captured the major fortress of Dara
Dara (Mesopotamia)
Dara or Daras was an important East Roman fortress city in northern Mesopotamia on the border with the Sassanid Empire. Because of its great strategic importance, it featured prominently in the Roman-Persian conflicts of the 6th century, with the famous Battle of Dara taking place before its walls...
in 574, while the Byzantines prevailed in Arzanene. For the next few years, both states refrained from major operations.
Initial moves and dispositions
In 584, Maurice appointed his brother-in-law, Philippicus, as magister militumMagister militum
Magister militum was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine. Used alone, the term referred to the senior military officer of the Empire...
per Orientem
Diocese of the East
The Diocese of the East was a diocese of the later Roman Empire, incorporating the provinces of the western Middle East, between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia...
, i.e. the commander-in-chief for the Mesopotamian front. In 586, after Maurice rejected new Persian peace proposals, Philippicus advanced south from his base at Amida
Amida (Roman city)
Amida was an ancient city located where modern Diyarbakır, Turkey. The Roman writers Ammianus Marcellinus and Procopius consider it a city of Mesopotamia, but it may be more properly viewed as belonging to Armenia Major....
, crossed the Arzamon river (modern Zergan) to its eastern bank and advanced some 15 km east to the plain of Solachon, where he pitched his camp. This position, south of the fortresses of Mardes (modern Mardin
Mardin
Mardin is a city in southeastern Turkey. The capital of Mardin Province, it is known for its Arabic-like architecture, and for its strategic location on a rocky mountain overlooking the plains of northern Syria.-History:...
) and Dara, allowed his army to control the passage of the Arzamon river, and meant that the Persian army under Kardarigan ("black hawk", a honorific title rather than a proper name) would have to advance across the waterless plain away from their supply routes before meeting his force.
On the Persian side, Kardarigan was confident in his army. He arranged to be escorted by many camels carrying water for his troops in case the Byzantines refused to engage but continued to block access to the Arzamon, and had allegedly prepared iron bars and chains for the prisoners he would take. His movements, however, were detected when the Byzantines' Arab foederati
Foederati
Foederatus is a Latin term whose definition and usage drifted in the time between the early Roman Republic and the end of the Western Roman Empire...
captured a few of his men, allowing Philippicus to prepare his forces. This was of particular importance since Kardarigan intended to attack on Sunday, a day of rest for the Christian Byzantines.
Battle
Both armies appear to have been composed exclusively of cavalry, composed of a mix of lancers and horse-archers, possibly with a few cataphractCataphract
A cataphract was a form of armored heavy cavalry utilised in ancient warfare by a number of peoples in Western Eurasia and the Eurasian Steppe....
units included. When Philippicus' scouts reported the Persians' approach, he positioned his men on elevated ground facing the direction from which the Persian army approached, with his left flank protected by the foothills of Mount Izalas. The Byzantines appear to have been arranged in a single battle line with three divisions. The left division was commanded by Eiliphredas, the dux
Dux
Dux is Latin for leader and later for Duke and its variant forms ....
of Phoenice Libanensis, and included a Hunnic
Huns
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. Since de Guignes linked them with the Xiongnu, who had been northern neighbours of China 300 years prior to the emergence of the Huns,...
contingent of horse-archers under Apsich. The center was commanded by the general Heraclius the Elder
Heraclius the Elder
Heraclius the Elder was an East Roman general and the father of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius . Of Armenian origin, the elder Heraclius distinguished himself in the wars against the Sassanid Persians in the 580s. Ca. 600, he was appointed as the Exarch of Africa. In 608, he rebelled with his son...
, later Exarch of Africa and father of Emperor Heraclius
Heraclius
Heraclius was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641.He was responsible for introducing Greek as the empire's official language. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, successfully led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas.Heraclius'...
(r. 610–641), while the right wing was commanded by the taxiarchos Vitalius. This arrangement was also adopted by the Persians as soon as they came into view of the Byzantine army. On the Persian side, the right division was under Mebodes, the center under Kardarigan himself, and the left wing under Kardarigan's nephew, Aphraates. Unlike the Persian general, Philippicus remained with a small force at some distance behind the main battle line, from where he could direct the battle.
After a short halt to leave their baggage train behind and form a battle line, the Persian army quickly advanced on the Byzantines, shooting arrows as they approached. The Byzantines responded in kind, and then sallied forth to meet the oncoming enemy. On the Byzantine right, Vitalius was quickly victorious, his heavy cavalry breaking through the Persian flank and pushing his opponents to the left behind their own main line. At this point, however, disaster threatened as many of Vitalius' troopers broke formation and headed towards the enemy camp, intending to loot it. Philippicus, however, saw what had happened and reacted quickly. He gave his distinctive helmet to one of his bodyguards, and sent him to rally the cavalry on pain of punishment by the army commander himself. The ruse worked: the men recognized the helmet and returned to order, just in time, for in the center, the Persians had regrouped and were pushing the numerically inferior Byzantines back.
To counter this, Philippicus ordered the men of the central division to dismount and form a shield-wall with their lances projecting from it (the fulcum tactic). It is not clear what happened next, but apparently the Byzantine archers shot at the Persians' horses, breaking their momentum. At the same time, the Byzantine left managed to launch a successful counter-thrust which drove back the opposing Persian right in disarray. Soon, the Persian right broke and fled, pursued by the Byzantines. With both wings having disintegrated, the Persian center was now subject to an attack from the reformed Byzantine right, which drove them towards the area once occupied by the Persian right. Outnumbered and attacked from several sides, the Persians soon began to break and flee.
The defeated army suffered greatly, not only from the Byzantine pursuit, but also due to lack of water: before the battle, Kardarigan had ordered the water supplies shed to the ground, trying to make his men fight harder to break through the Byzantine army and reach the Arzamon. In addition, the surviving Persians were refused entry into Dara. As Theophylact Simocatta
Theophylact Simocatta
Theophylact Simocatta was an early seventh-century Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as the last historian of Late Antiquity, writing in the time of Heraclius about the late Emperor Maurice .-Life:His history of the reign of emperor Maurice is in eight books...
narrates, many Persians died of thirst or from water poisoning when they drank too much water after their ordeal. Kardarigan himself had managed to find refuge on a nearby hilltop with a small detachment, and withstood several Byzantine attacks. Finally, after three or four days, the Byzantines, not aware that the enemy commander was there, abandoned the effort. Kardarigan thus escaped, although his men suffered further casualties, up to a thousand according to Theophylact, in the process from Byzantine patrols.
Aftermath
Following the battle, Philippicus rewarded the soldiers who had distinguished themselves, and then proceeded to invade Arzanene again. His attempt to capture the fortress of Chlomaron was foiled, however, by Kardarigan who arrived with reinforcements. The victory of Solachon allowed the Byzantines to regain the upper hand in the region of the Tur AbdinTur Abdin
Tur Abdin is a hilly region of south east Turkey incorporating the eastern half of Mardin Province, and Şırnak Province west of the Tigris, on the border with Syria. The name 'Tur Abdin' is from the Syriac language meaning 'mountain of the servants '. Tur Abdin is of great importance to Syriac...
, and in its aftermath they began to re-establish their control over the region around Dara. War, however, continued for a few years without a decision, until the revolt of Bahram Chobin
Bahram Chobin
General Bahrām Chobin was a famous Eran spahbod during the late 6th century in Persia, usurping the Sassanid throne for a year as Bahram VI .- Life :...
caused the rightful Persian shah, Khosrau II
Khosrau II
250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II 250px|thumb|Khosrau II (Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" – (in Persian: خسرو پرویز), was the twenty-second Sassanid King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628...
(r. 590–628), to find refuge in Byzantine territory. A joint expedition restored him to his throne, and a peace treaty was concluded in 591 which left most of Armenia in Byzantine hands.