Cardinal protector of England
Encyclopedia
The Cardinal protector of England was an appointed crown-cardinal
of England
from 1492 until 1539. A cardinal protector
is the representative of a Roman Catholic nation or organization within the College of Cardinals
, appointed by the pope
. The role was terminated as a result of the English Reformation
.
The role of national protectorships
within the College developed during the fifteenth century, due to developments in the emergence of national monarchies and Renaissance diplomacy
. Cardinal protectors of Roman Catholic religious order
s date back farther to the thirteenth century. According to King Henry VIII
, the cardinal protector "indueth as it were our owne Person, for the defence of Us and our Realme in al matiers [in the Curia]...touching the same". The cardinal protector represented the monarch in consistory
, especially in cases where the right of investiture
was divided between the pope and the monarch, and also led the English diplomatic corps
in Rome.
Although earlier cardinals had filled similar roles, "the existence of national protectorships was first openly and regularly recognized only" by Pope Julius II
. The terms 'cardinal protector' and 'cardinal procurator' were "used very loosely and sometimes interchangeably during the fifteenth century". The earliest reference to a 'cardinal protector' of England dates from 1492, but according to Wilkie, this results from a confusion between this office and that of cardinal procurator.
Unlike other national cardinal protectors, the cardinal protectors of England, Scotland
, and Ireland
were generally chosen exclusively by the pope. The cardinal was "imposed from above, rather than chosen" and often had no direct relationship with the governments of these countries. The English cardinal protector played a large role in English ecclesiastical appointments, and a substantial role in similar appointments in Scotland and Ireland.
Francesco Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius III
, was the first cardinal protector of England, elevated on the initiative of King Henry VII
, and also the first officially approved cardinal protector of "any nation whatever". Henry VII viewed good relations with Rome as a protection against domestic and foreign enemies and sent Christopher Urswick
, his "almoner
and trusted councillor" to Rome after receiving a bull of dispensation to marry Elizabeth of York
. When Henry VII first sought a cardinal protector in 1492, he feared that many of the English bishops would support his Yorkist opponents (to whom they owed their appointments).
A variety of other disagreements existed, such as the papal income tax
and the refusal of the pope to create John Morton, the archbishop of Canterbury
, a cardinal; Innocent VII had passed over Morton in his first consistory
, despite creating two French cardinals. Nor had John Sherwood, the English ambassador in Rome, been created a cardinal in 1484, despite the request of King Richard III
. Piccolomini's creation as cardinal protector was requested by Henry VII in a letter congratulating the newly elected Pope Alexander VI
, and was confirmed in a response which was probably written by Giovanni Gigli.
Piccolomini was already the protector of the Camaldese Benedictines and was close to German princes, although he was not the German protector in any official sense, and his protectorship of England is "the first official one of any cardinal which can be firmly established". Henry VII did not object to Piccolomini's German connections, even viewing them as an asset against the French.
as cardinal on 31 May 1503 "eclipsed England's cardinal protector", with appointments to the English sees thereafter being referred through Castellesi instead of through Piccolomini. Piccolomini was himself elected as Pope Pius III
on 22 September 1503, only to die less than a month later, on October 18; Castellesi did not vote for him and Piccolomini was chosen for his perceived neutrality rather than for his English connections. According to the account of Castellesi, Pius III acknowledged him as his de facto successor as protector.
Castellesi was a favourite
of Pope Alexander VI
, which became a liability during the reign of Pope Julius II
. During Julius II's reign, Castellesi, "although neither requesting nor mentioning the office of protector of England, certainly presented himself to Henry VII as the cardinal responsible for English affairs in the Curia". In an attempt to secure his status against the intrigues of Silvestro Gigli, Castellesi donated his residence, the Palazzo Giraudi Torlonia on the present Via della Conciliazione
, to Henry VII. In 1504, Henry VII named six official members of his embassy, headed by Castellesi, and also including Sir Gilbert Talbot
, Richard Beere
, Robert Sherborne
, Silvestro Gigli, and Edward Scott.
Paris de Grassi, the master of papal ceremonies, referred to Castellesi as "Regis Protector" in his notes of a meeting between the embassy and the pope.
A letter from Julius II to Henry VII dated July 6, 1504, remarks that the king had chosen the pope's cardinal-nephew
Galeotto della Rovere as cardinal protector; the letter does not mention Castellesi. della Rovere's selection was likely arranged by Gigli. Castellesi was compensated by being promoted to the wealthier see of Bath and Wells. Castellesi lost favor with the king and fled Rome until the death of Julius II.
Rovere died on September 11, 1508, leaving England without a cardinal protector. Sherbone and Hugh Inge
were back in England; Scott was dead; Gigli was in England as nuncio
. The "only man on whose loyalty the king could truly rely" was Christopher Fisher, who was a "single, bumbling amateur" compared to the more seasoned curial diplomats who surrounded him. Henry VII himself died on April 21, 1509.
Another cardinal-nephew, Sisto della Rovere, who received the vice-chancellorship and all the benefice
s of his half-brother, was not explicitly named as protector, although he wrote to Henry VII stating his intent to "maintain his brother's friendships". Henry VIII replied to Sisto that he considered his friendship especially valuable, asserting that Sisto had been close to his father. There is no evidence that Sisto was offered the protectorship.
may have become cardinal protector, but this appointment "cannot be exactly established" as his only surviving letters to England do not mention the protectorate. Adiosi is explicitly mentioned as protector in a 1509 letter from Christopher Bainbridge
(the first English curial cardinal since the death of Adam Easton
in 1397), by which point Adiosi and go-between Girolamo Bonvisio were on the "brink of disgrace".
Bonvisio disclosed the contents of his discussions with the king to a French agent and confessed his being employed by Aldiosi under threat of torture; by this point Adiosi was no longer protector. According to an April 6, 1510 letter from the Venetian ambassador, the king dismissed Adiosi as protector and gave the post to Sisto della Rovere. There is no direct evidence that Sisto ever received the official title before he died in March 1517. Until the death of Julius II, Bainbridge "filled the vacuum, real or in effect, in the protectorship of England".
Castellesi returned to Rome on the death of Julius II on February 21, 1513 for the papal conclave, 1513
; although Castellesi "tactually" voted for Bainbridge on the second ballot, the two inevitably came into conflict as "rival representatives of England". The lack of consistorial records, which would list which cardinals referred the nominations of which bishops, are missing for this period, making it impossible to assess the extent of Bainbridge's role.
(future Pope Clement VII) to be cardinal protector of England. Medici's letter of appointment makes no reference to Sisto della Rovere. A February 8, 1514 letter from Pope Leo X
to Henry VIII of England
flatters the king for having elevated the pope's cardinal-nephew and cousin as protector. The pope's brother Giuliano de' Medici was also made a Knight of the Garter (just as Guidobaldo II della Rovere
had been made when della Rovere had been made protector).
Bainbridge was "short-circuited" by the appointment of Medici, although he continued to play a role until his death on July 14, 1514. Gigli was accused of having played a role in the death of Bainbridge and Medici was charged with examining the facts, concluding that Gigli was innocent. The period between Piccolomini and Medici (from 1503 to 1514) is one where the role of the protector was not well-defined. The importance of the office increased significantly with the appointment of Medici in 1514, due in no small part to the friendship between Medici and Wolsey. According to Wilkie, "its importance stemmed from the special relationship of the papacy with England as the most reliable supporter of papal independence".
Medici accepted the protectorship of France as well in 1516, meeting Francis I of France
personally in Bologna
, much to the "discomfiture of England". Medici was elected Clement VII on November 19, 1523.
Campeggio found his loyalty divided when he was appointed with Wolsey to judge the issue of the requested annulment of Henry VIII of England
from Catherine of Aragon
, the aunt of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
. Campeggio came out in favor of the legitimacy of the marriage, after considerable delay in traveling and reviewing the canonical evidence. The final sentence in the case was handed down in Rome in 1534, the same year the English Parliament passed the First Act of Supremacy
. Henry VIII was particularly displeased by Campeggio's "constant company with the emperor" in the years prior to his verdict and Campeggio's rapidly growing income, having been granted the bishpric of Huesca and Jaca in 1530, and the bishopric of Mallorca in 1532, both by Charles V.
In January 1531, Campeggio was dismissed as cardinal protector, although it did not become public knowledge until May. At first it was unclear whether Henry VIII intended to appoint a successor, with Giovanni Domenico de Cupis
emerging as an active candidate in March 1532. The king favored Alessandro Farnese
(future Pope Paul III), and instructed his ambassadors on March 21 to offer it to Farnese, and then de Cupis or Giovanni del Monte
(future Pope Julius III) in the event that Farnese declined or was not approved.
Not knowing that Henry VIII had already secretly married the pregnant Anne Boleyn
, Clement VII decided to reach out to the monarch by appointing Thomas Cranmer
, an outspoken proponent of Henry VIII's annulment, as archbishop of Canterbury
. A threatened excommunication was handed down when Cranmer pronounced Henry VIII's marriage null and void; Henry VIII responded by telling Campeggio's vicar general for Salisbury to stop all revenues from his bishopric until further notice. Henry VIII then claimed the authority to act on behalf of Campeggio in making various ecclesiastical appointments. The fifth session of the Reformation Parliament deprived Campeggio and Girolamo Ghinucci
of their English sees (unless they swore loyalty to the king). Unaware of this statute, two days later on March 23, 1534 Campeggio entered Consistory for the final ruling against annulment.
According to Wilkie, "years of cooperation from both popes and cardinal protectors had taught a wilful Henry VIII to expect to have his way over the church of England". Clement VII died on September 25 before learning of the denial of papal authority on March 31 by the Convocation of Canterbury. In the papal conclave, 1534
, Campeggio was the only cardinal to oppose Farnese's proposal for non-secret voting and the only cardinal not to kiss the feet of the newly elected Farnese as Paul III.
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Many in Rome still thought reconciliation with England was possible, and Paul III elevated two English cardinals, John Fisher
(at the time imprisoned and sentenced to death by Henry VIII) and Girolamo Ghinucci
. The execution of Fisher prompted Paul III to excommunicate and depose Henry VIII. While Campeggio lived, no attempt was made in Rome to fill any of the thirteen episcopal vacancies in England.
Queen Mary I of England
briefly reconciled with Rome and appointed Reginald Pole as archbishop of Canterbury. However, "papal restoration in England was doomed even before it was accomplished" when Mary I married Philip II of Spain
. In 1555, Pope Paul IV
named a new cardinal protector, Giovanni Morone
, but the queen did not confirm the nomination and Campeggio remained the last cardinal protector "chosen by the crown".
Meanwhile, loyalty to the pope became a defining feature of the movement for Irish nationalism
and bishops appointed by the pope garnered a larger following than the hierarchy of the church of Ireland appointed by the crown. According to Wilkie, "the cardinal protectors had assisted in the loss of England to the papacy, and Ireland remained loyal to the papacy in spite of them".
Not confirmed by the crown
Similar prior offices
Crown-cardinal
A crown-cardinal was a cardinal protector of a Catholic nation, nominated or funded by a Catholic monarch to serve as their representative within the College of Cardinals and, if applicable, exercise the jus exclusivae...
of England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
from 1492 until 1539. A cardinal protector
Cardinal protector
Since the thirteenth century it has been customary at Rome to confide to some particular Cardinal a special solicitude in the Roman Curia for the interests of a given religious order or institute, confraternity, church, college, city, nation etcetera. Such a person is known as a Cardinal Protector...
is the representative of a Roman Catholic nation or organization within the College of Cardinals
College of Cardinals
The College of Cardinals is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church.A function of the college is to advise the pope about church matters when he summons them to an ordinary consistory. It also convenes on the death or abdication of a pope as a papal conclave to elect a successor...
, appointed by the pope
Pope
The Pope is the Bishop of Rome, a position that makes him the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church . In the Catholic Church, the Pope is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter, the Apostle...
. The role was terminated as a result of the English Reformation
English Reformation
The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church....
.
The role of national protectorships
Protector (title)
Protector, sometimes spelled protecter, is used as a title or part of various historical titles of heads of state and others in authority...
within the College developed during the fifteenth century, due to developments in the emergence of national monarchies and Renaissance diplomacy
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states...
. Cardinal protectors of Roman Catholic religious order
Roman Catholic religious order
Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes.Subcategories are canons regular ; monastics ; mendicants Catholic religious orders are, historically, a category of Catholic religious institutes.Subcategories are canons regular (canons and canonesses regular...
s date back farther to the thirteenth century. According to King Henry VIII
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France...
, the cardinal protector "indueth as it were our owne Person, for the defence of Us and our Realme in al matiers [in the Curia]...touching the same". The cardinal protector represented the monarch in consistory
Consistory
-Antiquity:Originally, the Latin word consistorium meant simply 'sitting together', just as the Greek synedrion ....
, especially in cases where the right of investiture
Investiture
Investiture, from the Latin is a rather general term for the formal installation of an incumbent...
was divided between the pope and the monarch, and also led the English diplomatic corps
Diplomatic corps
The diplomatic corps or corps diplomatique is the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body.The diplomatic corps may, in certain contexts, refer to the collection of accredited heads of mission who represent their countries in another state or country...
in Rome.
Although earlier cardinals had filled similar roles, "the existence of national protectorships was first openly and regularly recognized only" by Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II , nicknamed "The Fearsome Pope" and "The Warrior Pope" , born Giuliano della Rovere, was Pope from 1503 to 1513...
. The terms 'cardinal protector' and 'cardinal procurator' were "used very loosely and sometimes interchangeably during the fifteenth century". The earliest reference to a 'cardinal protector' of England dates from 1492, but according to Wilkie, this results from a confusion between this office and that of cardinal procurator.
Unlike other national cardinal protectors, the cardinal protectors of England, Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
, and Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
were generally chosen exclusively by the pope. The cardinal was "imposed from above, rather than chosen" and often had no direct relationship with the governments of these countries. The English cardinal protector played a large role in English ecclesiastical appointments, and a substantial role in similar appointments in Scotland and Ireland.
Piccolomini (1492-1503)
Pope Pius III
Pope Pius III , born Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini, was Pope from September 22 to October 18, 1503.-Career:...
, was the first cardinal protector of England, elevated on the initiative of King Henry VII
Henry VII of England
Henry VII was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor....
, and also the first officially approved cardinal protector of "any nation whatever". Henry VII viewed good relations with Rome as a protection against domestic and foreign enemies and sent Christopher Urswick
Christopher Urswick
Christopher Urswick was a priest and confessor of Margaret Beaufort. He was Rector of Puttenham, Hampshire, and later Dean of Windsor...
, his "almoner
Almoner
An almoner is a chaplain or church officer who originally was in charge of distributing cash to the deserving poor.Historically, almoners were Christian religious functionaries whose duty was to distribute alms to the poor. Monasteries were required to spend one tenth of their income in charity to...
and trusted councillor" to Rome after receiving a bull of dispensation to marry Elizabeth of York
Elizabeth of York
Elizabeth of York was Queen consort of England as spouse of King Henry VII from 1486 until 1503, and mother of King Henry VIII of England....
. When Henry VII first sought a cardinal protector in 1492, he feared that many of the English bishops would support his Yorkist opponents (to whom they owed their appointments).
A variety of other disagreements existed, such as the papal income tax
Papal income tax
Papal income tax was first leveled in 1199 by Pope Innocent III, originally requiring all Catholic clergy to pay one-fortieth of their ecclesiastical income annually in support of the Crusades...
and the refusal of the pope to create John Morton, the archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
, a cardinal; Innocent VII had passed over Morton in his first consistory
Consistory
-Antiquity:Originally, the Latin word consistorium meant simply 'sitting together', just as the Greek synedrion ....
, despite creating two French cardinals. Nor had John Sherwood, the English ambassador in Rome, been created a cardinal in 1484, despite the request of King Richard III
Richard III of England
Richard III was King of England for two years, from 1483 until his death in 1485 during the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty...
. Piccolomini's creation as cardinal protector was requested by Henry VII in a letter congratulating the newly elected Pope Alexander VI
Pope Alexander VI
Pope Alexander VI , born Roderic Llançol i Borja was Pope from 1492 until his death on 18 August 1503. He is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, and his Italianized surname—Borgia—became a byword for the debased standards of the Papacy of that era, most notoriously the Banquet...
, and was confirmed in a response which was probably written by Giovanni Gigli.
Piccolomini was already the protector of the Camaldese Benedictines and was close to German princes, although he was not the German protector in any official sense, and his protectorship of England is "the first official one of any cardinal which can be firmly established". Henry VII did not object to Piccolomini's German connections, even viewing them as an asset against the French.
Castellesi (1503-1504)
The appointment of Adriano CastellesiAdriano Castellesi
Adriano Castellesi, also known as Cardinal Adrian, Corneto, Adrian of Castello or Adriano de Castello was an Italian cardinal and writer.-Biography:Castellesi was born at Corneto....
as cardinal on 31 May 1503 "eclipsed England's cardinal protector", with appointments to the English sees thereafter being referred through Castellesi instead of through Piccolomini. Piccolomini was himself elected as Pope Pius III
Pope Pius III
Pope Pius III , born Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini, was Pope from September 22 to October 18, 1503.-Career:...
on 22 September 1503, only to die less than a month later, on October 18; Castellesi did not vote for him and Piccolomini was chosen for his perceived neutrality rather than for his English connections. According to the account of Castellesi, Pius III acknowledged him as his de facto successor as protector.
Castellesi was a favourite
Favourite
A favourite , or favorite , was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In medieval and Early Modern Europe, among other times and places, the term is used of individuals delegated significant political power by a ruler...
of Pope Alexander VI
Pope Alexander VI
Pope Alexander VI , born Roderic Llançol i Borja was Pope from 1492 until his death on 18 August 1503. He is one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes, and his Italianized surname—Borgia—became a byword for the debased standards of the Papacy of that era, most notoriously the Banquet...
, which became a liability during the reign of Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II
Pope Julius II , nicknamed "The Fearsome Pope" and "The Warrior Pope" , born Giuliano della Rovere, was Pope from 1503 to 1513...
. During Julius II's reign, Castellesi, "although neither requesting nor mentioning the office of protector of England, certainly presented himself to Henry VII as the cardinal responsible for English affairs in the Curia". In an attempt to secure his status against the intrigues of Silvestro Gigli, Castellesi donated his residence, the Palazzo Giraudi Torlonia on the present Via della Conciliazione
Via della Conciliazione
Via della Conciliazione is a street in the Rione of Borgo within Rome, Italy. Roughly 500 m in length, it connects Saint Peter's Square to the Castel Sant'Angelo on the western bank of the Tiber River. The road was constructed between 1936 and 1950, and it is the primary access route to the...
, to Henry VII. In 1504, Henry VII named six official members of his embassy, headed by Castellesi, and also including Sir Gilbert Talbot
Gilbert Talbot (soldier)
Sir Gilbert Talbot of Grafton, KG was an English Tudor knight, a younger son of John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury and 2nd Earl of Waterford, and Elizabeth Butler.-Life:...
, Richard Beere
Richard Beere
Richard Beere was an English Benedictine abbot of Glastonbury, known as a builder for his abbey, as a diplomat and scholar, and a friend of Erasmus.-Life:...
, Robert Sherborne
Robert Sherborne
Robert Sherborne was bishop of Chichester, from 1508 to 1536.Sherborne was Dean of St. Paul's, from 1499 to 1505. From 1505 to 1508 he was bishop of St Davids....
, Silvestro Gigli, and Edward Scott.
Paris de Grassi, the master of papal ceremonies, referred to Castellesi as "Regis Protector" in his notes of a meeting between the embassy and the pope.
della Rovere (1504-1508)
Cardinal-nephew
A cardinal-nephew is a cardinal elevated by a Pope who is that cardinal's uncle, or, more generally, his relative. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages, and reached its apex during the 16th and 17th centuries. The word nepotism originally referred specifically to...
Galeotto della Rovere as cardinal protector; the letter does not mention Castellesi. della Rovere's selection was likely arranged by Gigli. Castellesi was compensated by being promoted to the wealthier see of Bath and Wells. Castellesi lost favor with the king and fled Rome until the death of Julius II.
Rovere died on September 11, 1508, leaving England without a cardinal protector. Sherbone and Hugh Inge
Hugh Inge
Hugh Inge or Ynge was an English born judge and prelate in sixteenth century Ireland who held the offices of Bishop of Meath, Archbishop of Dublin and Lord Chancellor of Ireland....
were back in England; Scott was dead; Gigli was in England as nuncio
Nuncio
Nuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word, Nuntius, meaning "envoy." This article addresses this title as well as derived similar titles, all within the structure of the Roman Catholic Church...
. The "only man on whose loyalty the king could truly rely" was Christopher Fisher, who was a "single, bumbling amateur" compared to the more seasoned curial diplomats who surrounded him. Henry VII himself died on April 21, 1509.
Another cardinal-nephew, Sisto della Rovere, who received the vice-chancellorship and all the benefice
Benefice
A benefice is a reward received in exchange for services rendered and as a retainer for future services. The term is now almost obsolete.-Church of England:...
s of his half-brother, was not explicitly named as protector, although he wrote to Henry VII stating his intent to "maintain his brother's friendships". Henry VIII replied to Sisto that he considered his friendship especially valuable, asserting that Sisto had been close to his father. There is no evidence that Sisto was offered the protectorship.
Aldiosi (1509-1510)
Cardinal Francesco AdiosiFrancesco Adiosi
Francesco Adiosi was an Italian cardinal and condottiero.-Biography:Born at Castel del Rio, he was the third son of Giovanni Alidosi, lord of Castel del Rio. He went to France with Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, the future Pope Julius II, in 1494...
may have become cardinal protector, but this appointment "cannot be exactly established" as his only surviving letters to England do not mention the protectorate. Adiosi is explicitly mentioned as protector in a 1509 letter from Christopher Bainbridge
Christopher Bainbridge
Christopher Bainbridge was an English Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of York from 1508 until his death.-Early life:...
(the first English curial cardinal since the death of Adam Easton
Adam Easton
Adam Easton was an English Cardinal, born at Easton in Norfolk.He joined the Benedictines at Norwich moving on to the Benedictine Gloucester College, Oxford where he became one of the most outstanding students of his generation, being especially proficient in Hebrew...
in 1397), by which point Adiosi and go-between Girolamo Bonvisio were on the "brink of disgrace".
Bonvisio disclosed the contents of his discussions with the king to a French agent and confessed his being employed by Aldiosi under threat of torture; by this point Adiosi was no longer protector. According to an April 6, 1510 letter from the Venetian ambassador, the king dismissed Adiosi as protector and gave the post to Sisto della Rovere. There is no direct evidence that Sisto ever received the official title before he died in March 1517. Until the death of Julius II, Bainbridge "filled the vacuum, real or in effect, in the protectorship of England".
Castellesi returned to Rome on the death of Julius II on February 21, 1513 for the papal conclave, 1513
Papal conclave, 1513
The papal conclave in 1513 elected Giovanni de'Medici as Pope Leo X to succeed Pope Julius II.-Balloting:Twenty-five of the living thirty-two cardinals entered the conclave on March 3 or March 4...
; although Castellesi "tactually" voted for Bainbridge on the second ballot, the two inevitably came into conflict as "rival representatives of England". The lack of consistorial records, which would list which cardinals referred the nominations of which bishops, are missing for this period, making it impossible to assess the extent of Bainbridge's role.
Medici (1514-1523)
In 1514, Gigli (as the agent of Wolsey and Henry VIII) arranged for another cardinal-nephew Giulio de'MediciPope Clement VII
Clement VII , born Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici, was a cardinal from 1513 to 1523 and was Pope from 1523 to 1534.-Early life:...
(future Pope Clement VII) to be cardinal protector of England. Medici's letter of appointment makes no reference to Sisto della Rovere. A February 8, 1514 letter from Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X
Pope Leo X , born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, was the Pope from 1513 to his death in 1521. He was the last non-priest to be elected Pope. He is known for granting indulgences for those who donated to reconstruct St. Peter's Basilica and his challenging of Martin Luther's 95 Theses...
to Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France...
flatters the king for having elevated the pope's cardinal-nephew and cousin as protector. The pope's brother Giuliano de' Medici was also made a Knight of the Garter (just as Guidobaldo II della Rovere
Guidobaldo II della Rovere
Guidobaldo II della Rovere was an Italian condottiero, who was Duke of Urbino from 1538 until his death.- Biography :...
had been made when della Rovere had been made protector).
Medici accepted the protectorship of France as well in 1516, meeting Francis I of France
Francis I of France
Francis I was King of France from 1515 until his death. During his reign, huge cultural changes took place in France and he has been called France's original Renaissance monarch...
personally in Bologna
Bologna
Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna, in the Po Valley of Northern Italy. The city lies between the Po River and the Apennine Mountains, more specifically, between the Reno River and the Savena River. Bologna is a lively and cosmopolitan Italian college city, with spectacular history,...
, much to the "discomfiture of England". Medici was elected Clement VII on November 19, 1523.
Campeggio (1524-1539)
Lorenzo Campeggio was close to Medici and served as cardinal protector to Germany at the time of Medici's election. Campeggio received a variety of appointments from Clement VII before the Henry VIII chose him as protector on February 22, 1524 (conditional on the pope's acceptance of Wolsey as legate for life).Campeggio found his loyalty divided when he was appointed with Wolsey to judge the issue of the requested annulment of Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later King, of Ireland, as well as continuing the nominal claim by the English monarchs to the Kingdom of France...
from Catherine of Aragon
Catherine of Aragon
Catherine of Aragon , also known as Katherine or Katharine, was Queen consort of England as the first wife of King Henry VIII of England and Princess of Wales as the wife to Arthur, Prince of Wales...
, the aunt of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V was ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 and, as Charles I, of the Spanish Empire from 1516 until his voluntary retirement and abdication in favor of his younger brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II in 1556.As...
. Campeggio came out in favor of the legitimacy of the marriage, after considerable delay in traveling and reviewing the canonical evidence. The final sentence in the case was handed down in Rome in 1534, the same year the English Parliament passed the First Act of Supremacy
Acts of Supremacy
The first Act of Supremacy was a piece of legislation that granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy, which means that he was declared the supreme head of the Church of England. It is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom...
. Henry VIII was particularly displeased by Campeggio's "constant company with the emperor" in the years prior to his verdict and Campeggio's rapidly growing income, having been granted the bishpric of Huesca and Jaca in 1530, and the bishopric of Mallorca in 1532, both by Charles V.
In January 1531, Campeggio was dismissed as cardinal protector, although it did not become public knowledge until May. At first it was unclear whether Henry VIII intended to appoint a successor, with Giovanni Domenico de Cupis
Giovanni Domenico de Cupis
Giovanni Domenico de Cupis was an Italian Cardinal, created by Pope Leo X in the consistory of July 1, 1517.He was Crown-cardinal of Scotland. He was a friend of Ignatius Loyola....
emerging as an active candidate in March 1532. The king favored Alessandro Farnese
Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III , born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the papal throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527 and rife with uncertainties in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation...
(future Pope Paul III), and instructed his ambassadors on March 21 to offer it to Farnese, and then de Cupis or Giovanni del Monte
Pope Julius III
Pope Julius III , born Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte, was Pope from 7 February 1550 to 1555....
(future Pope Julius III) in the event that Farnese declined or was not approved.
Not knowing that Henry VIII had already secretly married the pregnant Anne Boleyn
Anne Boleyn
Anne Boleyn ;c.1501/1507 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as the second wife of Henry VIII of England and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the...
, Clement VII decided to reach out to the monarch by appointing Thomas Cranmer
Thomas Cranmer
Thomas Cranmer was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I. He helped build a favourable case for Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon which resulted in the separation of the English Church from...
, an outspoken proponent of Henry VIII's annulment, as archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
. A threatened excommunication was handed down when Cranmer pronounced Henry VIII's marriage null and void; Henry VIII responded by telling Campeggio's vicar general for Salisbury to stop all revenues from his bishopric until further notice. Henry VIII then claimed the authority to act on behalf of Campeggio in making various ecclesiastical appointments. The fifth session of the Reformation Parliament deprived Campeggio and Girolamo Ghinucci
Girolamo Ghinucci
Girolamo Ghinucci was an Italian papal administrator, diplomat and Cardinal.He was Secretary to Pope Julius II. He was Bishop of Worcester . He was bishop from 1522 to 1535 when he was deprived of the position by Henry VIII of England...
of their English sees (unless they swore loyalty to the king). Unaware of this statute, two days later on March 23, 1534 Campeggio entered Consistory for the final ruling against annulment.
According to Wilkie, "years of cooperation from both popes and cardinal protectors had taught a wilful Henry VIII to expect to have his way over the church of England". Clement VII died on September 25 before learning of the denial of papal authority on March 31 by the Convocation of Canterbury. In the papal conclave, 1534
Papal conclave, 1534
The Papal conclave of 1534 was convened after the death of Pope Clement VII, and elected as his successor cardinal Alessandro Farnese, who became Pope Paul III.-List of participants:Pope Clement VII died on September 25, 1534...
, Campeggio was the only cardinal to oppose Farnese's proposal for non-secret voting and the only cardinal not to kiss the feet of the newly elected Farnese as Paul III.
Attempts at reconciliation
John Fisher
Saint John Fisher was an English Roman Catholic scholastic, bishop, cardinal and martyr. He shares his feast day with Saint Thomas More on 22 June in the Roman Catholic calendar of saints and 6 July on the Church of England calendar of saints...
(at the time imprisoned and sentenced to death by Henry VIII) and Girolamo Ghinucci
Girolamo Ghinucci
Girolamo Ghinucci was an Italian papal administrator, diplomat and Cardinal.He was Secretary to Pope Julius II. He was Bishop of Worcester . He was bishop from 1522 to 1535 when he was deprived of the position by Henry VIII of England...
. The execution of Fisher prompted Paul III to excommunicate and depose Henry VIII. While Campeggio lived, no attempt was made in Rome to fill any of the thirteen episcopal vacancies in England.
Queen Mary I of England
Mary I of England
Mary I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death.She was the only surviving child born of the ill-fated marriage of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon. Her younger half-brother, Edward VI, succeeded Henry in 1547...
briefly reconciled with Rome and appointed Reginald Pole as archbishop of Canterbury. However, "papal restoration in England was doomed even before it was accomplished" when Mary I married Philip II of Spain
Philip II of Spain
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, and, while married to Mary I, King of England and Ireland. He was lord of the Seventeen Provinces from 1556 until 1581, holding various titles for the individual territories such as duke or count....
. In 1555, Pope Paul IV
Pope Paul IV
Pope Paul IV, C.R. , né Giovanni Pietro Carafa, was Pope from 23 May 1555 until his death.-Early life:Giovanni Pietro Carafa was born in Capriglia Irpina, near Avellino, into a prominent noble family of Naples...
named a new cardinal protector, Giovanni Morone
Giovanni Morone
Giovanni Morone was an Italian cardinal. He was named Bishop of Modena in 1529 and was created Cardinal in 1542 by Pope Paul III...
, but the queen did not confirm the nomination and Campeggio remained the last cardinal protector "chosen by the crown".
Meanwhile, loyalty to the pope became a defining feature of the movement for Irish nationalism
Irish nationalism
Irish nationalism manifests itself in political and social movements and in sentiment inspired by a love for Irish culture, language and history, and as a sense of pride in Ireland and in the Irish people...
and bishops appointed by the pope garnered a larger following than the hierarchy of the church of Ireland appointed by the crown. According to Wilkie, "the cardinal protectors had assisted in the loss of England to the papacy, and Ireland remained loyal to the papacy in spite of them".
List of Cardinal protectors
- Francesco PiccolominiPope Pius IIIPope Pius III , born Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini, was Pope from September 22 to October 18, 1503.-Career:...
, first cardinal protector of England (ante February 8, 1492–1503), de facto protector of Germany, and future Pope Pius III - Adriano CastellesiAdriano CastellesiAdriano Castellesi, also known as Cardinal Adrian, Corneto, Adrian of Castello or Adriano de Castello was an Italian cardinal and writer.-Biography:Castellesi was born at Corneto....
, de facto protector of England and official protector of Germany - Galeotto Franciotti della Rovere (1505–September 11, 1508)
- Francesco AdiosiFrancesco AdiosiFrancesco Adiosi was an Italian cardinal and condottiero.-Biography:Born at Castel del Rio, he was the third son of Giovanni Alidosi, lord of Castel del Rio. He went to France with Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, the future Pope Julius II, in 1494...
(1508–1511) - Giulio de'MediciPope Clement VIIClement VII , born Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici, was a cardinal from 1513 to 1523 and was Pope from 1523 to 1534.-Early life:...
(1514–1523) (future Pope Clement VII) - Lorenzo Campeggio (1523–1534, died 1539)
Not confirmed by the crown
- Giovanni MoroneGiovanni MoroneGiovanni Morone was an Italian cardinal. He was named Bishop of Modena in 1529 and was created Cardinal in 1542 by Pope Paul III...
, (1578–1579) - Philip HowardPhilip Howard (Cardinal)Hon. Philip Howard was an English Roman Catholic cardinal. Born the third son of Henry Frederick Howard and his wife, Elizabeth Stuart , Howard was a member of the premier Catholic family in England...
(1682–1694) - Filippo Antonio GualterioFilippo Antonio Gualterio (cardinal)Filippo Antonio Gualterio was made a papal nuncio to France and cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church from 1706....
(circa 1717) - Cardinal Baschi (circa November 4, 1797)
- Ercole Consalvi (circa 1817, acting)
Similar prior offices
- Thomas of JorzThomas of JorzThomas of Jorz was an English Dominican theologian and cardinal.-Life:He entered the Order of Preachers in England, and was remarkable for his piety, erudition, and executive ability...
, proctor for Kings Edward IEdward I of EnglandEdward I , also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons...
and Edward II of EnglandEdward II of EnglandEdward II , called Edward of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed by his wife Isabella in January 1327. He was the sixth Plantagenet king, in a line that began with the reign of Henry II...
(1305–1310) - Ferry de ClugnyFerry de ClugnyFerry de Clugny, Cardinal and Bishop of Tournai was a highly-placed statesman and ecclesiastic in the service of the Dukes of Burgundy....
, employed in Rome by Edward IV of EnglandEdward IV of EnglandEdward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
(d. 1483)