Battle of Boroughbridge
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Boroughbridge was a battle fought on 16 March 1322 between a group of rebellious barons and King Edward II of England
, near Boroughbridge
, northwest of York
. The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the king and Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, his most powerful subject, it resulted in Lancaster's defeat and execution. This allowed Edward to re-establish royal authority, and hold on to power for another five years.
Not in itself a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence
, the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic, English
conflict. Both the extensive use of foot soldiers
rather than cavalry
, and the heavy impact caused by the longbow
, represented significant steps in military developments.
was a weak and ineffectual king, and his reign was marked by military failure and internal strife. A great number of the barony turned against the king, and the leader of the opposition eventually became Thomas of Lancaster. Lancaster was Edward's cousin, and next to the king he was the richest man in the country. Through a set of regulations known as the Ordinances
, Lancaster and his associates had been trying to put restrictions on royal authority, but by the late 1310s Edward was again in full control of central government. The situation was aggravated by the king's ostentatious patronage of his favourite, Hugh Despenser, and Hugh's father
by the same name.
In 1319, the king and Lancaster fell out during a failed campaign against Scotland
. The next year Lancaster refused to attend a parliament
summoned by the king, and later the same year, Edward obtained papal absolution from his oath to follow the Ordinances. Meanwhile an inheritance dispute had broken out in the Welsh Marches
between the Despensers and certain marcher lords, including Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford
. Lancaster now took the initiative with the discontented. In 1321 he summoned two meetings of magnates, one at Lancaster's residence of Pontefract
in March, and the other at Sherburn
in June. The meetings consisted of northern and marcher lords, as well as Lancaster's own retainers, but little assistance was forthcoming from the northerners. The marcher rebellion, and the threat of civil war, forced the king to exile the younger Despenser, but the favourite was recalled within weeks.
Edward now seized the initiative, and moved northwards. Lancaster convened one final meeting at Doncaster
in November, and also entered into an alliance with Robert I of Scotland
to strengthen his hand against the king. In January 1322 Edward crossed the River Severn
, and secured the surrender of several of the marcher lords while Lancaster remained passive. The earl's most trusted retainer, Robert de Holland
, then defected to the king, and as the royal army crossed the River Trent
Lancaster was forced to flee north. On 16 March Lancaster and his army had reached Boroughbridge
by the River Ure
. There they were cut off by the forces of Sir Andrew Harclay, a veteran from the Scottish wars, who had gathered the levies from the counties of Cumberland
and Westmorland
.
Harclay had deployed his men on foot to hold the bridge from the northern side. Additional forces were placed at a nearby ford
, though contemporary sources do not specify the exact location of this ford. The royal pikemen were deployed in a schiltron
formation, a tactic learned from the Scots in the Scottish wars. The formation proved effective against the oncoming cavalry. The rebels divided into two columns; one led by Hereford and Roger de Clifford, attacking the bridge on foot, the other under Lancaster, trying to cross the ford by horse. According to a graphic description in the chronicle the Brut
, Hereford was killed as he crossed the bridge by a pikeman
hiding underneath, who thrust his spear up through the earl's anus
. Clifford was also severely injured, and that column of the army fell into disarray. Lancaster's party fared little better; under heavy archery
fire his cavalry was cut off before it even reached the ford, and forced to retreat. This event shows an early – if not entirely novel – effective use of the longbow
against cavalry, a tactic which was to become central to future English military success.
Lancaster negotiated a truce with Harclay, and withdrew to the town. During the night a great number of the rebels deserted, and the next day the sheriff of York
arrived from the south with additional forces. Lancaster, now greatly outnumbered and with no chance of retreat, had no choice but to surrender to Harclay.
Thomas of Lancaster was taken to Pontefract Castle
, which by then had fallen to the king. There he was submitted to what was little more than a show trial
, and – in front of a gathering of earls and barons – sentenced to death. On 22 March, 1322 he was led out of the castle and beheaded in front of a jeering crowd. In the years to come, a cult emerged around the person of the late earl as a martyr
, and even a possible saint
. Lancaster had shown no signs of extraordinary piety or other personal abilities during his lifetime, and the cult has been interpreted as a reaction to the incompetent and oppressive reign of Edward II.
Some thirty of Lancaster's followers were also executed, among these Clifford and the baron John Mowbray
. As for Robert Holland, his defection saved him from execution, but his close association with Lancaster made him suspect in the eyes of the king, and he was imprisoned until 1327. The very next year he was murdered, possibly by order of Henry
, Thomas's brother and heir.
Andrew Harclay was richly rewarded for his loyal and competent performance at Boroughbridge. On 15 March he was created Earl of Carlisle
, and promised lands worth 1000 marks
yearly. Yet Harclay, who had turned down Lancaster's overtures to join in the rebellion, was no great adherent of the king. As a warden of the Scottish Marches
he grew constantly more frustrated with the king's idleness, and eventually negotiated a peace treaty with the Scots. This action on Harclay's part amounted to treason, and early in 1323 he was apprehended by the king's men, and hanged, drawn and quartered
.
As for Edward II himself, his dependence on the Despensers grew only deeper, and their transgressions more severe. In 1327, his wife Isabella
, together with her lover Roger Mortimer, staged a coup against the king. Edward II was deposed and his son, Edward III
, succeeded in his place.
Edward II of England
Edward II , called Edward of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed by his wife Isabella in January 1327. He was the sixth Plantagenet king, in a line that began with the reign of Henry II...
, near Boroughbridge
Boroughbridge
Boroughbridge is a small town and civil parish in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated northwest of York. Until its bypass was built, it was on the main A1 road from London to Edinburgh...
, northwest of York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
. The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the king and Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, his most powerful subject, it resulted in Lancaster's defeat and execution. This allowed Edward to re-establish royal authority, and hold on to power for another five years.
Not in itself a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence
Wars of Scottish Independence
The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between the independent Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries....
, the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic, English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
conflict. Both the extensive use of foot soldiers
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
rather than cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
, and the heavy impact caused by the longbow
Longbow
A longbow is a type of bow that is tall ; this will allow its user a fairly long draw, at least to the jaw....
, represented significant steps in military developments.
Background
Edward IIEdward II of England
Edward II , called Edward of Caernarfon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed by his wife Isabella in January 1327. He was the sixth Plantagenet king, in a line that began with the reign of Henry II...
was a weak and ineffectual king, and his reign was marked by military failure and internal strife. A great number of the barony turned against the king, and the leader of the opposition eventually became Thomas of Lancaster. Lancaster was Edward's cousin, and next to the king he was the richest man in the country. Through a set of regulations known as the Ordinances
Ordinances of 1311
The Ordinances of 1311 were a series of regulations imposed upon King Edward II by the peerage and clergy of the Kingdom of England to restrict the power of the king. The twenty-one signatories of the Ordinances are referred to as the Lords Ordainers, or simply the Ordainers...
, Lancaster and his associates had been trying to put restrictions on royal authority, but by the late 1310s Edward was again in full control of central government. The situation was aggravated by the king's ostentatious patronage of his favourite, Hugh Despenser, and Hugh's father
Hugh le Despenser, 1st Earl of Winchester
Hugh le Despenser , sometimes referred to as "the Elder Despenser", was for a time the chief adviser to King Edward II of England....
by the same name.
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
. The next year Lancaster refused to attend a parliament
Parliament of England
The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. In 1066, William of Normandy introduced a feudal system, by which he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics before making laws...
summoned by the king, and later the same year, Edward obtained papal absolution from his oath to follow the Ordinances. Meanwhile an inheritance dispute had broken out in the Welsh Marches
Welsh Marches
The Welsh Marches is a term which, in modern usage, denotes an imprecisely defined area along and around the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom. The precise meaning of the term has varied at different periods...
between the Despensers and certain marcher lords, including Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford
Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford
Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford was a member of a powerful Anglo-Norman family of the Welsh Marches and was one of the Ordainers who opposed Edward II's excesses.-Family background :...
. Lancaster now took the initiative with the discontented. In 1321 he summoned two meetings of magnates, one at Lancaster's residence of Pontefract
Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle is a castle in the town of Pontefract, in the City of Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. It was the site of the demise of Richard II of England, and later the place of a series of famous sieges during the English Civil War-History:...
in March, and the other at Sherburn
Sherburn-in-Elmet
Sherburn-in-Elmet is a town and civil parish in the Selby district of North Yorkshire, England, situated close to Selby. It is one of only three places in the area to be explicitly associated with the ancient Celtic kingdom of Elmet via featuring the kingdom's title in its name, the others being...
in June. The meetings consisted of northern and marcher lords, as well as Lancaster's own retainers, but little assistance was forthcoming from the northerners. The marcher rebellion, and the threat of civil war, forced the king to exile the younger Despenser, but the favourite was recalled within weeks.
Edward now seized the initiative, and moved northwards. Lancaster convened one final meeting at Doncaster
Doncaster
Doncaster is a town in South Yorkshire, England, and the principal settlement of the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster. The town is about from Sheffield and is popularly referred to as "Donny"...
in November, and also entered into an alliance with Robert I of Scotland
Robert I of Scotland
Robert I , popularly known as Robert the Bruce , was King of Scots from March 25, 1306, until his death in 1329.His paternal ancestors were of Scoto-Norman heritage , and...
to strengthen his hand against the king. In January 1322 Edward crossed the River Severn
River Severn
The River Severn is the longest river in Great Britain, at about , but the second longest on the British Isles, behind the River Shannon. It rises at an altitude of on Plynlimon, Ceredigion near Llanidloes, Powys, in the Cambrian Mountains of mid Wales...
, and secured the surrender of several of the marcher lords while Lancaster remained passive. The earl's most trusted retainer, Robert de Holland
Robert de Holland, 1st Baron Holand
Robert de Holland, 1st Baron Holand was an English nobleman, born in Lancashire.He was a son of Sir Robert de Holland of Upholland, Lancashire and Elizabeth, daughter of William de Samlesbury....
, then defected to the king, and as the royal army crossed the River Trent
River Trent
The River Trent is one of the major rivers of England. Its source is in Staffordshire on the southern edge of Biddulph Moor. It flows through the Midlands until it joins the River Ouse at Trent Falls to form the Humber Estuary, which empties into the North Sea below Hull and Immingham.The Trent...
Lancaster was forced to flee north. On 16 March Lancaster and his army had reached Boroughbridge
Boroughbridge
Boroughbridge is a small town and civil parish in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated northwest of York. Until its bypass was built, it was on the main A1 road from London to Edinburgh...
by the River Ure
River Ure
The River Ure is a river in North Yorkshire, England, approximately long from its source to the point where it changes name to the River Ouse. It is the principal river of Wensleydale, which is the only one of the Dales now named after a village rather than its river...
. There they were cut off by the forces of Sir Andrew Harclay, a veteran from the Scottish wars, who had gathered the levies from the counties of Cumberland
Cumberland
Cumberland is a historic county of North West England, on the border with Scotland, from the 12th century until 1974. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now forms part of Cumbria....
and Westmorland
Westmorland
Westmorland is an area of North West England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974, after which the entirety of the county was absorbed into the new county of Cumbria.-Early history:...
.
The battle
When Lancaster arrived at the town of Boroughbridge, Harclay was already in possession of the bridge crossing the river. The rebel forces counted probably no more than 700 knights and men-at-arms, against the 4,000 or so soldiers in the royal army. Lancaster initially tried to negotiate, but Harclay could not be swayed. Since there was no realistic alternative place to cross the river, and with the royal forces in pursuit from the south, the rebels had no choice but to fight. The ensuing battle was short and one-sided.Harclay had deployed his men on foot to hold the bridge from the northern side. Additional forces were placed at a nearby ford
Ford (crossing)
A ford is a shallow place with good footing where a river or stream may be crossed by wading or in a vehicle. A ford is mostly a natural phenomenon, in contrast to a low water crossing, which is an artificial bridge that allows crossing a river or stream when water is low.The names of many towns...
, though contemporary sources do not specify the exact location of this ford. The royal pikemen were deployed in a schiltron
Schiltron
A sheltron is a compact body of troops forming a battle array, shield wall or phalanx....
formation, a tactic learned from the Scots in the Scottish wars. The formation proved effective against the oncoming cavalry. The rebels divided into two columns; one led by Hereford and Roger de Clifford, attacking the bridge on foot, the other under Lancaster, trying to cross the ford by horse. According to a graphic description in the chronicle the Brut
Brut (Layamon)
Layamon's Brut , also known as The Chronicle of Britain, is a Middle English poem compiled and recast by the English priest Layamon. The Brut is 16,095 lines long and narrates the history of Britain: it is the first historiography written in English since the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle...
, Hereford was killed as he crossed the bridge by a pikeman
Pike (weapon)
A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear used extensively by infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as a counter-measure against cavalry assaults. Unlike many similar weapons, the pike is not intended to be thrown. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the...
hiding underneath, who thrust his spear up through the earl's anus
Anus
The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, unwanted semi-solid matter produced during digestion, which, depending on the type of animal, may be one or more of: matter which the animal cannot digest,...
. Clifford was also severely injured, and that column of the army fell into disarray. Lancaster's party fared little better; under heavy archery
Archery
Archery is the art, practice, or skill of propelling arrows with the use of a bow, from Latin arcus. Archery has historically been used for hunting and combat; in modern times, however, its main use is that of a recreational activity...
fire his cavalry was cut off before it even reached the ford, and forced to retreat. This event shows an early – if not entirely novel – effective use of the longbow
Longbow
A longbow is a type of bow that is tall ; this will allow its user a fairly long draw, at least to the jaw....
against cavalry, a tactic which was to become central to future English military success.
Lancaster negotiated a truce with Harclay, and withdrew to the town. During the night a great number of the rebels deserted, and the next day the sheriff of York
High Sheriff of Yorkshire
The High Sheriff of Yorkshire was an ancient High Sheriff title originating in the time of the Angles, not long after the invasion of the Kingdom of England, which was in existence for around a thousand years. A list of the sheriffs from the Norman conquest onwards can be found below...
arrived from the south with additional forces. Lancaster, now greatly outnumbered and with no chance of retreat, had no choice but to surrender to Harclay.
Aftermath
Pontefract Castle
Pontefract Castle is a castle in the town of Pontefract, in the City of Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England. It was the site of the demise of Richard II of England, and later the place of a series of famous sieges during the English Civil War-History:...
, which by then had fallen to the king. There he was submitted to what was little more than a show trial
Show trial
The term show trial is a pejorative description of a type of highly public trial in which there is a strong connotation that the judicial authorities have already determined the guilt of the defendant. The actual trial has as its only goal to present the accusation and the verdict to the public as...
, and – in front of a gathering of earls and barons – sentenced to death. On 22 March, 1322 he was led out of the castle and beheaded in front of a jeering crowd. In the years to come, a cult emerged around the person of the late earl as a martyr
Martyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
, and even a possible saint
Saint
A saint is a holy person. In various religions, saints are people who are believed to have exceptional holiness.In Christian usage, "saint" refers to any believer who is "in Christ", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in heaven or in earth...
. Lancaster had shown no signs of extraordinary piety or other personal abilities during his lifetime, and the cult has been interpreted as a reaction to the incompetent and oppressive reign of Edward II.
Some thirty of Lancaster's followers were also executed, among these Clifford and the baron John Mowbray
John de Mowbray, 2nd Baron Mowbray
John de Mowbray, 2nd Baron Mowbray was the son of Roger de Mowbray, 1st Baron Mowbray.De Mowbray served in the Scottish wars of Edward I...
. As for Robert Holland, his defection saved him from execution, but his close association with Lancaster made him suspect in the eyes of the king, and he was imprisoned until 1327. The very next year he was murdered, possibly by order of Henry
Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster
Henry , 3rd Earl of Leicester and Lancaster was an English nobleman, one of the principals behind the deposition of Edward II of England.-Family and lineage:...
, Thomas's brother and heir.
Andrew Harclay was richly rewarded for his loyal and competent performance at Boroughbridge. On 15 March he was created Earl of Carlisle
Earl of Carlisle
Earl of Carlisle is a title that has been created three times in the Peerage of England. The first creation came in 1322 when the soldier Andrew Harclay, 1st Baron Harclay was made Earl of Carlisle. He had already been summoned to Parliament as Lord Harclay in 1321...
, and promised lands worth 1000 marks
Mark (money)
Mark was a measure of weight mainly for gold and silver, commonly used throughout western Europe and often equivalent to 8 ounces. Considerable variations, however, occurred throughout the Middle Ages Mark (from a merging of three Teutonic/Germanic languages words, Latinized in 9th century...
yearly. Yet Harclay, who had turned down Lancaster's overtures to join in the rebellion, was no great adherent of the king. As a warden of the Scottish Marches
Scottish Marches
Scottish Marches was the term used for the Anglo-Scottish border during the late medieval and early modern eras—from the late 13th century, with the creation by Edward I of England of the first Lord Warden of the Marches to the early 17th century and the creation of the Middle Shires, promulgated...
he grew constantly more frustrated with the king's idleness, and eventually negotiated a peace treaty with the Scots. This action on Harclay's part amounted to treason, and early in 1323 he was apprehended by the king's men, and hanged, drawn and quartered
Hanged, drawn and quartered
To be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1351 a penalty in England for men convicted of high treason, although the ritual was first recorded during the reigns of King Henry III and his successor, Edward I...
.
As for Edward II himself, his dependence on the Despensers grew only deeper, and their transgressions more severe. In 1327, his wife Isabella
Isabella of France
Isabella of France , sometimes described as the She-wolf of France, was Queen consort of England as the wife of Edward II of England. She was the youngest surviving child and only surviving daughter of Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre...
, together with her lover Roger Mortimer, staged a coup against the king. Edward II was deposed and his son, Edward III
Edward III of England
Edward III was King of England from 1327 until his death and is noted for his military success. Restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II, Edward III went on to transform the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe...
, succeeded in his place.