Ancient history of Cyprus
Encyclopedia
The ancient history of Cyprus
, also known as Classical Antiquity
, dates from the 8th century BC to the Middle Ages. The earliest written records relating to Cyprus date to the Middle Bronze Age (c. 15th century BC), see Alasiya.
n rule. A stele
found in 1845 in Kition commemorates the victory of King Sargon II
(721-705 BC) in 709 over the seven kings in the land of Ia', in the district of Iadnana or Atnana. The former is supposedly the Assyrian name for Cyprus, while some scholars insist the later means Greece
(the Islands of the Danaans). There are other inscriptions referring to Ia' in Sargon's palace at Khorsabad.
The ten kingdoms
listed by an inscription of Esarhaddon
in 673-672 BC have been identified as Soloi
, Salamis
, Paphos
, Kourion
, Amathus
and Kition on the coast, and Tamassos
, Ledra
i, Idalion and Chytroi in the interior. Later inscriptions add Marion
, Lapithos
and Kerynia (Kyrenia
).
The city-kingdoms began to strike their own coins around 500 BC, using the Persian weight system.
, Soloi, Patriki and Trachonas. The rock-cut 'Royal' tombs at Tamassos
, built circa 600 BC imitate wooden houses. The pillars show Phoenicia
n influence. Some graves contain remains of horses and chariot
s.
The main deity of ancient Cyprus was the Great Goddess, Phoenician Astarte
, later known by the Greek name Aphrodite
, who was called, "the Cypriote" by Homer
. Paphian inscriptions call her, "the Queen". Pictures of Aphrodite appear on the coins of Salamis as well, demonstrating that her cult had a larger regional influence. In addition, the King of Paphos was the High Priest of Aphrodite. Other Gods venerated include the Phoenician Anat, Baal
, Eshmun, Reshef, Mikal and Melkart and the Egyptian Hathor
, Thoth
, Bes
and Ptah
, as attested by amulets. Animal sacrifices are attested to on terracotta-votives. The Sanctuary of Ayia Irini contained over 2000 figurines.
In 570 BC, Cyprus was conquered by Egypt
under Amasis II
. The brief period of Egyptian domination left its influence mainly in arts. The influence is especially evident in sculptures, where the rigidity and the dress of Egyptian style can be observed. Soon, the Cypriots discarded the sole influence of Egyptian art for the sake of Greek prototypes.
Statues in stone show a mixture of Egyptian and Greek influence. In particular, ceramics recovered on Cyprus show influence from ancient Crete
. Men often wore Egyptian whigs and Assyrian-style beards. Armour and dress showed western Asiatic elements as well.
Under the Persians, the Kings of Cyprus retained their independence. However, the kings were required to pay tribute to their overlord. Coins minted by the kings were required to have the overlord's portrait on them. King Evelthon of Salamis (560 BC
-525 BC), was probably the first to cast silver or bronze coins in Cyprus; the coins were designed with a ram on the obverse and an ankh
(Egyptian symbol of good luck) on the reverse.
Except for the royal city of Amathus
, the Kingdoms of Cyprus took part in the Ionian rising in 499 BC, following the lead of Onesilos of Salamis
, brother of the King of Salamis, whom he dethroned for not wanting to fight for independence. The Persians crushed the Cypriote armies and laid siege to the fortified towns in 498 BC
. In Paphos, remains of a Persian siege-ramp
and counter-tunnels have been excavated at the North-gate. Soloi surrendered after a five-month siege.
Around 450, Kition annexed Idalion with Persian help. The importance of Kition increased again when it acquired the Tamassos copper-mines.
The Teucrid
dynasty of Salamis had been displaced by a Phoenician exile around 450 BC
. Only in 411
did Evagoras
I regain the throne of Salamis. At the beginning of the 4th century BC, he took control of the whole island and tried to gain independence from Persia with Athenian
help. Ca. 380 BC
, a Persian force besieged Salamis. Evagoras was forced to surrender, but stayed king of Salamis until he was murdered in 374
. Together with Egypt and Phoenicia, Cyprus rebelled again in 350 BC
, but the upraising was crushed by Artaxerxes III
in 344
.
The Greek alphabet
was introduced by Evagoras I of Salamis. In other parts of the island, the Phoenician script
(Kition) or the Cypriot syllabic alphabet were still used, either for inscriptions in the local Greek dialect (Arcado-Cypriot
) or in the so called Eteocypriot language (Amathus). Only during the 4th century BC, did the Cypriot gods become known under Greek names. Anat
, who had a temple at Vouni, was called Athena, Astarte
Aphrodite, the main male God as Zeus. Reshef and Hylates
were equated with Apollo, Eshmun
with Asklepios.
Full Hellenisation only took place under Ptolemaic
rule. Phoenician and native Cypriot traits disappeared, together with the old Cypriot syllabic script. A number of cities were founded during this time, e.g. Arsinoe
that was founded between old and new Paphos
by Ptolemy II.
In 526 BC, the Persians conquered Cyprus. Later, Cyprus was incorporated into the 5th Satrapy (Ionia
), where the Eastern Greek influence can be seen in the Cypriot material culture. The Persians did not interfere in internal affairs, the city-kingdoms continued to strike their own coins and to wage war among each other.
Royal palaces have excavated in Palaepaphos and in Vouni
in the territory of Marion
on the North coast. They closely follow Persian examples like Persepolis
. Vouni, on a hill overlooking the Morphou Bay
was built around 520 BC and destroyed in 380. It contained Royal audience chambers (liwan
), open courtyards, bathhouses and stores.
The towns were fortified with mudbrick
walls on stone foundations and rectangular bastions. The houses were constructed of mud-bricks as well, where as public buildings were faced with ashlar
. The Phoenician town of Carpasia near Rizokarpasso had houses built of rubble masonry with square stone blocks forming the corners. Temples and sanctuaries were mainly built according to Phoenician templates. Soloi
had a small temple with a Greek plan.
In the sphere of arts, a definite influence from Greece was responsible for the production of some very important sculptures. The archaic Greek art with its attractive smile on the face of the statue is found on many Cypriot pieces dating between 525-475 BC, that is the closing stage of the Archaic period
. During the Persian rule, Ionian influence on the sculptures intensified, copies of Greek korai
appear, as well as statues of men in Greek dress. Naked kouroi
, common in Greece, are extremely rare while women (Korai) are always presented dressed with rich foldings of their himations.
The pottery of Cyprus was shaped by local influences, although some Greek pottery was imported.
The most important obligation of the kings of Cyprus to the Shah
of the Shahs of Persia was the payment of tribute and the supply of armies and ships for his foreign campaigns. Thus when Xerxes
in 480 BC
invaded Greece
, Cyprus contributed 150 ships to the Persian army.
Evagoras
(435
–374 BC
) was an important pro-Greek king of Cyprus. He dominated Cypriot politics for almost forty years until he died in 374 BC. He favoured everything Greek and he urged Greeks from the Aegean to come and settle in Cyprus. He assisted the Athenians in many ways and they honoured him by erecting his statue in the Stoa (portico) Basileios in Athens
. He tried to unite the cities of Cyprus. He met resistance on the parts of the kings of Kition, Amathus
and Soli
, who fled to the great king of Persia in 390 BC
, requesting that Evagoras be prevented from carrying out his plans. Evagoras also did not receive much help from Athenians and at the end could remain the ruler of Salamis only after accepting his role as a vassal of Persia.
Macedonian history of Cyprus
The long and sustained efforts to overthrow Persian rule were unsuccessful, and the Persian rule in Cyprus extended until the reign of Alexander the Great. Eventually, the boisterous march of Macedon's army to the east defeated the Persians and finally ended their sovereignty over Cyprus.
Alexander the Great (Alexander of Macedon and Alexander III of Macedon), was born in Pella in 356 BC and died in Babylon in 323 BC. Son of King Philip II and Olympias, he succeeded his father to the throne of Macedonia in 336 BC at age 20. He was perhaps the greatest commander in history and led his army in a series of victorious battles; he created a vast empire that stretched from Greece to Egypt in Africa to the Caspian Sea and India in Asia. The various kingdoms of Cyprus were allies of Alexander, and contributed to the victorious campaign.
The presence of Alexander the Great in Asia Minor meant a new era for Cyprus, especially after successive victories at the Granicus (334 BC) and Issus (333 BC). The Achaemenid Empire presented the first signs of collapse when it lost the coast of Asia Minor, Syria and Phoenicia, which were naval bases.
Cypriot kings, knowing the victory of Alexander at Issus, radically changed their attitude towards the Great King of Persia. They felt that sooner or later, Alexander would be the new ruler of the island since the occupation of Cyprus was necessary (along with that of Phoenicia) to open lines of communication to Egypt and then to Asia. So in order to maintain their power, the Cypriot kings decided to show their willingness to make available to the fleet of Alexander the ships formerly in the service of Persia, thereby increasing the naval forces of the opponents. Beyond that, the Cypriots were quite experienced in seamanship and for this reason also, Alexander used a lot during the campaign into India. There was therefore a mutuality of interests: Alexander the Great would increase the capacity of his fleet, but the Cypriot kings would maintain their political independence.
From the area of Phoenicia, only Tyre had resisted, and Alexander undertook a siege. The Cypriot fleet, together with Cypriot engineers, contributed much to capture this highly fortified city. Indeed kings Pnytagoras of Salamis
, Androcles of Amathus
, and Pasikratis of Soloi
, personally took part in the siege of Tyre, and although they lost many penteres (quinquereme
s), managed to conquer the northern port city, helping to capture it. The gratitude of Alexander for that participation can be seen from the gestures after his victory: not only left the Cypriot kings to freely manage the affairs of the kingdom and could be asked like that. Pnytagora, for example, who seems to have been the main driver of this initiative to support Alexander, was helped to incorporate the territory of the kingdom of Tamassos into that of Salamis. The kingdom of Tamassos was by then ruled by King Poumiathonta of Kition who had purchased it for 50 talents from the king Pasikypro.
Tyre, then the most important Phoenician city, was built on a small island that was 700 meters from the shore, and had two harbors, the Egyptian to the south and Sidonian to the north. The Cypriot kings, with 120 ships and a very experienced crew, provided substantial assistance to Alexander and contributed decisively to the fall of Tyre, after a siege enduring seven months. During the siege, in a sudden attack of cheese fleet Cypriots who besieged the city from the north and northeast, have successfully pitches pentiri the king of Salamis Pnytagora the pentiri king of Amathus Androcles and pentiri King Pasikrati of Solon. The attack by the Cyprus cheese fleet was in the afternoon when the Cypriot crews rested on the coast. Alexander, occupying a Phoenician ship, personally intervened and saved the Cypriot fleet from more disasters. During the final attack on the town, the Cypriots managed to occupy the port of Sidon and the northern part of Tyre and the Phoenicians occupied the Egyptian port. Alexander also attacked the city with siege machines by constructing a "mole", a strip of soil from the coast opposite Tyre, to the island where the city was built. In the whole operation against Tyre, Alexander was helped by many Cypriots and Phoenicians engineers who built on his behalf, and in a short time, many siege engines battered the city from the "mole" and from "ippagoga" ships.
In 331 BC, while Alexander was returning from Egypt, he stayed for a while in Tyre. The Cypriot kings, wishing to reaffirm their trust and support, honored him by organizing round and tragic struggles, sacrifices and processions.
During the campaign into India, Alexander took with him, in addition to Phoenicians and Egyptians, many Cypriot sailors and rowers, who had greater experience in seamanship. These were experienced sailors led by princes as Nikoklis, son of King Pasikrati of Solon, and Nifothona, son of King Pnytagora of Salamis.
As Alexander continued in the vast state of the same administrative system that was until then the Persian Empire, commissioned very important responsibilities in Cyprus. This indicates that the Stasanor of Solon was appointed in 329 BC satrap of the Supreme Court and Drangon.
The new situation created by the presence of Alexander the Great in Asia, a presence that heralded the birth of the Hellenistic world, could not but affect, sooner or later, Cyprus: The Cypriot currency was further evidence that the independence of the Cypriot kings gradually fell, as the mints of Salamis and Kiti began to stamp coins on Alexander's behalf rather than in the name of local kings.
As mentioned, between Alexandria, the cities had been built by Alexander the Great or his successors have been renamed in his honor after his death, and included a city of Alexandria is believed, was built and became the king of Solon, a friend and ally Alexander Pasikrati.
As mentioned by Arrian and Strabo, the historian Excellent Cypriot Salamis wrote the essay in which recount the exploits of Alexander the Great. This book is not saved.
Like Plutarch, Alexander was dying and sword thafmastin koufotiti, dorisamenou of Kition King ... iskimenos many christhai knife only battles Tas ... Ie "Alexander had a wonderful knife to cut and lightweight, it was a gift to him by the King of Kiti ... and was very practiced at using the sword in battle.
King of Kiti made to Alexander the prize was Poumiathon Phoenix (361 -312 BC), and he tried to win the favor of Macedon army, but to succeed.
The policy of Alexander the Great on Cyprus and its kings, was clear: to exempt them from Persian rule (although some kings were by then clearly persofiloi), but annexing Cyprus to his country. In the interior of the Cypriot kingdoms not intervened directly and kings maintained their autonomy, but made some rearrangements, such as performance Tamassos and mining of the king of Salamis Pnytagora. While Alexander sought to make clear that he considered himself the master of the island, and it expressed and emphasized the abolition of the currencies of the Cypriot kingdoms and the establishment of others, his own, which were cut at the mints of Salamis, of Kiti and Paphos.
According to sources when Alexander prepared the expedition will continue in India because the country had many navigable rivers, it includes a significant number of shipbuilders and rowers from Cyprus, Egypt, Phoenicia and Caria.
The premature death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC put an end to Greek aspirations for global domination. The empire he had created was divided between the generals and successors, which immediately started and the conflicts between them followed by war to win each of them something more. With the death of Alexander begins the Hellenistic period of Cypriot history.
The conflict and wars of his successors inevitably complicated and in Cyprus focused on two claimants, Antigonus (enhanced by his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes) and Ptolemy Lagus. The first held Syria and the second Egypt. Initially successful in Cyprus were Antigonus and his son.
The Cypriot kings who so far had maintained their independence in their kingdoms, suddenly found themselves in a difficult position. This is because, as Cyprus became the "apple of discord" between Ptolemy and Antigonus, the kings of the island now had to make new choices and alliances. This led to a controversy and confrontation because some Cypriot kingdoms chose alliance with Ptolemy, others sided with the Antigonids and others tried to remain neutral. The largest city and kingdom of Cyprus then appears to have been Salamis, whose king was Nicocreon.
Nicocreon argued strongly in favor of Ptolemy. According to Arrian, Ptolemy had to come out except Nikokreonta of Salamis, and into Him contemplated Pasikratis of Solon, Nikoklis of Paphos and Amathus of Androcles of Amathus.
The words and into Him void indicates that the other three kings (Solon, Paphos Amathus) were under the influence of Nikokreonta of Salamis. What size and what kind of influence is not known. But it seems that after the march of Alexander the Great, perhaps because its own regulations and rules, the city of Salamis was a high Role in Cyprus, and the king probably the leader among Cypriot monarchs.
However, some other kings of Cyprus, Praxippos of Lapithos - Kyrenia, the Poumiothon (Pygmalion) of Kiti and Stasioikos of Marion, were allied with Antigonus.
Against these, Nicocreon and other pro-Ptolemaic kings conducted combat operations. Ptolemy enhanced even military allies of the kings of Cyprus, and sending those troops under Seleucus and Menelaus. The Kyrenia and Lapithos were occupied after a siege and Marion capitulated. Diodorus gives information that Amathus was also forced to surrender to Ptolemy, even giving hostages as a guarantee, while Kition was closely besieged (around 315 BC).
Eventually Ptolemy entered Cyprus with more military forces in 312 BC, and clarified the situation: he captured and killed the king of Kition, and arrested the pro-Antigonid kings of Marion and Lapithos - Kyrenia. Moreover, he fully destroyed the city of Marion. So Ptolemy removed most of the kingdoms of Cyprus, which were until then and everything ... diapraxamenos while Cyprus has the general Nikokreonta, traditional cities and TE Tash Tash proceeds ekpeptokoton kings.
We know that the crucial and decisive intervention by Ptolemy in 312 BC, maintained for some more power to the kings of Solon and Paphos. Particularly Nicocreon of Salamis, whom Ptolemy seems to have appreciated and trusted completely, won the cities and revenue of expelled kings. So Salamis extended its authority throughout eastern, central and northern Cyprus, since Kition and Lapithos had been included in it while Tamassos already belonged. Further, Nicocreon of Salamis took office with the blessing of Ptolemy as the chief general in Cyprus, effectively master of the whole island. But the situation was fluid and we know from sources that the rulers of Solon and Paphos had been kept in power. But soon the king Nikoklis was considered suspect, was besieged and forced to suicide, followed by the putting of his entire family to death (312 BC).
The following year (311 BC) Nicocreon of Salamis died, in accordance with epigraphic evidence (Parian marble) that says: "Since Nicocreon had died and Ptolemy had become master of Cyprus, spent 47 years when in Athens was a master Simonides. The petition is about the year 264 BC, thus adding 47 years had passed, we find that Nicocreon died in 311 BC.
After the intervention of Ptolemy in Cyprus, which subjugated the island, Antigonus and his son, Demetrius, reacted against the besiegers. Indeed, the latter led a large military operation in Cyprus.
Demetrius was born in 336 BC and initially fought under the command of his father for the first time in 317 BC against Eumenes, where he particularly distinguished himself. In 307 BC he took over and managed to liberate Athens, forcing Demetrius Phaleron and restoring democracy. In 306 BC he led the war against the Ptolemies. Shortly afterwards, he tried to capture Rhodes, but after a siege of two years reached an agreement with the Rhodians making them allies (304 BC). Defeated at the battle of Ipsus (301 BC) by the joint forces of Ptolemy Cassander and Lysimachus. The battle killed his father Antigonus Monophthalmus. Demetrius, having reorganized the army, was proclaimed king of Macedonia, but was evicted by Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. Asia Minor was defeated by Seleucus. The latter arrested him and locked the walls of Apamea, where he died in 282 BC Besieger got the nickname because Demetrius at various sieges of cities using technologically advanced siege engines.
When Demetrius freed Athens from Demetrius Phaleron decided to intervene in Cyprus was under the authority of Ptolemy, to use the island as a base for attacks against Western Asia.
From Cilicia then began to Cyprus with a large number of infantry forces, cavalry and naval ships. Without meeting resistance landed in the Karpas peninsula and occupied the cities Heaven and Karpas. Meanwhile Menelaus, brother of Ptolemy I Soter, who was the new general of the island after the death of Nikokreonta, gathered his forces at Salamis.
Demetrius having left the fleet in safety, he moved against him. The first battle took place outside of Salamis. Menelaus has failed and some of his army fled to the city, the rest captured.
The next step for Demeter was to encircle the town. Menelaus, however, had predicted his plans, requested the assistance of his brother Ptolemy, who was in Egypt. Immediately came to Paphos with considerable forces, which were compounded by those who offered him the Cypriot cities. Started on Salamis parapleontas the south coast of Cyprus. In Kition yet added 60 ships of Menelaos who earlier were in the harbor of Salamis. These vessels were added to 140 triremes and pentireis and 200 military transport ships of Ptolemy.
Demetrius has allowed some of its forces at Salamis, supplied the bow of the ship with guns (military machines blasting rocks and projectiles) and catapults, and began to meet Ptolemy and Menelaus, who meanwhile flew to the island of Salamis. Outside the port city was in 305 BC, a great battle in which Ptolemy and Menelaus were defeated. The historical drama of those events recounted by the historian Diodorus and Plutarch. Demetrius was the owner of the island, while Ptolemy and his brother were forced to return to Egypt.
During the siege of Tyre, the Cypriot Kings went over to Alexander of Macedon and supported him with ships. In appreciation, Alexander set them free. This period, however was very brief since the Macedonian King died soon afterwards and Cyprus became a bone of contention among his successors. In 321 four Cypriot kings sided with Ptolemy I Soter
and defended the island against Antigonos
. Ptolemy lost Cyprus to Demetrios Poliorketes from 306 to 294 BC
, but after that it remained under Ptolemaic
rule till 58 BC
. It was ruled by a governor from Egypt and sometimes formed a minor Ptolemaic kingdom during the power-struggles of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Strong commercial relationships with Athens
and Alexandria
, two of the most important commercial centres of antiquity, developed.
Ptolemaic rule was rigid and exploited the island's resources to the utmost, particularly timber
and copper
. A great contemporary figure of Cypriot letters was the philosopher Zeno
who was born at Kition about 336 and founded the famous Stoic School of Philosophy at Athens where he died about 263 BC
.
in 58 BC
, according to Strabo
because Publius Clodius Pulcher
held a grudge against Ptolemy
. The renowned Stoic and strict constitutionalist M. Porcius Cato 'Uticensis'
was sent to annex Cyprus and organize it under Roman law, and Cato was relentless in protecting Cyprus against the rapacious tax farmers that normally plagued the provinces of the republican period.
After the Caesarian civil wars that ended the Roman republic, Mark Antony
gave the island to Cleopatra VII of Egypt and their daughter Cleopatra Selene
, but it became a Roman province again after his defeat at the Battle of Actium
(31 BC
) in 30 BC
.
From 22 BC
, Cyprus was a senatorial province
, after the reforms of Diocletian
it was placed under the Consularis Oriens.
Pax Romana
(Roman peace) was only twice disturbed in Cyprus in three centuries of Roman occupation.
The first serious interruption occurred in 115
-116
, when a revolt by the Jew
s inspired by Messianic hopes broke out. Their leader was Artemion, a Jew with a hellenised name as was the practice of the time. The island suffered great losses in this Kitos War
, it is believed that 240,000 Greek and Roman
civilians were killed. Though probable that the number massacred was greatly inflated, there were few or no Roman troops stationed on the island to suppress the insurrection as the rebels wreaked havoc. After forces were sent to Cyprus and the uprising was put down, a law was passed that no Jews were permitted to land on Cyprian soil, even in case of ship wreck.
The second turomoil sprang up in 333
-334
, when the magister pecoris camelorum Calocaerus revolted against Constantine I, claiming the purple. This rebellion ended with the arrival of the troops led by Flavius Dalmatius
and the death of Calocaerus.
Several earthquakes led to the destruction of Salamis at the beginning of the 4th century, at the same time drought and famine hit the island.
was a very important part of daily life in the Ancient Mediterranean World in the Roman Period, including Cyprus. It was used for food, as a fuel for lamps, and as a basic ingredient in things like medicinal ointment, bath oils, skin oils, soaps, perfumes and cosmetics. Even before the Roman Period Cyprus was known for its olive oil, as indicated by Strabo
when he said that “in fertility Cyprus is not inferior to any one of the islands, for it produces both good wine and good oil.”
There is evidence for both local trade of Cypriot oil and for a larger trading network that may have reached as far as the Aegean, though most of the oil trade was probably limited to the Eastern Mediterranean. Many olive oil presses have been found on Cyprus, and not just in rural areas, where they might be expected for personal, local use. They have been found in some of the larger coastal cities as well, including Paphos, Curium, and Amathus. In Alexandria
, Egypt there is a large presence of a type of amphora
made in Cyprus known as Late Roman 1 or LR1 that were used to carry oil. This indicates that a lot of Cypriot Oil was being imported into Egypt. There is also evidence for Cypriot trade with Cilicia and Syria.
There is also evidence that olive oil was traded locally, around the island. Amphorae found at Alaminos-Latourou Chiftlik and Dreamer’s Bay, indicate that the olive oil produced in these areas was mostly used locally or shipped to nearby towns that were larger. The amphora found on the Cape Zevgari ship wreck indicate that the ship, which was a typical small merchant ship, was carrying oil and other pieces of evidence on the ship and the location of the wreck itself imply that it was traveling a short distance, probably west around the island. These both indicate that much of the oil trade in the late Roman Period was local.
s Paul
, Barnabas
and St Mark
who came to the island at the beginning of their first missionary journey in 45 AD. After their arrival in Salamis, they proceeded to Paphos where they converted the Roman Governor Sergius Paulus to Christianity
. In the Acts of the Apostles, St Luke
describes vividly how a magician named Bar-Jesus (Elymas) was obstructing the two Apostles in their preaching of the Gospel, so Paul by his word only made him temporarily blind. As a result of this, Sergius Paulus
was converted to Christianity, being astonished at the doctrine of the Lord
. In this way, Cyprus became the first country in the world to be governed by a Christian ruler.
The apostle Paul of Tarsus
is credited with converting the people of Cyprus to Christianity. St. Barnabas was supposed to have founded the Church of Cyprus, underpinning claims for ecclesiastical independence from Antioch. According to the apocryphal Acts of Barnabas
, Barnabas carried a copy of the Gospel with him, which he had written and that was buried with him, and later unearthed after a dream by Archbishop Anthemius of Salamis. At least three Cypriot bishops (sees of Salamis, Tremithus and Paphos) took part in the First Council of Nicaea
in 325
, and twelve Cypriot bishops at the Council of Sardica
in 344
. In 400
, the Metrolitan see was located at Salamis
(Constantia).
Early Cypriot Saints include: St. Heracleidius, St. Spiridon, St. Hilarion and St. Epiphanius
. A fragment of the true cross
was deposited by St. Helena
at Tochni
, the cross of the penitent thief at Stavrovouni
, which helped to relieve a terrible drought.
In 431
, the church of Cyprus achieved its independence from the Patriarch of Antioch
at the First Council of Ephesus. Emperor Zeno
granted the archbishop of Cyprus the right to carry a sceptre instead of a pastoral staff.
History of Cyprus
-Prehistory:Cyprus was settled by humans in the Paleolithic period who coexisted with various dwarf animal species, such as dwarf elephants and pygmy hippos well into the Holocene...
, also known as Classical Antiquity
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
, dates from the 8th century BC to the Middle Ages. The earliest written records relating to Cyprus date to the Middle Bronze Age (c. 15th century BC), see Alasiya.
Assyrian Period
The earliest written source of Cypriot history shows the nation under AssyriaAssyria
Assyria was a Semitic Akkadian kingdom, extant as a nation state from the mid–23rd century BC to 608 BC centred on the Upper Tigris river, in northern Mesopotamia , that came to rule regional empires a number of times through history. It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur...
n rule. A stele
Stele
A stele , also stela , is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected for funerals or commemorative purposes, most usually decorated with the names and titles of the deceased or living — inscribed, carved in relief , or painted onto the slab...
found in 1845 in Kition commemorates the victory of King Sargon II
Sargon II
Sargon II was an Assyrian king. Sargon II became co-regent with Shalmaneser V in 722 BC, and became the sole ruler of the kingdom of Assyria in 722 BC after the death of Shalmaneser V. It is not clear whether he was the son of Tiglath-Pileser III or a usurper unrelated to the royal family...
(721-705 BC) in 709 over the seven kings in the land of Ia', in the district of Iadnana or Atnana. The former is supposedly the Assyrian name for Cyprus, while some scholars insist the later means Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
(the Islands of the Danaans). There are other inscriptions referring to Ia' in Sargon's palace at Khorsabad.
The ten kingdoms
Ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus
The ten city-kingdoms of ancient Cyprus were the Greek, Graeco-Phoenician or Graeco-Eteocypriot, states listed in an inscription of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 673-672 BC:*Paphos, Πάφος *Salamis, Σαλαμίς *Soloi, Σόλοι...
listed by an inscription of Esarhaddon
Esarhaddon
Esarhaddon , was a king of Assyria who reigned 681 – 669 BC. He was the youngest son of Sennacherib and the Aramean queen Naqi'a , Sennacherib's second wife....
in 673-672 BC have been identified as Soloi
Soli, Cyprus
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the 10 ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusSoli or Soloi is an ancient Greek city in the island of Cyprus, located south-west of Morphou and on the coast in the gulf of Morphou and dates back to about the 6th century BC...
, Salamis
Salamis, Cyprus
Salamis was an ancient Greek city-state on the east coast of Cyprus, at the mouth of the river Pedieos, 6 km north of modern Famagusta. According to tradition the founder of Salamis was Teucer, son of Telamon, who could not return home after the Trojan war because he had failed to avenge his...
, Paphos
Paphos
Paphos , sometimes referred to as Pafos, is a coastal city in the southwest of Cyprus and the capital of Paphos District. In antiquity, two locations were called Paphos: Old Paphos and New Paphos. The currently inhabited city is New Paphos. It lies on the Mediterranean coast, about west of the...
, Kourion
Kourion
Kourion , also Curias or Latin: Curium, was a city in Cyprus, which endured from antiquity until the early Middle Ages. Kourion is situated on the south shores of the island to the west of the river Lycus , 16 M. P. from Amathus. , and was recorded by numerous ancient authors including Ptolemy...
, Amathus
Amathus
Amathus was one of the most ancient royal cities of Cyprus, on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about 24 miles west of Larnaca and 6 miles east of Limassol...
and Kition on the coast, and Tamassos
Tamassos
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusTamassos is an ancient Greek city-state of great archaeological significance in the central vicinity of Cyprus, located approximately 21 kilometeres south-west of the capital city of Nicosia.-Ancient Tamassos:The city-state prospered...
, Ledra
Ledra
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusLedra , also spelt Ledrae was an ancient city-kingdom located in the centre of Cyprus where the capital city of Nicosia is today. It was established in 1050 BC but by Hellenistic times it had dwindled to a small village...
i, Idalion and Chytroi in the interior. Later inscriptions add Marion
Marion, Cyprus
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusMarion was one of the Ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus. It was situated in the north-west of the island in the Akamas region, close to the present town of Polis. Both Strabo and Pliny the Elder mention the city in their writings.The city...
, Lapithos
Lapithos
Lapithos or Lapethos is a town of Kyrenia District on the northern coast of Cyprus. According to Strabo, the settlement was founded by Spartans. In Assyrian inscriptions, Lapithos is mentioned as one of the eleven Cypriot kingdoms. During the Persian rule, Lapithos was settled by Phoenicians...
and Kerynia (Kyrenia
Kyrenia
Kyrenia is a town on the northern coast of Cyprus, noted for its historic harbour and castle. Internationally recognised as part of the Republic of Cyprus, Kyrenia has been under Turkish control since the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974...
).
The city-kingdoms began to strike their own coins around 500 BC, using the Persian weight system.
The City-Kingdoms
Cyprus gained independence between 669-663 BC. Cemeteries from this period are chiefly rock-cut tombs. They have been found, among other locations, at TamassosTamassos
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusTamassos is an ancient Greek city-state of great archaeological significance in the central vicinity of Cyprus, located approximately 21 kilometeres south-west of the capital city of Nicosia.-Ancient Tamassos:The city-state prospered...
, Soloi, Patriki and Trachonas. The rock-cut 'Royal' tombs at Tamassos
Tamassos
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusTamassos is an ancient Greek city-state of great archaeological significance in the central vicinity of Cyprus, located approximately 21 kilometeres south-west of the capital city of Nicosia.-Ancient Tamassos:The city-state prospered...
, built circa 600 BC imitate wooden houses. The pillars show Phoenicia
Phoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
n influence. Some graves contain remains of horses and chariot
Chariot
The chariot is a type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Ox carts, proto-chariots, were built by the Proto-Indo-Europeans and also built in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original horse chariot was a fast, light, open, two wheeled...
s.
The main deity of ancient Cyprus was the Great Goddess, Phoenician Astarte
Astarte
Astarte is the Greek name of a goddess known throughout the Eastern Mediterranean from the Bronze Age to Classical times...
, later known by the Greek name Aphrodite
Aphrodite
Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love, beauty, pleasure, and procreation.Her Roman equivalent is the goddess .Historically, her cult in Greece was imported from, or influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia....
, who was called, "the Cypriote" by Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
. Paphian inscriptions call her, "the Queen". Pictures of Aphrodite appear on the coins of Salamis as well, demonstrating that her cult had a larger regional influence. In addition, the King of Paphos was the High Priest of Aphrodite. Other Gods venerated include the Phoenician Anat, Baal
Baal
Baʿal is a Northwest Semitic title and honorific meaning "master" or "lord" that is used for various gods who were patrons of cities in the Levant and Asia Minor, cognate to Akkadian Bēlu...
, Eshmun, Reshef, Mikal and Melkart and the Egyptian Hathor
Hathor
Hathor , is an Ancient Egyptian goddess who personified the principles of love, beauty, music, motherhood and joy. She was one of the most important and popular deities throughout the history of Ancient Egypt...
, Thoth
Thoth
Thoth was considered one of the more important deities of the Egyptian pantheon. In art, he was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon, animals sacred to him. His feminine counterpart was Seshat...
, Bes
Bes
Bes was an Egyptian deity worshipped in the later periods of dynastic history as a protector of households and in particular mothers and children. In time he would be regarded as the defender of everything good and the enemy of all that is bad...
and Ptah
Ptah
In Ancient Egyptian Religion, Ptah was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead cosmogony, which was more literally referred to as Ta-tenen , meaning risen land, or as Tanen, meaning submerged land, though Tatenen was a god in his...
, as attested by amulets. Animal sacrifices are attested to on terracotta-votives. The Sanctuary of Ayia Irini contained over 2000 figurines.
In 570 BC, Cyprus was conquered by Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
under Amasis II
Amasis II
Amasis II or Ahmose II was a pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest.-Life:...
. The brief period of Egyptian domination left its influence mainly in arts. The influence is especially evident in sculptures, where the rigidity and the dress of Egyptian style can be observed. Soon, the Cypriots discarded the sole influence of Egyptian art for the sake of Greek prototypes.
Statues in stone show a mixture of Egyptian and Greek influence. In particular, ceramics recovered on Cyprus show influence from ancient Crete
Ancient Crete
The term Ancient Crete refers to the civilization that existed on the island of Crete, just south of Greece, in the Mediterranean Sea. From around 3000–1100 B.C., inhabitants known as Minoans controlled the island of Crete and ruled the island autonomously...
. Men often wore Egyptian whigs and Assyrian-style beards. Armour and dress showed western Asiatic elements as well.
Under the Persians, the Kings of Cyprus retained their independence. However, the kings were required to pay tribute to their overlord. Coins minted by the kings were required to have the overlord's portrait on them. King Evelthon of Salamis (560 BC
560
Year 560 was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 560 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Ceawlin of Wessex becomes King of Wessex .*...
-525 BC), was probably the first to cast silver or bronze coins in Cyprus; the coins were designed with a ram on the obverse and an ankh
Ankh
The ankh , also known as key of life, the key of the Nile or crux ansata, was the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic character that read "eternal life", a triliteral sign for the consonants ʻ-n-ḫ...
(Egyptian symbol of good luck) on the reverse.
Except for the royal city of Amathus
Amathus
Amathus was one of the most ancient royal cities of Cyprus, on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about 24 miles west of Larnaca and 6 miles east of Limassol...
, the Kingdoms of Cyprus took part in the Ionian rising in 499 BC, following the lead of Onesilos of Salamis
Salamis, Cyprus
Salamis was an ancient Greek city-state on the east coast of Cyprus, at the mouth of the river Pedieos, 6 km north of modern Famagusta. According to tradition the founder of Salamis was Teucer, son of Telamon, who could not return home after the Trojan war because he had failed to avenge his...
, brother of the King of Salamis, whom he dethroned for not wanting to fight for independence. The Persians crushed the Cypriote armies and laid siege to the fortified towns in 498 BC
498 BC
Year 498 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Siculus and Flavus...
. In Paphos, remains of a Persian siege-ramp
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
and counter-tunnels have been excavated at the North-gate. Soloi surrendered after a five-month siege.
Around 450, Kition annexed Idalion with Persian help. The importance of Kition increased again when it acquired the Tamassos copper-mines.
The Teucrid
Teucer
In Greek mythology Teucer, also Teucrus or Teucris , was the son of King Telamon of Salamis Island and his second wife Hesione, daughter of King Laomedon of Troy. He fought alongside his half-brother, Ajax, in the Trojan War and is the legendary founder of the city Salamis on Cyprus...
dynasty of Salamis had been displaced by a Phoenician exile around 450 BC
450 BC
Year 450 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Second year of the decemviri...
. Only in 411
411 BC
Year 411 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Mugillanus and Rutilus...
did Evagoras
Evagoras
Evagoras was the king of Salamis in Cyprus. The son of Nicocles, a previous king of Salamis, he claimed descent from Teucer, the son of Telamon and half-brother of Ajax, and his family had long been rulers of Salamis, although during his childhood Salamis came under Phoenician control, which...
I regain the throne of Salamis. At the beginning of the 4th century BC, he took control of the whole island and tried to gain independence from Persia with Athenian
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
help. Ca. 380 BC
380 BC
Year 380 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Poplicola, Poplicola, Maluginensis, Lanatus, Peticus, Mamercinus, Fidenas, Crassus and Mugillanus...
, a Persian force besieged Salamis. Evagoras was forced to surrender, but stayed king of Salamis until he was murdered in 374
374 BC
Year 374 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Second year without Tribunate or Consulship...
. Together with Egypt and Phoenicia, Cyprus rebelled again in 350 BC
350 BC
Year 350 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Laenas and Scipio...
, but the upraising was crushed by Artaxerxes III
Artaxerxes III of Persia
Artaxerxes III of Persia , was the Great King of Persia and the eleventh Emperor of the Achaemenid Empire, as well as the first Pharaoh of the 31st dynasty of Egypt. He was the son and successor of Artaxerxes II and was succeeded by his son, Arses of Persia...
in 344
344 BC
Year 344 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Rutilus and Torquatus...
.
The Greek alphabet
Greek alphabet
The Greek alphabet is the script that has been used to write the Greek language since at least 730 BC . The alphabet in its classical and modern form consists of 24 letters ordered in sequence from alpha to omega...
was introduced by Evagoras I of Salamis. In other parts of the island, the Phoenician script
Phoenician alphabet
The Phoenician alphabet, called by convention the Proto-Canaanite alphabet for inscriptions older than around 1050 BC, was a non-pictographic consonantal alphabet, or abjad. It was used for the writing of Phoenician, a Northern Semitic language, used by the civilization of Phoenicia...
(Kition) or the Cypriot syllabic alphabet were still used, either for inscriptions in the local Greek dialect (Arcado-Cypriot
Arcadocypriot
Arcadocypriot or southern Achaean was an ancient Greek dialect spoken in Arcadia in the central Peloponnese and in Cyprus. Its resemblance to Mycenaean Greek, as it is known from the Linear B corpus, suggests that Arcadocypriot is its descendant...
) or in the so called Eteocypriot language (Amathus). Only during the 4th century BC, did the Cypriot gods become known under Greek names. Anat
Anat
Anat, also ‘Anat is a major northwest Semitic goddess.-‘Anat in Ugarit:In the Ugaritic Ba‘al/Hadad cycle ‘Anat is a violent war-goddess, a virgin in Ugarit though the sister and lover of the great Ba‘al known as Hadad elsewhere. Ba‘al is usually called the son of Dagon and sometimes the son of El....
, who had a temple at Vouni, was called Athena, Astarte
Astarte
Astarte is the Greek name of a goddess known throughout the Eastern Mediterranean from the Bronze Age to Classical times...
Aphrodite, the main male God as Zeus. Reshef and Hylates
Hylates
Hylates was a god worshipped on the island of Cyprus who was later likened to the Greek God Apollo. An important sanctuary was located in Kourion. The Sanctuary of Apollo Hylates...
were equated with Apollo, Eshmun
Eshmun
Eshmun was a Phoenician god of healing and the tutelary god of Sidon.This god was known at least from the Iron Age period at Sidon and was worshipped also in Tyre, Beirut, Cyprus, Sardinia, and in Carthage where the site of Eshmun's temple is now occupied by the chapel of Saint Louis.According to...
with Asklepios.
Full Hellenisation only took place under Ptolemaic
Ptolemaic dynasty
The Ptolemaic dynasty, was a Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 BC to 30 BC...
rule. Phoenician and native Cypriot traits disappeared, together with the old Cypriot syllabic script. A number of cities were founded during this time, e.g. Arsinoe
Arsinoe
Arsinoe , sometimes spelled Arsinoë, pronounced Arsinoi in modern Greek, may refer to:-Literature:* Arsinoe, a character in Le Misanthrope, a play by French playwright Molière...
that was founded between old and new Paphos
Paphos
Paphos , sometimes referred to as Pafos, is a coastal city in the southwest of Cyprus and the capital of Paphos District. In antiquity, two locations were called Paphos: Old Paphos and New Paphos. The currently inhabited city is New Paphos. It lies on the Mediterranean coast, about west of the...
by Ptolemy II.
Persian Period
Ionia
Ionia is an ancient region of central coastal Anatolia in present-day Turkey, the region nearest İzmir, which was historically Smyrna. It consisted of the northernmost territories of the Ionian League of Greek settlements...
), where the Eastern Greek influence can be seen in the Cypriot material culture. The Persians did not interfere in internal affairs, the city-kingdoms continued to strike their own coins and to wage war among each other.
Royal palaces have excavated in Palaepaphos and in Vouni
Vouni
Vouni is a small village in Limassol District, Cyprus, located 7 km north of Agios Therapon....
in the territory of Marion
Marion, Cyprus
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusMarion was one of the Ten city-kingdoms of Cyprus. It was situated in the north-west of the island in the Akamas region, close to the present town of Polis. Both Strabo and Pliny the Elder mention the city in their writings.The city...
on the North coast. They closely follow Persian examples like Persepolis
Persepolis
Perspolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire . Persepolis is situated northeast of the modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province of modern Iran. In contemporary Persian, the site is known as Takht-e Jamshid...
. Vouni, on a hill overlooking the Morphou Bay
Morphou Bay
Morphou Bay , is a part of the Mediterranean Sea, located on the North Western side of the island of Cyprus. It is named after the nearby inland town of Morphou . The bay forms the westernmost seaboard of the break-away Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, which claims the bay as its own...
was built around 520 BC and destroyed in 380. It contained Royal audience chambers (liwan
Liwan
Liwan is a word used since ancient times into the present to refer to a long narrow-fronted hall or vaulted portal found in Levantine homes that is often open to the outside...
), open courtyards, bathhouses and stores.
The towns were fortified with mudbrick
Mudbrick
A mudbrick is a firefree brick, made of a mixture of clay, mud, sand, and water mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. They use a stiff mixture and let them dry in the sun for 25 days....
walls on stone foundations and rectangular bastions. The houses were constructed of mud-bricks as well, where as public buildings were faced with ashlar
Ashlar
Ashlar is prepared stone work of any type of stone. Masonry using such stones laid in parallel courses is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry. Ashlar blocks are rectangular cuboid blocks that are masonry sculpted to have square edges...
. The Phoenician town of Carpasia near Rizokarpasso had houses built of rubble masonry with square stone blocks forming the corners. Temples and sanctuaries were mainly built according to Phoenician templates. Soloi
Soli, Cyprus
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the 10 ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusSoli or Soloi is an ancient Greek city in the island of Cyprus, located south-west of Morphou and on the coast in the gulf of Morphou and dates back to about the 6th century BC...
had a small temple with a Greek plan.
In the sphere of arts, a definite influence from Greece was responsible for the production of some very important sculptures. The archaic Greek art with its attractive smile on the face of the statue is found on many Cypriot pieces dating between 525-475 BC, that is the closing stage of the Archaic period
Archaic period in Greece
The Archaic period in Greece was a period of ancient Greek history that followed the Greek Dark Ages. This period saw the rise of the polis and the founding of colonies, as well as the first inklings of classical philosophy, theatre in the form of tragedies performed during Dionysia, and written...
. During the Persian rule, Ionian influence on the sculptures intensified, copies of Greek korai
Kore
Kore is an energy drink distributed by GNC in 250 mL cans.-Ingredients:Water, Sugar, Dextrose, Citric Acid, Taurine, Sodium Citrate, Glucuronolactone, Natural and Artificial Flavors, Caffeine, Sodium Benzoate, Inositol, Caramel Color, Potassium Sorbate, Niacin, D-Calcium Pantothenate, Pyridoxine...
appear, as well as statues of men in Greek dress. Naked kouroi
Kouros
A kouros is the modern term given to those representations of male youths which first appear in the Archaic period in Greece. The term kouros, meaning youth, was first proposed for what were previously thought to be depictions of Apollo by V. I...
, common in Greece, are extremely rare while women (Korai) are always presented dressed with rich foldings of their himations.
The pottery of Cyprus was shaped by local influences, although some Greek pottery was imported.
The most important obligation of the kings of Cyprus to the Shah
Shah
Shāh is the title of the ruler of certain Southwest Asian and Central Asian countries, especially Persia , and derives from the Persian word shah, meaning "king".-History:...
of the Shahs of Persia was the payment of tribute and the supply of armies and ships for his foreign campaigns. Thus when Xerxes
Xerxes I of Persia
Xerxes I of Persia , Ḫšayāršā, ), also known as Xerxes the Great, was the fifth king of kings of the Achaemenid Empire.-Youth and rise to power:...
in 480 BC
480 BC
Year 480 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vibulanus and Cincinnatus...
invaded Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
, Cyprus contributed 150 ships to the Persian army.
Evagoras
Evagoras
Evagoras was the king of Salamis in Cyprus. The son of Nicocles, a previous king of Salamis, he claimed descent from Teucer, the son of Telamon and half-brother of Ajax, and his family had long been rulers of Salamis, although during his childhood Salamis came under Phoenician control, which...
(435
435 BC
Year 435 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the First year of the Consulship of Iullus and Tricostus...
–374 BC
374 BC
Year 374 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Second year without Tribunate or Consulship...
) was an important pro-Greek king of Cyprus. He dominated Cypriot politics for almost forty years until he died in 374 BC. He favoured everything Greek and he urged Greeks from the Aegean to come and settle in Cyprus. He assisted the Athenians in many ways and they honoured him by erecting his statue in the Stoa (portico) Basileios in Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
. He tried to unite the cities of Cyprus. He met resistance on the parts of the kings of Kition, Amathus
Amathus
Amathus was one of the most ancient royal cities of Cyprus, on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about 24 miles west of Larnaca and 6 miles east of Limassol...
and Soli
Soli, Cyprus
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the 10 ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusSoli or Soloi is an ancient Greek city in the island of Cyprus, located south-west of Morphou and on the coast in the gulf of Morphou and dates back to about the 6th century BC...
, who fled to the great king of Persia in 390 BC
390 BC
Year 390 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Tribunate of Ambustus, Longus, Ambustus, Fidenas, Ambustus and Cornelius...
, requesting that Evagoras be prevented from carrying out his plans. Evagoras also did not receive much help from Athenians and at the end could remain the ruler of Salamis only after accepting his role as a vassal of Persia.
Hellenistic period
The long and sustained efforts to overthrow Persian rule were unsuccessful, and the Persian rule in Cyprus extended until the reign of Alexander the Great. Eventually, the boisterous march of Macedon's army to the east defeated the Persians and finally ended their sovereignty over Cyprus.
Alexander the Great (Alexander of Macedon and Alexander III of Macedon), was born in Pella in 356 BC and died in Babylon in 323 BC. Son of King Philip II and Olympias, he succeeded his father to the throne of Macedonia in 336 BC at age 20. He was perhaps the greatest commander in history and led his army in a series of victorious battles; he created a vast empire that stretched from Greece to Egypt in Africa to the Caspian Sea and India in Asia. The various kingdoms of Cyprus were allies of Alexander, and contributed to the victorious campaign.
The presence of Alexander the Great in Asia Minor meant a new era for Cyprus, especially after successive victories at the Granicus (334 BC) and Issus (333 BC). The Achaemenid Empire presented the first signs of collapse when it lost the coast of Asia Minor, Syria and Phoenicia, which were naval bases.
Cypriot kings, knowing the victory of Alexander at Issus, radically changed their attitude towards the Great King of Persia. They felt that sooner or later, Alexander would be the new ruler of the island since the occupation of Cyprus was necessary (along with that of Phoenicia) to open lines of communication to Egypt and then to Asia. So in order to maintain their power, the Cypriot kings decided to show their willingness to make available to the fleet of Alexander the ships formerly in the service of Persia, thereby increasing the naval forces of the opponents. Beyond that, the Cypriots were quite experienced in seamanship and for this reason also, Alexander used a lot during the campaign into India. There was therefore a mutuality of interests: Alexander the Great would increase the capacity of his fleet, but the Cypriot kings would maintain their political independence.
From the area of Phoenicia, only Tyre had resisted, and Alexander undertook a siege. The Cypriot fleet, together with Cypriot engineers, contributed much to capture this highly fortified city. Indeed kings Pnytagoras of Salamis
Salamis, Cyprus
Salamis was an ancient Greek city-state on the east coast of Cyprus, at the mouth of the river Pedieos, 6 km north of modern Famagusta. According to tradition the founder of Salamis was Teucer, son of Telamon, who could not return home after the Trojan war because he had failed to avenge his...
, Androcles of Amathus
Amathus
Amathus was one of the most ancient royal cities of Cyprus, on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about 24 miles west of Larnaca and 6 miles east of Limassol...
, and Pasikratis of Soloi
Soli, Cyprus
thumb|right|250px|Map showing the 10 ancient city Kingdoms of CyprusSoli or Soloi is an ancient Greek city in the island of Cyprus, located south-west of Morphou and on the coast in the gulf of Morphou and dates back to about the 6th century BC...
, personally took part in the siege of Tyre, and although they lost many penteres (quinquereme
Quinquereme
From the 4th century BC on, new types of oared warships appeared in the Mediterranean Sea, superseding the trireme and transforming naval warfare. Ships became increasingly bigger and heavier, including some of the largest wooden ships ever constructed...
s), managed to conquer the northern port city, helping to capture it. The gratitude of Alexander for that participation can be seen from the gestures after his victory: not only left the Cypriot kings to freely manage the affairs of the kingdom and could be asked like that. Pnytagora, for example, who seems to have been the main driver of this initiative to support Alexander, was helped to incorporate the territory of the kingdom of Tamassos into that of Salamis. The kingdom of Tamassos was by then ruled by King Poumiathonta of Kition who had purchased it for 50 talents from the king Pasikypro.
Tyre, then the most important Phoenician city, was built on a small island that was 700 meters from the shore, and had two harbors, the Egyptian to the south and Sidonian to the north. The Cypriot kings, with 120 ships and a very experienced crew, provided substantial assistance to Alexander and contributed decisively to the fall of Tyre, after a siege enduring seven months. During the siege, in a sudden attack of cheese fleet Cypriots who besieged the city from the north and northeast, have successfully pitches pentiri the king of Salamis Pnytagora the pentiri king of Amathus Androcles and pentiri King Pasikrati of Solon. The attack by the Cyprus cheese fleet was in the afternoon when the Cypriot crews rested on the coast. Alexander, occupying a Phoenician ship, personally intervened and saved the Cypriot fleet from more disasters. During the final attack on the town, the Cypriots managed to occupy the port of Sidon and the northern part of Tyre and the Phoenicians occupied the Egyptian port. Alexander also attacked the city with siege machines by constructing a "mole", a strip of soil from the coast opposite Tyre, to the island where the city was built. In the whole operation against Tyre, Alexander was helped by many Cypriots and Phoenicians engineers who built on his behalf, and in a short time, many siege engines battered the city from the "mole" and from "ippagoga" ships.
In 331 BC, while Alexander was returning from Egypt, he stayed for a while in Tyre. The Cypriot kings, wishing to reaffirm their trust and support, honored him by organizing round and tragic struggles, sacrifices and processions.
During the campaign into India, Alexander took with him, in addition to Phoenicians and Egyptians, many Cypriot sailors and rowers, who had greater experience in seamanship. These were experienced sailors led by princes as Nikoklis, son of King Pasikrati of Solon, and Nifothona, son of King Pnytagora of Salamis.
As Alexander continued in the vast state of the same administrative system that was until then the Persian Empire, commissioned very important responsibilities in Cyprus. This indicates that the Stasanor of Solon was appointed in 329 BC satrap of the Supreme Court and Drangon.
The new situation created by the presence of Alexander the Great in Asia, a presence that heralded the birth of the Hellenistic world, could not but affect, sooner or later, Cyprus: The Cypriot currency was further evidence that the independence of the Cypriot kings gradually fell, as the mints of Salamis and Kiti began to stamp coins on Alexander's behalf rather than in the name of local kings.
As mentioned, between Alexandria, the cities had been built by Alexander the Great or his successors have been renamed in his honor after his death, and included a city of Alexandria is believed, was built and became the king of Solon, a friend and ally Alexander Pasikrati.
As mentioned by Arrian and Strabo, the historian Excellent Cypriot Salamis wrote the essay in which recount the exploits of Alexander the Great. This book is not saved.
Like Plutarch, Alexander was dying and sword thafmastin koufotiti, dorisamenou of Kition King ... iskimenos many christhai knife only battles Tas ... Ie "Alexander had a wonderful knife to cut and lightweight, it was a gift to him by the King of Kiti ... and was very practiced at using the sword in battle.
King of Kiti made to Alexander the prize was Poumiathon Phoenix (361 -312 BC), and he tried to win the favor of Macedon army, but to succeed.
The policy of Alexander the Great on Cyprus and its kings, was clear: to exempt them from Persian rule (although some kings were by then clearly persofiloi), but annexing Cyprus to his country. In the interior of the Cypriot kingdoms not intervened directly and kings maintained their autonomy, but made some rearrangements, such as performance Tamassos and mining of the king of Salamis Pnytagora. While Alexander sought to make clear that he considered himself the master of the island, and it expressed and emphasized the abolition of the currencies of the Cypriot kingdoms and the establishment of others, his own, which were cut at the mints of Salamis, of Kiti and Paphos.
According to sources when Alexander prepared the expedition will continue in India because the country had many navigable rivers, it includes a significant number of shipbuilders and rowers from Cyprus, Egypt, Phoenicia and Caria.
The premature death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC put an end to Greek aspirations for global domination. The empire he had created was divided between the generals and successors, which immediately started and the conflicts between them followed by war to win each of them something more. With the death of Alexander begins the Hellenistic period of Cypriot history.
The conflict and wars of his successors inevitably complicated and in Cyprus focused on two claimants, Antigonus (enhanced by his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes) and Ptolemy Lagus. The first held Syria and the second Egypt. Initially successful in Cyprus were Antigonus and his son.
The Cypriot kings who so far had maintained their independence in their kingdoms, suddenly found themselves in a difficult position. This is because, as Cyprus became the "apple of discord" between Ptolemy and Antigonus, the kings of the island now had to make new choices and alliances. This led to a controversy and confrontation because some Cypriot kingdoms chose alliance with Ptolemy, others sided with the Antigonids and others tried to remain neutral. The largest city and kingdom of Cyprus then appears to have been Salamis, whose king was Nicocreon.
Nicocreon argued strongly in favor of Ptolemy. According to Arrian, Ptolemy had to come out except Nikokreonta of Salamis, and into Him contemplated Pasikratis of Solon, Nikoklis of Paphos and Amathus of Androcles of Amathus.
The words and into Him void indicates that the other three kings (Solon, Paphos Amathus) were under the influence of Nikokreonta of Salamis. What size and what kind of influence is not known. But it seems that after the march of Alexander the Great, perhaps because its own regulations and rules, the city of Salamis was a high Role in Cyprus, and the king probably the leader among Cypriot monarchs.
However, some other kings of Cyprus, Praxippos of Lapithos - Kyrenia, the Poumiothon (Pygmalion) of Kiti and Stasioikos of Marion, were allied with Antigonus.
Against these, Nicocreon and other pro-Ptolemaic kings conducted combat operations. Ptolemy enhanced even military allies of the kings of Cyprus, and sending those troops under Seleucus and Menelaus. The Kyrenia and Lapithos were occupied after a siege and Marion capitulated. Diodorus gives information that Amathus was also forced to surrender to Ptolemy, even giving hostages as a guarantee, while Kition was closely besieged (around 315 BC).
Eventually Ptolemy entered Cyprus with more military forces in 312 BC, and clarified the situation: he captured and killed the king of Kition, and arrested the pro-Antigonid kings of Marion and Lapithos - Kyrenia. Moreover, he fully destroyed the city of Marion. So Ptolemy removed most of the kingdoms of Cyprus, which were until then and everything ... diapraxamenos while Cyprus has the general Nikokreonta, traditional cities and TE Tash Tash proceeds ekpeptokoton kings.
We know that the crucial and decisive intervention by Ptolemy in 312 BC, maintained for some more power to the kings of Solon and Paphos. Particularly Nicocreon of Salamis, whom Ptolemy seems to have appreciated and trusted completely, won the cities and revenue of expelled kings. So Salamis extended its authority throughout eastern, central and northern Cyprus, since Kition and Lapithos had been included in it while Tamassos already belonged. Further, Nicocreon of Salamis took office with the blessing of Ptolemy as the chief general in Cyprus, effectively master of the whole island. But the situation was fluid and we know from sources that the rulers of Solon and Paphos had been kept in power. But soon the king Nikoklis was considered suspect, was besieged and forced to suicide, followed by the putting of his entire family to death (312 BC).
The following year (311 BC) Nicocreon of Salamis died, in accordance with epigraphic evidence (Parian marble) that says: "Since Nicocreon had died and Ptolemy had become master of Cyprus, spent 47 years when in Athens was a master Simonides. The petition is about the year 264 BC, thus adding 47 years had passed, we find that Nicocreon died in 311 BC.
After the intervention of Ptolemy in Cyprus, which subjugated the island, Antigonus and his son, Demetrius, reacted against the besiegers. Indeed, the latter led a large military operation in Cyprus.
Demetrius was born in 336 BC and initially fought under the command of his father for the first time in 317 BC against Eumenes, where he particularly distinguished himself. In 307 BC he took over and managed to liberate Athens, forcing Demetrius Phaleron and restoring democracy. In 306 BC he led the war against the Ptolemies. Shortly afterwards, he tried to capture Rhodes, but after a siege of two years reached an agreement with the Rhodians making them allies (304 BC). Defeated at the battle of Ipsus (301 BC) by the joint forces of Ptolemy Cassander and Lysimachus. The battle killed his father Antigonus Monophthalmus. Demetrius, having reorganized the army, was proclaimed king of Macedonia, but was evicted by Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. Asia Minor was defeated by Seleucus. The latter arrested him and locked the walls of Apamea, where he died in 282 BC Besieger got the nickname because Demetrius at various sieges of cities using technologically advanced siege engines.
When Demetrius freed Athens from Demetrius Phaleron decided to intervene in Cyprus was under the authority of Ptolemy, to use the island as a base for attacks against Western Asia.
From Cilicia then began to Cyprus with a large number of infantry forces, cavalry and naval ships. Without meeting resistance landed in the Karpas peninsula and occupied the cities Heaven and Karpas. Meanwhile Menelaus, brother of Ptolemy I Soter, who was the new general of the island after the death of Nikokreonta, gathered his forces at Salamis.
Demetrius having left the fleet in safety, he moved against him. The first battle took place outside of Salamis. Menelaus has failed and some of his army fled to the city, the rest captured.
The next step for Demeter was to encircle the town. Menelaus, however, had predicted his plans, requested the assistance of his brother Ptolemy, who was in Egypt. Immediately came to Paphos with considerable forces, which were compounded by those who offered him the Cypriot cities. Started on Salamis parapleontas the south coast of Cyprus. In Kition yet added 60 ships of Menelaos who earlier were in the harbor of Salamis. These vessels were added to 140 triremes and pentireis and 200 military transport ships of Ptolemy.
Demetrius has allowed some of its forces at Salamis, supplied the bow of the ship with guns (military machines blasting rocks and projectiles) and catapults, and began to meet Ptolemy and Menelaus, who meanwhile flew to the island of Salamis. Outside the port city was in 305 BC, a great battle in which Ptolemy and Menelaus were defeated. The historical drama of those events recounted by the historian Diodorus and Plutarch. Demetrius was the owner of the island, while Ptolemy and his brother were forced to return to Egypt.
During the siege of Tyre, the Cypriot Kings went over to Alexander of Macedon and supported him with ships. In appreciation, Alexander set them free. This period, however was very brief since the Macedonian King died soon afterwards and Cyprus became a bone of contention among his successors. In 321 four Cypriot kings sided with Ptolemy I Soter
Ptolemy I Soter
Ptolemy I Soter I , also known as Ptolemy Lagides, c. 367 BC – c. 283 BC, was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great, who became ruler of Egypt and founder of both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Dynasty...
and defended the island against Antigonos
Antigonus I Monophthalmus
Antigonus I Monophthalmus , son of Philip from Elimeia, was a Macedonian nobleman, general, and satrap under Alexander the Great. During his early life he served under Philip II, and he was a major figure in the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexander's death, declaring himself king in 306 BC and...
. Ptolemy lost Cyprus to Demetrios Poliorketes from 306 to 294 BC
294 BC
Year 294 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Megellus and Regulus...
, but after that it remained under Ptolemaic
Ptolemaic dynasty
The Ptolemaic dynasty, was a Macedonian Greek royal family which ruled the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt during the Hellenistic period. Their rule lasted for 275 years, from 305 BC to 30 BC...
rule till 58 BC
58 BC
Year 58 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Piso and Gabinius...
. It was ruled by a governor from Egypt and sometimes formed a minor Ptolemaic kingdom during the power-struggles of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Strong commercial relationships with Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
and Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, two of the most important commercial centres of antiquity, developed.
Ptolemaic rule was rigid and exploited the island's resources to the utmost, particularly timber
Timber
Timber may refer to:* Timber, a term common in the United Kingdom and Australia for wood materials * Timber, Oregon, an unincorporated community in the U.S...
and copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
. A great contemporary figure of Cypriot letters was the philosopher Zeno
Zeno of Citium
Zeno of Citium was a Greek philosopher from Citium . Zeno was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. Based on the moral ideas of the Cynics, Stoicism laid great emphasis on goodness and peace of mind gained from living a life of virtue in...
who was born at Kition about 336 and founded the famous Stoic School of Philosophy at Athens where he died about 263 BC
263 BC
Year 263 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Mesella and Crassus...
.
Roman Period
Cyprus became a Roman provinceRoman province
In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy , largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside of Italy...
in 58 BC
58 BC
Year 58 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Piso and Gabinius...
, according to Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
because Publius Clodius Pulcher
Publius Clodius Pulcher
Publius Clodius Pulcher was a Roman politician known for his popularist tactics...
held a grudge against Ptolemy
Ptolemy of Cyprus
Ptolemy of Cyprus was the king of Cyprus c. 80-58 BC. He was the younger brother of Ptolemy XII Auletes, king of Egypt, and, like him, an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX Lathyros. He appears to have been acknowledged king of Cyprus at the same time that his brother Auletes obtained the possession of...
. The renowned Stoic and strict constitutionalist M. Porcius Cato 'Uticensis'
Cato the Younger
Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis , commonly known as Cato the Younger to distinguish him from his great-grandfather , was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy...
was sent to annex Cyprus and organize it under Roman law, and Cato was relentless in protecting Cyprus against the rapacious tax farmers that normally plagued the provinces of the republican period.
After the Caesarian civil wars that ended the Roman republic, Mark Antony
Mark Antony
Marcus Antonius , known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. As a military commander and administrator, he was an important supporter and loyal friend of his mother's cousin Julius Caesar...
gave the island to Cleopatra VII of Egypt and their daughter Cleopatra Selene
Cleopatra Selene
Cleopatra Selene may refer to:*Cleopatra Selene I, daughter of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III of Egypt*Cleopatra Selene II, also known as Cleopatra VIII, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony...
, but it became a Roman province again after his defeat at the Battle of Actium
Battle of Actium
The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the city of Actium, at the Roman...
(31 BC
31 BC
Year 31 BC was either a common year starting on Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday or a leap year starting on Tuesday or Wednesday of the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Tuesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar...
) in 30 BC
30 BC
Year 30 BC was either a common year starting on Wednesday, Thursday or Friday or a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar...
.
From 22 BC
22 BC
Year 22 BC was either a common year starting on Sunday, Monday or Tuesday or a leap year starting on Sunday or Saturday of the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Saturday of the Proleptic Julian calendar...
, Cyprus was a senatorial province
Senatorial province
A senatorial province was a Roman province where the Roman Senate had the right to appoint the governor . These provinces were away from the Empire's borders and free from the likelihood of rebellion, and so had few if any legions stationed in them...
, after the reforms of Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
it was placed under the Consularis Oriens.
Pax Romana
Pax Romana
Pax Romana was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Since it was established by Caesar Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augusta...
(Roman peace) was only twice disturbed in Cyprus in three centuries of Roman occupation.
The first serious interruption occurred in 115
115
Year 115 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Messalla and Vergilianus...
-116
116
Year 116 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lamia and Vetus...
, when a revolt by the Jew
Kitos War
The Kitos War , translation: Rebellion of the exile) is the name given to the second of the Jewish–Roman wars. Major revolts by diasporic Jews in Cyrene , Cyprus, Mesopotamia and Aegyptus spiraled out of control resulting in a widespread slaughter of Roman citizens and others by the Jewish rebels...
s inspired by Messianic hopes broke out. Their leader was Artemion, a Jew with a hellenised name as was the practice of the time. The island suffered great losses in this Kitos War
Kitos War
The Kitos War , translation: Rebellion of the exile) is the name given to the second of the Jewish–Roman wars. Major revolts by diasporic Jews in Cyrene , Cyprus, Mesopotamia and Aegyptus spiraled out of control resulting in a widespread slaughter of Roman citizens and others by the Jewish rebels...
, it is believed that 240,000 Greek and Roman
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
civilians were killed. Though probable that the number massacred was greatly inflated, there were few or no Roman troops stationed on the island to suppress the insurrection as the rebels wreaked havoc. After forces were sent to Cyprus and the uprising was put down, a law was passed that no Jews were permitted to land on Cyprian soil, even in case of ship wreck.
The second turomoil sprang up in 333
333
Year 333 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Dalmatius and Zenophilus...
-334
334
Year 334 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Optatus and Caesonius...
, when the magister pecoris camelorum Calocaerus revolted against Constantine I, claiming the purple. This rebellion ended with the arrival of the troops led by Flavius Dalmatius
Flavius Dalmatius
Flavius Dalmatius , also known as Dalmatius the Censor, was a censor , and a member of the Constantinian dynasty, which ruled over the Roman Empire at the beginning of the 4th century....
and the death of Calocaerus.
Several earthquakes led to the destruction of Salamis at the beginning of the 4th century, at the same time drought and famine hit the island.
Olive Oil Trade in the Late Roman Period
Olive oilOlive oil
Olive oil is an oil obtained from the olive , a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. It is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps...
was a very important part of daily life in the Ancient Mediterranean World in the Roman Period, including Cyprus. It was used for food, as a fuel for lamps, and as a basic ingredient in things like medicinal ointment, bath oils, skin oils, soaps, perfumes and cosmetics. Even before the Roman Period Cyprus was known for its olive oil, as indicated by Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
when he said that “in fertility Cyprus is not inferior to any one of the islands, for it produces both good wine and good oil.”
There is evidence for both local trade of Cypriot oil and for a larger trading network that may have reached as far as the Aegean, though most of the oil trade was probably limited to the Eastern Mediterranean. Many olive oil presses have been found on Cyprus, and not just in rural areas, where they might be expected for personal, local use. They have been found in some of the larger coastal cities as well, including Paphos, Curium, and Amathus. In Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, Egypt there is a large presence of a type of amphora
Amphora
An amphora is a type of vase-shaped, usually ceramic container with two handles and a long neck narrower than the body...
made in Cyprus known as Late Roman 1 or LR1 that were used to carry oil. This indicates that a lot of Cypriot Oil was being imported into Egypt. There is also evidence for Cypriot trade with Cilicia and Syria.
There is also evidence that olive oil was traded locally, around the island. Amphorae found at Alaminos-Latourou Chiftlik and Dreamer’s Bay, indicate that the olive oil produced in these areas was mostly used locally or shipped to nearby towns that were larger. The amphora found on the Cape Zevgari ship wreck indicate that the ship, which was a typical small merchant ship, was carrying oil and other pieces of evidence on the ship and the location of the wreck itself imply that it was traveling a short distance, probably west around the island. These both indicate that much of the oil trade in the late Roman Period was local.
Christianization
Roman Cyprus was visited by the ApostleApostle (Christian)
The term apostle is derived from Classical Greek ἀπόστολος , meaning one who is sent away, from στέλλω + από . The literal meaning in English is therefore an "emissary", from the Latin mitto + ex...
s Paul
Paul of Tarsus
Paul the Apostle , also known as Saul of Tarsus, is described in the Christian New Testament as one of the most influential early Christian missionaries, with the writings ascribed to him by the church forming a considerable portion of the New Testament...
, Barnabas
Barnabas
Barnabas , born Joseph, was an Early Christian, one of the earliest Christian disciples in Jerusalem. In terms of culture and background, he was a Hellenised Jew, specifically a Levite. Named an apostle in , he and Saint Paul undertook missionary journeys together and defended Gentile converts...
and St Mark
Mark the Evangelist
Mark the Evangelist is the traditional author of the Gospel of Mark. He is one of the Seventy Disciples of Christ, and the founder of the Church of Alexandria, one of the original four main sees of Christianity....
who came to the island at the beginning of their first missionary journey in 45 AD. After their arrival in Salamis, they proceeded to Paphos where they converted the Roman Governor Sergius Paulus to Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. In the Acts of the Apostles, St Luke
Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist was an Early Christian writer whom Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius said was the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles...
describes vividly how a magician named Bar-Jesus (Elymas) was obstructing the two Apostles in their preaching of the Gospel, so Paul by his word only made him temporarily blind. As a result of this, Sergius Paulus
Sergius Paulus
Lucius Sergius Paullus was a Proconsul of Cyprus under Claudius . He appears in Acts , where in Paphos Paul, accompanied by Barnabas and John Mark, overcame the attempts of Bar-Jesus or Elymas and converted Sergius to Christianity....
was converted to Christianity, being astonished at the doctrine of the Lord
Lord
Lord is a title with various meanings. It can denote a prince or a feudal superior . The title today is mostly used in connection with the peerage of the United Kingdom or its predecessor countries, although some users of the title do not themselves hold peerages, and use it 'by courtesy'...
. In this way, Cyprus became the first country in the world to be governed by a Christian ruler.
The apostle Paul of Tarsus
Paul of Tarsus
Paul the Apostle , also known as Saul of Tarsus, is described in the Christian New Testament as one of the most influential early Christian missionaries, with the writings ascribed to him by the church forming a considerable portion of the New Testament...
is credited with converting the people of Cyprus to Christianity. St. Barnabas was supposed to have founded the Church of Cyprus, underpinning claims for ecclesiastical independence from Antioch. According to the apocryphal Acts of Barnabas
Acts of Barnabas
The text of the pseudepigraphical Acts of Barnabas claims to identify its author as "John Mark," the companion of Paul, as if writing an account of Barnabas, the Cypriot Jew who was a member of the earliest church at Jerusalem; through the services of Barnabas the convert Saul was welcomed into the...
, Barnabas carried a copy of the Gospel with him, which he had written and that was buried with him, and later unearthed after a dream by Archbishop Anthemius of Salamis. At least three Cypriot bishops (sees of Salamis, Tremithus and Paphos) took part in the First Council of Nicaea
First Council of Nicaea
The First Council of Nicaea was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in AD 325...
in 325
325
Year 325 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Proculus and Paulinus...
, and twelve Cypriot bishops at the Council of Sardica
Council of Sardica
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Sofia and Plovdiv is a Roman Catholic diocese of the Latin Rite, which includes the whole southern part of Bulgaria. The remainder of Bulgaria is comprised in the Diocese of Nicopoli. The seat of the episcopal see is in Plovdiv. The diocese is immediately subject of...
in 344
344
Year 344 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Leontius and Bonosus...
. In 400
400
Year 400 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Stilicho and Aurelianus...
, the Metrolitan see was located at Salamis
Salamis, Cyprus
Salamis was an ancient Greek city-state on the east coast of Cyprus, at the mouth of the river Pedieos, 6 km north of modern Famagusta. According to tradition the founder of Salamis was Teucer, son of Telamon, who could not return home after the Trojan war because he had failed to avenge his...
(Constantia).
Early Cypriot Saints include: St. Heracleidius, St. Spiridon, St. Hilarion and St. Epiphanius
Epiphanius of Salamis
Epiphanius of Salamis was bishop of Salamis at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy...
. A fragment of the true cross
True Cross
The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a Christian tradition, are believed to be from the cross upon which Jesus was crucified.According to post-Nicene historians, Socrates Scholasticus and others, the Empress Helena The True Cross is the name for physical remnants which, by a...
was deposited by St. Helena
Helena of Constantinople
Saint Helena also known as Saint Helen, Helena Augusta or Helena of Constantinople was the consort of Emperor Constantius, and the mother of Emperor Constantine I...
at Tochni
Tochni
Tochni is a village located in the Larnaca District of Cyprus, about halfway between the cities of Larnaca and Limassol. Prior to 1974, the majority of the village was made up of Turkish Cypriots and it was known as "Taşkent". In August 1974, 85 inhabitants of the village was massacred by...
, the cross of the penitent thief at Stavrovouni
Stavrovouni
Stavrovouni Monastery is a Greek Orthodox monastery which stands on the top of a hill called Stavrovouni in Cyprus...
, which helped to relieve a terrible drought.
In 431
431
Year 431 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Bassus and Antiochus...
, the church of Cyprus achieved its independence from the Patriarch of Antioch
Patriarch of Antioch
Patriarch of Antioch is a traditional title held by the Bishop of Antioch. As the traditional "overseer" of the first gentile Christian community, the position has been of prime importance in the church from its earliest period...
at the First Council of Ephesus. Emperor Zeno
Zeno (emperor)
Zeno , originally named Tarasis, was Byzantine Emperor from 474 to 475 and again from 476 to 491. Domestic revolts and religious dissension plagued his reign, which nevertheless succeeded to some extent in foreign issues...
granted the archbishop of Cyprus the right to carry a sceptre instead of a pastoral staff.
Literature
- Veronica Tatton-Brown, Cyprus BC, 7000 years of history (London, British Museum 1979).
- C. D. Cobham, Excerpta Cypria, materials for a history of Cyprus (Cambridge 1908). Includes the Classical Sources.
- D. Hunt, Footprints in Cyprus (London, Trigraph 1990).
- Leidwanger, J. 2007, “Two Late Roman Wrecks from Southern Cyprus.” IJNA 36: 308-316.
- Leonard, J. and S. Demesticha. 2004, “Fundamental Links in the Economic Chain: Local Ports and International trade in Roman and Early Christian Cyprus.” In Transport Amphorae and Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean: Acts of the International Colloquium at the Danish Institute at Athens, September 26–29, 2002, edited by J. Eiring and J. Lund, 189-202. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
- Papacostas, T. 2001, “The Economy of Late Antique Cyprus.” In Economy and Exchange in the East Mediterranean during Late Antiquity: Proceedings of a conference at Somerville College, Oxford, 29 May 1999, edited by S. Kingsley and M. Decker, 107-128. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
- Tyree, E.L. 1996,