Agkistrodon piscivorus
Encyclopedia
Agkistrodon piscivorus is a venomous snake
Venomous snake
"Poisonous snake" redirects here. For true poisonous snakes, see Rhabdophis.Venomous snakes are snakes which have venom glands and specialized teeth for the injection of venom...

, a species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...

 of pit viper
Crotalinae
The Crotalinae, commonly known as "pit vipers" or crotaline snakes, are a subfamily of venomous vipers found in Asia and the Americas. They are distinguished by the presence of a heat-sensing pit organ located between the eye and the nostril on either side of the head...

, found in the southeastern United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

. Adults are large and capable of delivering a painful and potentially fatal bite. When antagonized they will stand their ground by coiling their bodies and displaying their fangs. Although their aggression has been exaggerated, on rare occasions territorial males will approach intruders in an aggressive manner. This is the world's only semi-aquatic viper, usually found in or near water, particularly in slow-moving and shallow lakes, streams, and marshes. The snake is a strong swimmer and will even enter the sea, successfully colonizing islands off both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The common names for the species include variants on water moccasin, swamp moccasin or black moccasin; also cottonmouth, gapper, or simply viper. Many of the common names refer to the threat display, where this species will often stand its ground and gape at an intruder, exposing the white lining of its mouth.

The diet consists mainly of fish and frogs, but is otherwise highly varied and, uniquely, has even been reported to include carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...

. The specific name is derived from the Latin words piscis and voro, which mean "fish" and "to eat". Three subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...

 are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.

Description

This is the largest species of the genus Agkistrodon
Agkistrodon
Agkistrodon is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in North America from the United States south to northern Costa Rica. The name is derived from the Greek words ἄγκιστρον 'fishhook' and ὁδοὐς 'tooth', and is likely a reference to the fangs...

. Adults commonly exceed 80 cm (31.5 in) in length, females growing smaller than males. Occasionally, individuals may exceed 180 cm (71 in) in length, especially in the eastern part of the range. According to Gloyd and Conant (1990), the largest recorded specimen of A. p. piscivorus was 188 cm (74 in) in length, based on a specimen caught in the Dismal Swamp
Great Dismal Swamp
The Great Dismal Swamp is a marshy area on the Coastal Plain Region of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina between Norfolk, Virginia, and Elizabeth City, North Carolina in the United States. It is located in parts of southern Chesapeake and Suffolk in Virginia, as well as northern...

 region and given to the Philadelphia Zoological Garden
Philadelphia Zoo
The Philadelphia Zoo, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the west bank of the Schuylkill River, was the first zoo in the United States. Chartered by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania on March 21, 1859, its opening was delayed by the American Civil War until July 1, 1874...

. It should be noted, however, that this snake had apparently been injured during capture, died several days later and was measured when straight and relaxed.

The broad head is distinct from the neck, the snout blunt in profile with the rim of the top of the head extending forwards slightly further than the mouth. The body has a heavy build and a tail that is moderately long and slender. On top of the head, a generalized pattern of nine symmetrical head plates is present, although the parietal plates are often fragmented, especially towards the rear. A loreal scale is absent. There are 6-9 supralabials and 8-12 infralabials. At midbody, there are 23-27 rows of dorsal scales
Dorsal scales
In snakes, the dorsal scales are the longitudinal series of plates that encircle the body, but do not include the ventral scales.When counting dorsal scales, numbers are often given for three points along the body, for example 19:21:17...

. All dorsal scale rows have keels
Keeled scales
Keeled scales refer to reptile scales that, rather than being smooth, have a ridge down the center that may or may not extend to the tip of the scale, making them rough to the touch...

, although those on the lowermost scale rows are weak. In males/females, the ventral scales
Ventral scales
In snakes, the ventral scales are the enlarged and transversely elongated scales that extend down the underside of the body from the neck to the anal scale. When counting them, the first is the anteriormost ventral scale that contacts the paraventral row of dorsal scales on either side...

 number 130-145/128-144 and the subcaudals 38-54/36-50. Many of the latter may be divided.

Though the majority of specimens are almost or even totally black, (with the exception of head and facial markings) the color pattern may consist of a brown, gray, tan, yellowish olive or blackish ground color, which is overlaid with a series of 10-17 crossbands that are dark brown to almost black. These crossbands, which usually have black edges, are sometimes broken along the dorsal midline to form a series of staggered half bands on either side of the body. These crossbands are visibly lighter in the center, almost matching the ground color, often contain irregular dark markings, and extend well down onto the ventral scales. The dorsal banding pattern fades with age, so that older individuals are an almost uniform olive brown, grayish brown or black. The belly is white, yellowish white or tan, marked with dark spots, and becomes darker posteriorly. The amount of dark pigment on the belly varies from virtually nothing to almost completely black. The head is a more or less uniform brown color, especially in A. p. piscivorus. Subadult specimens may exhibit the same kind of dark, parietal spots that are characteristic of A. contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans...

, but sometimes these are still visible in adults. Eastern populations have a broad dark postocular stripe, bordered with pale pigment above and below, that is faint or absent in western populations. The underside of the head is generally whitish, cream or tan.

Juvenile and subadult specimens generally have a more contrasting color pattern, with dark crossbands on a lighter ground color. The ground color is then tan, brown or reddish brown. The tip of the tail is usually yellowish, becoming greenish yellow or greenish in subadults, and then black in adults. On some juveniles, the banding pattern can also be seen on the tail.

This species is often confused with the copperhead, A. contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans...

. This is especially true for juveniles, but there are differences. A. piscivorus has broad dark stripes on the sides of its head that extend back from the eye, whereas A. contortrix has only a thin dark line that divides the pale supralabials from the somewhat darker color of the head.

The watersnakes of the genus Nerodia
Nerodia
Nerodia is a genus of nonvenomous colubrid snakes commonly referred to as water snakes.- Description :Nerodia species vary greatly, but all are relatively heavy-bodied snakes, sometimes growing to 1.2 m or larger. They have flattened heads, with small eyes that have round pupils, and keeled...

are also similar in appearance, being thick-bodied with large heads, but they have round pupils, no loreal pit
Loreal pit
The Loreal pit is the deep depression, or fossa, in the loreal area on either side of the head in crotaline snakes . It is located behind the nostril and in front of the eye, but below the line that runs between the centers of each. It is the external opening to an extremely sensitive infrared...

, a single anal plate, subcaudal scales that are divided throughout and a distinctive overall color pattern.

Common names

This is a list of common name
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...

s for Agkistrodon piscivorus, some of which also refer to other species:
  • water moccasin
  • cottonmouth
  • black moccasin
  • black snake
    Black snake
    Black snake may refer to:Snakes:* Pseudechis, any member of a genus of venomous elapids snakes found in Australia.* Coluber constrictor, a non-venomous colubrid species found in North America....

  • blunt-tail moccasin
  • copperhead
    Copperhead
    Copperhead may refer to:Snakes:* Agkistrodon contortrix, a venomous pit viper species found in parts of North America.* Agkistrodon piscivorus, a.k.a. the cottonmouth, another venomous pit viper species found in North America....

  • cotton-mouthed snake
  • highland moccasin
  • lowland moccasin
  • mangrove rattler
  • moccasin

  • North American cottonmouth snake
  • North American water moccasin
  • North American water viper
  • pilot
  • rusty moccasin
  • stub-tail
  • stump moccasin
  • stump-tail moccasin
  • stump-tail viper
  • swamp lion
  • Texas moccasin
  • trap jaw

  • Troost's moccasin
  • true horn snake
  • true water moccasin
  • viper
  • water mokeson
  • water pilot
  • water adder
  • water rattlesnake
  • water viper
  • cotton-mouth snake
  • gaper
  • snap jaw

Catesby
Mark Catesby
Mark Catesby was an English naturalist. Between 1731 and 1743 Catesby published his Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands, the first published account of the flora and fauna of North America...

 (1743) referred to it as the "water viper", while Lacépède (1789) called it "le piscivore." The first appearance of "water moccasin" and "cotton mouth" was in Holbrook's
John Edwards Holbrook
John Edwards Holbrook American zoologist, herpetologist, physician, and naturalist, was born in Beaufort, South Carolina, the son of Silas Holbrook, a teacher, and Mary Edwards....

 North American Herpetology (1838, 1842).

Geographic range

Found in the eastern United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

 from Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...

, south through the Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

 peninsula and west to Arkansas
Arkansas
Arkansas is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states , and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River...

, eastern and southern Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...

, and east and central Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...

. A few records exist of the species being found along the Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that flows from southwestern Colorado in the United States to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way it forms part of the Mexico – United States border. Its length varies as its course changes...

 in Texas, but these are thought to represent disjunct populations, now possibly eradicated. The type locality given is "Carolina," although Schmidt (1953) proposed that this be restricted to the area around Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston, South Carolina
Charleston is the second largest city in the U.S. state of South Carolina. It was made the county seat of Charleston County in 1901 when Charleston County was founded. The city's original name was Charles Towne in 1670, and it moved to its present location from a location on the west bank of the...

. name="McD99">McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).

Campbell and Lamar (2004) mentions this species as being found in Alabama
Alabama
Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...

, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...

, Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...

, Indiana
Indiana
Indiana is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the Midwestern United States and Great Lakes Region. With 6,483,802 residents, the state is ranked 15th in population and 16th in population density. Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and is...

, Kentucky
Kentucky
The Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...

, Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...

, Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...

, Missouri
Missouri
Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...

, North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...

, Oklahoma, South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...

, Texas, and Virginia. Maps provided by Campbell and Lamar (2004) and Wright and Wright (1957) also indicate its presence in Western and Middle Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...

, extreme southeastern Nebraska
Nebraska
Nebraska is a state on the Great Plains of the Midwestern United States. The state's capital is Lincoln and its largest city is Omaha, on the Missouri River....

 and limit it to the western part of Kentucky.

In Georgia it is found in the southern half of the state up to a few kilometers north of the fall line
Fall line
A fall line is a geomorphologic unconformity between an upland region of relatively hard crystalline basement rock and a coastal plain of softer sedimentary rock. A fall line is typically prominent when crossed by a river, for there will often be rapids or waterfalls...

 with few exceptions. Its range also includes the Ohio River Valley as far north as southern Illinois, and it inhabits many barrier island
Barrier island
Barrier islands, a coastal landform and a type of barrier system, are relatively narrow strips of sand that parallel the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen...

s off the coasts of the states where it is found.

Conservation status

This species is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN
World Conservation Union
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is an international organization dedicated to finding "pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges." The organization publishes the IUCN Red List, compiling information from a network of...

 Red List of Threatened Species
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...

 (v3.1, 2001). Species are listed as such due to their wide distribution, presumed large population, or because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category. When last assessed in 2007 the population trend was stable.

Constant persecution of the species and drainage of wetland habitat prior to development has taken a heavy toll on local populations. Despite this, it remains a common species in many areas.

Habitat

This is the most aquatic species of the genus Agkistrodon
Agkistrodon
Agkistrodon is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in North America from the United States south to northern Costa Rica. The name is derived from the Greek words ἄγκιστρον 'fishhook' and ὁδοὐς 'tooth', and is likely a reference to the fangs...

and is usually associated with bodies of water, such as creeks, streams, marshes, swamps and the shores of ponds and lakes. The U.S. Navy (1991) describes it as inhabiting swamps, shallow lakes and sluggish streams, but that it is usually not found in swift, deep, cool water. Behler and King (1979) list its habitats as including lowland swamps, lakes, rivers, bayheads, sloughs, irrigation ditches, canals, rice fields and small clear rocky mountain streams.

It is also found in brackish water habitats and is sometimes seen swimming in salt water. It has been much more successful at colonizing Atlantic and Gulf coast barrier island
Barrier island
Barrier islands, a coastal landform and a type of barrier system, are relatively narrow strips of sand that parallel the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen...

s than the copperhead, A. contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans...

. However, even on these islands it tends to favor freshwater marshes. A study by Dunson and Freda (1985) describes it as not being particularly salt tolerant.

The snake is not limited to aquatic habitats, however, as Gloyd and Conant (1990) mention that large specimens have been found more than a mile (1.6 km) from water. In various locations the species is well adapted to less moist environments, such as palmetto thickets, pine-palmetto forest, pine woods in eastern Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...

, pine flatwoods in Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

, eastern deciduous dune forest, dune and beach areas, riparian
Riparian zone
A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the fifteen terrestrial biomes of the earth. Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by...

 forest and prairies.

Behavior

The aggressiveness of these snakes has been greatly exaggerated. In tests designed to measure the various behavioral responses by wild specimens to encounters with people, 23 of 45 (51%) tried to escape while 28 of 36 (78%) resorted to threat displays and other defensive tactics. Only when they were picked up with a mechanical hand were they likely to bite.

When sufficiently stressed or threatened, this species engages in a characteristic threat display that includes vibrating its tail and throwing its head back with its mouth open to display the startling white interior, often making a loud hiss while the neck and front part of the body are pulled into an S-shape position. Many of its common names, including "Cottonmouth" and "gapper", refer to this behavior, while its habit of snapping its jaws shut when anything touches its mouth has earned it the name "trap-jaw" in some areas. Other defensive responses can include flattening the body and emitting a strong, pungent secretion from the anal glands located at the base of the tail. This musk may be ejected in thin jets if the snake is sufficiently agitated or restrained. The smell has been likened to that of a billy goat
Goat
The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...

, as well as to a genus of common flood plain weeds, Pluchea
Pluchea
Pluchea is a genus of flowering plant in the Asteraceae family. Members of this genus might be known as camphorweeds, plucheas, or less uniquely "fleabanes". Some are called sourbushes. There are at least 40 species in the genus. They are native to tropical and warm temperate areas...

, that also have a penetrating odor.

Harmless watersnakes of the genus Nerodia
Nerodia
Nerodia is a genus of nonvenomous colubrid snakes commonly referred to as water snakes.- Description :Nerodia species vary greatly, but all are relatively heavy-bodied snakes, sometimes growing to 1.2 m or larger. They have flattened heads, with small eyes that have round pupils, and keeled...

are often mistaken for it. These are also semiaquatic, thick-bodied snakes with large heads that can be aggressive when provoked, but they behave differently. For example, watersnakes usually flee quickly into the water, while A. piscivorus often stands its ground with its threat display. In addition, watersnakes do not vibrate their tails when excited. A. piscivorus usually holds its head at an angle of about 45° when swimming or crawling.

Brown (1973) considered their heavy muscular bodies to be a striking characteristic, stating that this made it difficult to hold them for venom extraction owing to their strength.

This species may be active during the day as well as at night. However, on bright, sunny days they are usually found coiled or stretched out somewhere in the shade. In the morning and on cool days they can often be seen basking in the sunlight. They often emerge at sunset to warm themselves on warm ground (i.e., sidewalks, roads) and then become the very active throughout the night, when they are usually found swimming or crawling. Contrary to popular belief, they are capable of biting while underwater.

In the north, they hibernate during the winter months. Niell (1947, 1948) made observations in Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...

 and noted that they were one of the last species to seek shelter, often being found active until the first heavy frosts. At this point they moved to higher ground and could be found in rotting pine stumps by tearing away the bark. These snakes could be quite active upon discovery and would then attempt burrow more deeply into the soft wood or escape to the nearest water. In southeastern Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...

, Wood (1954) reported seeing migratory behavior in late October and early November. During a period of three or four days, as many as 50 individuals could be seen swimming across Back Bay
Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge
Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Virginia is located in the independent city of Virginia Beach. Established in 1938 in isolated portion of Princess Anne County, it is managed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service....

 from the bayside swamps of the barrier island
Barrier island
Barrier islands, a coastal landform and a type of barrier system, are relatively narrow strips of sand that parallel the mainland coast. They usually occur in chains, consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen...

s to the mainland. He suggested that this might have something to do with hibernating habits. In the southern parts of its range, hibernation may be short or omitted altogether.

Feeding

Raymond Ditmars
Raymond Ditmars
Raymond Lee Ditmars was an American herpetologist.Ditmars was very interested in animals, , obtaining his first snakes at twelve years of age...

 (1912) described this species as omnicarnivorous. Its diet includes mammals, birds, amphibians, fish, snakes, small turtles and small alligators. Cannibalism has also been reported. Normally, though, the bulk of its diet consists of fish and frogs. On occasion, juvenile specimens feed on invertebrates. Catfish
Catfish
Catfishes are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Named for their prominent barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, catfish range in size and behavior from the heaviest and longest, the Mekong giant catfish from Southeast Asia and the second longest, the wels catfish of Eurasia, to detritivores...

 are often eaten, although the sharp spines sometimes cause injuries. Toads of the genus Bufo
Bufo
Bufo is a large genus of about 150 species of true toads in the amphibian family Bufonidae. Bufo is a Latin word for toad.- Description :...

are apparently avoided.

Many authors have described the prey items taken under natural circumstances. Although fish and frogs are their most common prey, they will eat almost any small vertebrate. Campbell and Lamar (2004) provide an exhaustive list of species that have reportedly been preyed upon by A. piscivorus, including cicadas, caterpillars, land snails (Euglandina rosea
Euglandina rosea
Euglandina rosea, common names the "rosy wolfsnail" or the "cannibal snail", is a species of medium-sized to large predatory air-breathing land snail, a carnivorous terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Spiraxidae.-Distribution:...

), catfish (Ictalurus furcatus), pike (Esox ssp.
Esox
Esox is a genus of freshwater fish, the only living genus in the family Esocidae — the esocids which were endemic to North America, Europe and Eurasia during the Paleogene through present.The type species is E. lucius, the northern pike...

), sunfishes (Lepomis ssp.
Lepomis
Lepomis is a genus of freshwater fish in the sunfish family of order Perciformes. The most recognizable species of the sixteen in this genus is the Bluegill....

), bass (Micropterus ssp.), sirens (Siren sp.
Siren (genus)
Siren is a genus of aquatic salamanders of the family Sirenidae. The genus consists of two living species, along with one extinct species from the Eocene Epoch and three from the Miocene...

), eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens), brook salamanders (Eurycea sp.
Eurycea
Eurycea is a genus of salamanders, native to North America. These salamanders are commonly referred to as brook salamanders.- Taxonomy :...

), Ouachita dusky salamanders (Desmognathus brimleyorum), spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus
Scaphiopus
Scaphiopus is a genus of North American amphibian commonly referred to as the Southern Spadefoot Toads. They differ greatly from true toads by having eyes with vertical pupils, no parotoid gland, and relatively smooth skin. Their most distinctive feature is a spade-like projection on their hind...

), eastern narrowmouth toads (Gastrophryne carolinensis
Gastrophryne carolinensis
The Eastern Narrowmouth Toad is a species of microhylid frog. It is a relatively small, toad-like amphibian found in damp, shady habitats. The species is highly fossorial, and feeds primarily on ants...

), northern cricket frogs (Acris crepitans
Acris crepitans
The Northern Cricket Frog is a species of small Hylid frog native to the United States and northeastern Mexico. Despite being members of the tree frog family, they are not arboreal...

), West Indian treefrogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis), treefrogs (Hyla sp.
Hyla
The genus Hyla is one of approximately 38 genera in the New World family of tree frogs . The word Hyla translates to "tree," and tree frogs are indeed arboreal...

), true frogs (Rana sp.
Rana (genus)
Rana is a genus of frogs. Species include such archetypal pond frogs as the common frog of Europe, brown frogs, and the New and Old World true frogs, including the various species of leopard frogs and the American bullfrog. Members of this genus are found through much of Eurasia, North America,...

), green anoles (Anolis carolinensis), skinks (Eumeces sp.
Eumeces
The genus Eumeces skinks comprises four African to Middle-Eastern species.-Systematics:Two taxonomic revisions have been made in the 19th century regarding genus Eumeces. They both resulted in similar results; the genus is paraphyletic and must be sliced up into several different genera...

), eastern glass lizards (Ophisaurus ventralis
Ophisaurus ventralis
Ophisaurus ventralis is a legless lizard species found in the southeastern United States. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Description:...

), ground skinks (Scincella lateralis
Scincella lateralis
The Little Brown Skink , also known as the Ground Skink , is a small species of skink found throughout much of the eastern half of the United States, and into northern Mexico.- Description :This is one of the smallest reptiles in North America, with a length of 3 - 5.5 inches...

), mudsnakes (Farancia abacura
Farancia abacura
The mud snake is a species of nonvenomous, semiaquatic, colubrid snake that is found in the southeastern United States.- Description :...

), hog-nosed snakes (Heterodon platirhinos), kingsnakes (Lampropeltis sp.), watersnakes (Nerodia sp.
Nerodia
Nerodia is a genus of nonvenomous colubrid snakes commonly referred to as water snakes.- Description :Nerodia species vary greatly, but all are relatively heavy-bodied snakes, sometimes growing to 1.2 m or larger. They have flattened heads, with small eyes that have round pupils, and keeled...

), crayfish snakes (Regina sp.
Regina (genus)
Regina is a genus of colubrid snakes known as crayfish snakes, named after their primary choice of diet. The genus consists of four species which are found predominantly in the southern and eastern United States.-Species:...

), brown snakes (Storeria dekayi
Storeria dekayi
Storeria dekayi, commonly known as the brown snake or De Kay's snake, is a small species of colubrid snake.-Geographic range:...

), gartersnakes and ribbonsnakes (Thamnophis sp.), other cottonmouths (A. piscivorus), rattlesnakes (Crotalus sp.
Crotalus
Crotalus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found only in the Americas from southern Canada to northern Argentina. The name is derived from the Greek word krotalon, which means "rattle" or "castanet", and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group so distinctive...

), common snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), mud turtles (Kinosternon sp.
Kinosternon
Kinosternon is a genus of aquatic turtles known commonly as mud turtles.-Geographic range:They are found throughout the United States, Mexico and Central America, south into South America in Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru.-Description:...

), common musk turtles (Sternotherus odoratus
Sternotherus odoratus
Sternotherus odoratus is a species of small turtle native to southeastern Canada and much of the Eastern United States. It is also known as the common musk turtle or stinkpot due to its ability to release a foul musky odor to deter predation...

), Florida cooters (Pseudemys floridana
Pseudemys floridana
The Coastal cooter or Florida cooter is a species of large herbivorous freshwater turtle in the genus Pseudemys....

), sliders (Trachemys scripta
Trachemys scripta
Trachemys scripta, better known as the pond slider, is a common, medium-sized semi-aquatic turtle. There are three subspecies of sliders. The most recognizable subspecies is the red-eared slider , which is popular in the pet trade. This subspecies has been introduced to other parts of the world...

), eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina
Terrapene carolina
The common box turtle is a species of box turtle with six existing subspecies. It is found throughout the eastern United States and Mexico. The box turtle has a distinctive hinged lowered shell that allows it to completely enclose itself...

), Florida softshell turtles (Apalone ferox), baby American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), wood thrushes (Hylocichla mustelina), chickadees (Parus sp.
Parus
Parus is a genus of Old World birds in the tit family. As defined here, it contains the following species:* Genus Parus** White-shouldered Tit Parus guineensis, sometimes separated in Melaniparus...

), cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis), unidentified passerine
Passerine
A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...

s, small ducks, juvenile anhingas (Anhinga anhinga), common egrets (Ardea alba), egrets, glossy ibises and their eggs (Plegadis falcinellus), tricolor herons (Egretta tricolor), herons and their eggs, pied-billed grebes (Podilymbus podiceps), short-tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda), least shrews (Cryptotis parva), southeastern shrews (Sorex longirostris), eastern moles (Scalopus aquaticus), muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus), rice rats (Oryzomys palustris), hispid pocket mice (Perognathus hispidus), black rats (Rattus rattus), squirrels (Sciurus sp.
Sciurus
The genus Sciurus contains most of the common, bushy-tailed squirrels in North America, Europe, temperate Asia, Central America and South America.-Species:There are 30 species.Genus Sciurus - Tree squirrels*Subgenus Sciurus...

), rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.) and bats.

Fish are captured by cornering them in shallow water, usually against the bank or under logs. They take advantage when bodies of water begin to dry up in the summer or early fall and gorge themselves on the resulting high concentrations of fish and tadpoles. A study by Savitsky (1992) found that they were surprisingly unsuccessful at seizing either live or dead fish underwater.

They are opportunistic feeders and will sometimes eat carrion
Carrion
Carrion refers to the carcass of a dead animal. Carrion is an important food source for large carnivores and omnivores in most ecosystems. Examples of carrion-eaters include vultures, hawks, eagles, hyenas, Virginia Opossum, Tasmanian Devils, coyotes, Komodo dragons, and burying beetles...

. Campbell and Lamar (2004) describe having seen them feeding on fish heads and viscera that had been thrown into the water from a dock. Heinrich and Studenroth (1996) report an occasion in which an individual was seen feeding on the butchered remains of a wild hog (Sus scrofa) that had been thrown into Cypress Creek.

Conant (1929) gives a detailed account of the feeding behavior of a captive specimen from South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...

. When prey was introduced, the snake quickly became attentive and made an attack. Frogs and small birds were seized and held until movement stopped. Larger prey was approached in a more cautious manner; a rapid strike was executed after which the snake would withdraw. In 2.5 years the snake had accepted three species of frogs, including a large bullfrog
Bullfrog
The American bullfrog , often simply known as the bullfrog in Canada and the United States, is an aquatic frog, a member of the family Ranidae, or “true frogs”, native to much of North America. This is a frog of larger, permanent water bodies, swamps, ponds, and lakes, where it is usually found...

, a spotted salamander, water snakes, garter snakes, sparrows, young rats and three species of mice. Brimley (1944) described a captive specimen that ate copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans...

), as well as members of its own species, keeping its fangs embedded in its victims until they had been immobilized.

Young individuals have yellowish or greening tail tips and engage in caudal luring. The tail tip is wriggled to lure prey, such as frogs and lizards, within striking distance. Wharton (1960) observed captive specimens exhibiting this behavior between 07:20 and 19:40 hours, which suggests that it is a daytime activity.

Predators

In turn these snakes are preyed upon by snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina), American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), horned owls (Bubo virginianus), eagles, hawks (red-shouldered), loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus), and large wading birds, such as heron
Heron
The herons are long-legged freshwater and coastal birds in the family Ardeidae. There are 64 recognised species in this family. Some are called "egrets" or "bitterns" instead of "heron"....

s, cranes
Crane (bird)
Cranes are a family, Gruidae, of large, long-legged and long-necked birds in the order Gruiformes. There are fifteen species of crane in four genera. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back...

 and egret
Egret
An egret is any of several herons, most of which are white or buff, and several of which develop fine plumes during the breeding season. Many egrets are members of the genera Egretta or Ardea which contain other species named as herons rather than egrets...

s.

They are also preyed upon by ophiophagous
Ophiophagy
Ophiophagy is a specialized form of feeding or alimentary behavior of animals which hunt and eat snakes. There are ophiophagous mammals , birds , lizards , and even other snakes, such as the Central and South American mussuranas and...

 snakes, including their own species (cannibalism). Humphreys (1881) described how a 34-inch (864 mm) specimen was killed and eaten by a 42-inch (1067 mm) captive kingsnake. On the other hand, Neill (1947) reported that captive kingsnakes (Lampropeltis getula
Lampropeltis getula
Lampropeltis getula is a harmless colubrid species found in the United States and Mexico. A distinct color pattern and the common belief that this species actively hunts for venomous snakes helps to protect them from people. It has long been a favorite among collectors...

) were loath to attack them, being successfully repelled with "body blows." Also called body-bridging, this is a specific defensive behavior against ophiophagous snakes, first observed in certain rattlesnake (Crotalus
Crotalus
Crotalus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found only in the Americas from southern Canada to northern Argentina. The name is derived from the Greek word krotalon, which means "rattle" or "castanet", and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group so distinctive...

) species by Klauber
Laurence Monroe Klauber
Laurence M. Klauber , was an American herpetologist, and was considered to be the foremost authority on rattlesnakes...

 (1927), that involves raising a section of the middle of the body above the ground to varying heights. This raised loop may then be held in this position for varying amounts of time, shifted in position, or moved towards the attacker. In the latter case, it is often flipped or thrown vigorously in the direction of the assailant. In A. piscivorus, the loop is raised laterally, with the belly facing towards the attacker.

Reproduction

This species is ovoviviparous
Ovoviviparity
Ovoviviparity, ovovivipary, or ovivipary, is a mode of reproduction in animals in which embryos develop inside eggs that are retained within the mother's body until they are ready to hatch...

, with females giving birth to 1-16 live young and possibly as many as 20. However, litters of 6-8 are the most common. Neonates are 22-35 cm in length (excluding runts), with the largest being A. p. conanti and A. p. leucostoma
Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma
Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma is a venomous pitviper subspecies found in the south central United States. It is the smallest of the three subspecies and tends to be darker in color.-Description:...

the smallest. If weather conditions are favorable and food is readily available, growth is rapid and females may reproduce at less than three years of age and a total length of as little as 60 cm. The young are born in August or September, while mating may occur during any of the warmer months of the year, at least in certain parts of its range.

Regarding A. p. piscivorus, an early account by Stejneger
Leonhard Hess Stejneger
Leonhard Hess Stejneger was a Norwegian-born American ornithologist, herpetologist and zoologist. Stejneger specialized in vertebrate natural history studies. He gained his greatest reputation with reptiles and amphibians....

 (1895) describes a pair in the Berlin Zoological Garden that mated on January 21, 1873, after which eight neonates were discovered in the cage on July 16 of that year. The young were each 26 cm in length and 1.5 cm thick. They shed for the first time within two weeks, after which they accepted small frogs, but not fish.

Combat behavior between males has been reported on a number of occasions and is very similar in form to that seen in many other viperid species. An important factor in sexual selection, it allows for the establishment and recognition of dominance as males compete for access to sexually active females.

A few accounts exist that describe females defending their newly born litters. Wharten (1960, 1966) reported several cases where females found near their young stood their ground and considered these to be examples of guarding behavior. Another case was described by Walters and Card (1996) in which a female was found at the entrance of a chamber with seven neonates crawling on or around her. When one of the young was moved a short distance from the chamber, she seemed to be agitated and faced the intruder. Eventually, all of her offspring retreated into the chamber, but the female remained at the entrance, ready to strike.

Venom

Cottonmouth venom is more toxic than that of its cousin, Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans...

(the copperhead) and is rich with tissue-destructive enzymes. Absent an anaphylactic reaction in a bitten individual, however, the venom does not cause systemic reactions in victims and does not contain neurotoxic components that are present in numerous rattlesnake species. Bites can be effectively treated with CroFab
CroFab
CroFab is the commercial name for a Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab snake antivenom, indicated for minimal or moderate North American Crotalid snake envenomation. It is developed and manufactured by BTG plc , and distributed in the US by Nycomed Inc...

 antivenom, as this serum is derived using venom components from four species of American pitvipers (the eastern and western diamondback rattlesnakes, the Mojave rattlesnake and the Cottonmouth).

Bites from the Cottonmouth are relatively frequent in the lower Mississippi River Valley
Mississippi embayment
The Mississippi Embayment is a physiographic feature in the south-central United States, part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. It is essentially a northward continuation of the fluvial sediments of the Mississippi River Delta to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois. The embayment...

 and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...

, although fatalities are rare. Allen and Swindell (1948) compiled a record of A. piscivorus bites in the state of Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

 from newspaper accounts and data from the Bureau of Vital Statistics: 1934, 8 bites and 3 fatalities (no further fatalities were recorded after this year); 1935, 10; 1936, 16; 1937, 7; 1938, 6; 1939, 5; 1940, 3; 1941, 6; 1942, 3; 1943, 1; 1944, 3, 1998; 1. Wright and Wright (1957) report having encountered these snakes on countless occasions, often almost stepping on them, but never being bitten. In addition, they heard of no reports of any bites among 400 cypress cutters in the Okefenokee Swamp
Okefenokee Swamp
The Okefenokee Swamp is a shallow, 438,000 acre , peat-filled wetland straddling the Georgia–Florida border in the United States. A majority of the swamp is in Georgia and protected by the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge and the Okefenokee Wilderness. The Okefenokee Swamp is considered to be...

 during the entire summer of 1921. These accounts indicate that the species is not particularly aggressive.

Brown (1973) gives an average venom yield (dried) of 125 mg, with a range of 80-237 mg, along with values of 4.0, 2.2, 2.7, 3.5, 2.0 mg/kg IV
Intravenous therapy
Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the infusion of liquid substances directly into a vein. The word intravenous simply means "within a vein". Therapies administered intravenously are often called specialty pharmaceuticals...

, 4.8, 5.1, 4.0, 5.5, 3.8, 6.8 mg/kg IP and 25.8 mg/kg SC for toxicity. Wolff and Githens (1939) describe a 152 cm (60 inches) specimen that yielded 3.5 ml of venom during the first extraction and 4.0 ml five weeks later (1.094 grams of dried venom).

Symptoms commonly include ecchymosis
Ecchymosis
An ecchymosis is the medical term for a subcutaneous purpura larger than 1 centimeter or a hematoma, commonly called a bruise. It can be located in the skin or in a mucous membrane.-Presentation:...

 and swelling. The pain is generally more severe than bites from the copperhead (A. contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix
Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans...

), but less so than those from rattlesnakes (Crotalus sp.
Crotalus
Crotalus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found only in the Americas from southern Canada to northern Argentina. The name is derived from the Greek word krotalon, which means "rattle" or "castanet", and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group so distinctive...

). The formation of vesicles and bullae
Blister
A blister is a small pocket of fluid within the upper layers of the skin, typically caused by forceful rubbing , burning, freezing, chemical exposure or infection. Most blisters are filled with a clear fluid called serum or plasma...

 is less common than with rattlesnake bites, although necrosis
Necrosis
Necrosis is the premature death of cells in living tissue. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, toxins, or trauma. This is in contrast to apoptosis, which is a naturally occurring cause of cellular death...

 can occur. Myokymia
Myokymia
Myokymia, is an involuntary, spontaneous, localized quivering of a few muscles bundles within a muscle, but which are insufficient to move a joint.One type is superior oblique myokymia....

 is sometimes reported. On the other hand, the U.S. Navy (1991) states that the venom has strong proteolytic
Proteolysis
Proteolysis is the directed degradation of proteins by cellular enzymes called proteases or by intramolecular digestion.-Purposes:Proteolysis is used by the cell for several purposes...

 activity that can lead to severe tissue destruction.

Subspecies

Subspecies Taxon author Common name Geographic range
A. p. conanti Gloyd, 1969 Florida cottonmouth The United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

, in extreme southern Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...

 and virtually all of the state of Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...

, including many of the islands off the coast.
A. p. leucostoma
Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma
Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma is a venomous pitviper subspecies found in the south central United States. It is the smallest of the three subspecies and tends to be darker in color.-Description:...

(Troost, 1836) Western cottonmouth The United States, from southern Alabama
Alabama
Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...

 along coast of the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...

, including many offshore islands, to southeastern and central Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...

, and north to Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...

, Missouri
Missouri
Missouri is a US state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. With a 2010 population of 5,988,927, Missouri is the 18th most populous state in the nation and the fifth most populous in the Midwest. It...

, Illinois
Illinois
Illinois is the fifth-most populous state of the United States of America, and is often noted for being a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal,...

 and Indiana
Indiana
Indiana is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the Midwestern United States and Great Lakes Region. With 6,483,802 residents, the state is ranked 15th in population and 16th in population density. Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and is...

.
A. p. piscivorus (Lacépède, 1789) Eastern cottonmouth The United States in southeastern Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...

, the Atlantic Coastal Plain and lower Piedmont of North
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...

 and South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...

, including the banks, peninsulas and islands along the Atlantic coast, and west across Georgia.

In popular culture

In Quentin Tarantino
Quentin Tarantino
Quentin Jerome Tarantino is an American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer and actor. In the early 1990s, he began his career as an independent filmmaker with films employing nonlinear storylines and the aestheticization of violence...

's Kill Bill
Kill Bill
Kill Bill Volume 1 is a 2003 action thriller film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino. It is the first of two volumes that were theatrically released several months apart, the second volume being Kill Bill Volume 2....

movies, Lucy Liu
Lucy Liu
Lucy Alexis Liu is an American actress and film producer. She became known for playing the role of the vicious and ill-mannered Ling Woo in the television series Ally McBeal , and has also appeared in several Hollywood films including Charlie's Angels, Chicago, Kill Bill, and Kung Fu Panda.-Early...

's character's codename is Cottonmouth.

In the book and miniseries Lonesome Dove
Lonesome Dove
Lonesome Dove is a 1985 Pulitzer Prize–winning western novel written by Larry McMurtry. It is the first published book of the Lonesome Dove series, but the third installment in the series chronologically...

, a character is killed while trying to cross a swollen river, by a large number of dislocated water moccasins.

In the novel Hoot
Hoot (novel)
Hoot is a young-adult novel by Carl Hiaasen. The story takes place in Coconut Cove, Florida, where Roy and his two new friends try to stop construction of a pancake house which would destroy a colony of burrowing owls who live on the site...

by Carl Hiaasen
Carl Hiaasen
Carl Hiaasen is an American journalist, columnist and novelist.- Early years :Born in 1953 and raised in Plantation, Florida, of Norwegian heritage, Hiaasen was the first of four children and the son of a lawyer, Kermit Odel, and teacher, Patricia...

, a character uses cottonmouths to vandalize a construction site.

In the song "Cotton Mouth River" by Jim Croce
Jim Croce
James Joseph "Jim" Croce January 10, 1943 – September 20, 1973 was an American singer-songwriter. Between 1966 and 1973, Croce released five studio albums and 11 singles...

, a fugitive encounters a snake during an escape attempt.

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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