Unification of Saudi Arabia
Encyclopedia
The unification of Saudi Arabia was the process by which the various tribe
s, sheikhdom
s, and emirate
s of most of the Arabian Peninsula
were consolidated under the control of the House of Saud
, or Al Saud, between 1902 and 1932, when the modern-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
was proclaimed. Carried out under the charismatic Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud
, this process created what is sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State to differentiate it from the first
and second
states that existed under the Al Saud clan.
The Al Saud had been in exile in Kuwait
since 1893 following the disintegration of the Second Saudi State and the rise of Jebel Shammar
under the Al Rashid clan. In 1902, Ibn Saud recaptured Riyadh
, the Al Saud dynasty's former capital. He went on to subdue the rest of Nejd, Al-Hasa
, Ha'il
, Asir, and Hejaz
(location of the Muslim
holy cities of Mecca
and Medina
) between 1913 and 1926. The resultant polity was named the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz from 1927 until it was further consolidated with Al-Hasa and Qatif
into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
founded the First Saudi State
, a state based on the strict defense of Islam
. The ideology born of this period was later dubbed Wahhabism. Originating in the Nejd region of central Arabia, the First Saudi State conquered most of the Arabian Peninsula
, culminating in the capture of the Muslim
holy city of Mecca
in 1802.
The loss of Mecca was a significant blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire
, which had exercised sovereignty over the holy city since 1517, and the Ottomans were finally moved to action against the Al Saud. The task of destroying the Saudis was given to the powerful viceroy of Egypt
, Muhammad Ali Pasha, who sent troops to the Hejaz
region and recaptured Mecca. His son, Ibrahim Pasha
, meanwhile led Ottoman forces into the heart of Nejd, capturing town after town in the Nejd Expedition
. On reaching the Saudi capital at Diriyah
, Ibrahim placed it under siege for several months until it surrendered in the winter of 1818. He then sent many members of the clans of Al Saud and Ibn Abdul Wahhab to Egypt and the Ottoman capital of Constantinople
and ordered the systematic destruction of Diriyah. The last Saudi imam
(leader), Abdullah bin Saud
, was later executed in Constantinople
.
The Al Saud survived in exile and went on to found the Second Saudi State
, which is generally considered to have lasted from Turki ibn Abdallah
's capture of Riyadh
(which he designated as the new capital) in 1824 until the Battle of Mulayda
in 1891. Compared to the First Saudi State, the second Saudi period was marked by less territorial expansion and less religious zeal. It was also marked by instability, which the Al Rashid clan of Jebel Shammar
were able to exploit. The Saudi leader, Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal, sought refuge in Kuwait
in 1893.
, asked the Kuwaiti emir for men and supplies for an attack on Riyadh. Already involved in several wars with the Rashidis, the emir agreed to the request, giving Ibn Saud horses and arms. Although the exact number of men waxed and waned during the subsequent journey, he is believed to have left with around 40 men.
In January 1902, Ibn Saud and his men reached Riyadh. With only a small force, it was felt that the only way to take the city was to capture Al Masmak Castle and kill Ibn Ajlan, Chief of Riyadh. The castle was successfully captured and Ibn Ajlan was killed according to plan, and the city was taken within the night. With the capture of his family's ancestral home, Ibn Saud proved he possessed the qualities necessary to be a sheikh
or emir
: leadership, courage, and luck; he would thereafter go on to unite most of the peninsula once again and found the modern state of Saudi Arabia.
, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia
, annexed Al-Ahsa and Qatif into his domain of Najd
.
, but this was abandoned after Shakespear's death at the Battle of Jarrab
. Instead, the British transferred support to Ibn Saud's rival Sharif Hussein bin Ali
, leader of the Hejaz
, with whom the Saudis were almost constantly at war. Lord Kitchener
also appealed to Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca
for assistance in the conflict and Hussein wanted political recognition in return. an exchange of letters
with Henry McMahon
assured him that his assistance would be rewarded between Egypt
and Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. British entered into the Treaty of Darin in which made the lands of the House of Saud a British protectorate. Ibn Saud pledged to again make war against Ibn Rashid, who was an ally of the Ottomans. Ibn Saud was also given a monthly stipend in exchange for waging war against Ibn Rashid.
rulers. On November 2, 1921, Jebel Shammar was completely conquered by Saudi forces and subsequently incroporated into the Sulatanate of Nejd.
Aftermath of World War I
, when the Ottoman Empire
was defeated and the British invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikhdom under British protectorate". The power vacuum, left by the fall of the Ottomans, sharpened the conflict between the sheikhdom of Kuwait and Najd
. The short war resulted in sporadic border clashes through 1921.
The border of the Nejd and Kuwait Emirates was finally established by the Uqair Protocol of 1922
.
, irregular Arab tribesmen of Najd
, on Transjordan
between 1922 and 1924. Though the raids were not orchestrated by Ibn Saud, the ruler of Nejd, nothing was done by him to stop the raiding parties of his ally Ikhwanis. This however changed after the conquest of Hejaz, when the increasingly critical and negative stance of Ibn Saud on Ikhwan raids developed into an open fued and essentially a bloody conflict since 1927.
In early 1920s, the repeated Wahhabi incursions of Ikhwan from Najd into southern parts of his territory were the most serious threat to emir Abdullah
's position in Transjordan. The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, thus the British maintained a military base, with a small air force, at Marka, close to Amman
.
to the north - where the Ikhwan raided
in 1922 and 1924. Faisal al-Dawish
of the Mutair
tribe and Sultan bin Bajad of the Otaiba
tribe, the leaders of the Ikhwan, were among those who accused Abdul Aziz
of going "soft", with the former reportedly telling the latter that the Saudis were "as much use as camel bags without handles". A rebellion erupted
, climaxing in a battle at Sabillah
, which some have labeled a massacre but pro-Saudi sources consider to have been a fair fight. Additional battles erupted through 1929 in Jabal Shammar and in the vicinity of the Awazim tribe. The rebellion was put down in 1930, with the surrender of last opposition elements. Though the survivors were jailed, their descendants remained opposed to Saudi rule, and one such descendant, Juhayman al-Otaibi
, would gain infamy in 1979 when he led the Grand Mosque Seizure
.
became crown prince
in 1933.
. However, a struggle ensued between his forces and those of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi
, who eventually set up the short-lived Idrisid Emirate
under Saudi tutelage. The emirate was subsumed by the Saudi state following a 1930 treaty which provided for the territory to come under Ibn Saud's direct control upon its emir's death. The Emirate was eventually incorporated into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1934.
state was forged in Yemen
under Imam Muhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din
and his descendants. The Yemenis claimed parts of Asir and came to blows with the Saudis in 1933. Writing in the American journal Foreign Affairs
in 1934, historian Hans Kohn
noted, "Some European observers have wished to explain the armed conflict as a conflict between British
and Italian
policy in Arabia." Despite British ties to Saudi Arabia and Italian ties to Yemen, he concluded that "the rivalry between the two rulers is in no way caused or fostered by the rivalry of the two European states." However, in 1998, Alexei Vassiliev wrote, "The imam was instigated both by the Italians, who promoted assistance in order to increase their influence in Yemen, and by the British, who wished to detract Imam Yahya's attention from their protectorates in Aden
." The Saudis struck back, reaching the Yemeni port of Al Hudaydah
before signing a "treaty of Muslim friendship and Arab brotherhood" in Ta'if, which was published simultaneously in Mecca
, Sanaa
, Damascus
, and Cairo
to highlight its pan-Arabism
.
Remarking on the implications of the treaty, which stated "that [the two parties'] nations are one and agree to consider each other's interests their own", Kohn wrote, "The foreign policy of both kingdoms will be brought into line and harmonized so that both countries will act as one country in foreign affairs. Practically, it will mean a protectorate
over the Yemen by Ibn Saud, the stronger and much more progressive partner." Relations indeed remained close until civil war erupted in Yemen
in the 1960s, at which time the country became a staging ground for battle between conservative values and those of the Egyptian revolutionary Gamal Abdel Nasser
.
who were imbued with Wahhabi zeal at settlements known as hijras
. They played an important role in the Saudi rise to power, though the extent of that role is sometimes disputed.
Tribe
A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
s, sheikhdom
Sheikhdom
A sheikhdom is a geographical area or a society , that is ruled by a sheikh . Sheikhdoms exist almost exclusively within Arab countries, particularly in the Arabian Peninsula....
s, and emirate
Emirate
An emirate is a political territory that is ruled by a dynastic Muslim monarch styled emir.-Etymology:Etymologically emirate or amirate is the quality, dignity, office or territorial competence of any emir ....
s of most of the Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2...
were consolidated under the control of the House of Saud
House of Saud
The House of Saud , also called the Al Saud, is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia and one of the wealthiest and most powerful dynasties in the world. The family holds thousands of members...
, or Al Saud, between 1902 and 1932, when the modern-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
was proclaimed. Carried out under the charismatic Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia
King Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia was the first monarch of the Third Saudi State known as Saudi Arabia. He was commonly referred to as Ibn Saud....
, this process created what is sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State to differentiate it from the first
First Saudi State
The First Saudi State was established in the year 1744 when imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Prince Muhammad ibn Saud formed an alliance to establish a religious & political sovereignty determined to cleanse the Arabian Peninsula of heretical practices and deviations from orthodox Islam...
and second
Second Saudi State
The Second Saudi State existed during the 19th century when the rule of the House of Saud was restored to central and eastern Arabia after having previously been brought down by an Ottoman-Egyptian invasion in 1818...
states that existed under the Al Saud clan.
The Al Saud had been in exile in Kuwait
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
since 1893 following the disintegration of the Second Saudi State and the rise of Jebel Shammar
Jebel Shammar
Jebel Shammar was a sovereign state, also known as the Emirate of Ha'il, located in what is today northern Saudi Arabia. It was founded in 1835. Following a period of conflict between the Al Saud and the Shammar's ruling Al Rashid family, the emirate was conquered by Saudi led coalition on August...
under the Al Rashid clan. In 1902, Ibn Saud recaptured Riyadh
Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of Riyadh Province, and belongs to the historical regions of Najd and Al-Yamama. It is situated in the center of the Arabian Peninsula on a large plateau, and is home to 5,254,560 people, and the urban center of a...
, the Al Saud dynasty's former capital. He went on to subdue the rest of Nejd, Al-Hasa
Al-Hasa
Al-Ahsa is the largest governorate in Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province, named after Al-Ahsa oasis. The name Al-Ahsa is also given to the biggest city in the region, Hofuf. In classic Arabic, Ahsa means the sound of water underground. It has one of the largest oases in the world with Date Palms of...
, Ha'il
Jebel Shammar
Jebel Shammar was a sovereign state, also known as the Emirate of Ha'il, located in what is today northern Saudi Arabia. It was founded in 1835. Following a period of conflict between the Al Saud and the Shammar's ruling Al Rashid family, the emirate was conquered by Saudi led coalition on August...
, Asir, and Hejaz
Hejaz
al-Hejaz, also Hijaz is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. Defined primarily by its western border on the Red Sea, it extends from Haql on the Gulf of Aqaba to Jizan. Its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina...
(location of the Muslim
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
holy cities of Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
and Medina
Medina
Medina , or ; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, and...
) between 1913 and 1926. The resultant polity was named the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz from 1927 until it was further consolidated with Al-Hasa and Qatif
Qatif
Qatif or Al-Qatif is a governorate and urban area located in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. It extends from Ras Tanura and Jubail in the north to Dammam in the south, and from the Persian Gulf in the east to King Fahd International Airport in the west...
into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
Background
Following the Diriyah agreement between Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab and Muhammad ibn Saud, the Al Saud clanHouse of Saud
The House of Saud , also called the Al Saud, is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia and one of the wealthiest and most powerful dynasties in the world. The family holds thousands of members...
founded the First Saudi State
First Saudi State
The First Saudi State was established in the year 1744 when imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and Prince Muhammad ibn Saud formed an alliance to establish a religious & political sovereignty determined to cleanse the Arabian Peninsula of heretical practices and deviations from orthodox Islam...
, a state based on the strict defense of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
. The ideology born of this period was later dubbed Wahhabism. Originating in the Nejd region of central Arabia, the First Saudi State conquered most of the Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2...
, culminating in the capture of the Muslim
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
holy city of Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
in 1802.
The loss of Mecca was a significant blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, which had exercised sovereignty over the holy city since 1517, and the Ottomans were finally moved to action against the Al Saud. The task of destroying the Saudis was given to the powerful viceroy of Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, Muhammad Ali Pasha, who sent troops to the Hejaz
Hejaz
al-Hejaz, also Hijaz is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. Defined primarily by its western border on the Red Sea, it extends from Haql on the Gulf of Aqaba to Jizan. Its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina...
region and recaptured Mecca. His son, Ibrahim Pasha
Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt
Ibrahim Pasha was the eldest son of Muhammad Ali, the Wāli and unrecognised Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. He served as a general in the Egyptian army that his father established during his reign, taking his first command of Egyptian forces was when he was merely a teenager...
, meanwhile led Ottoman forces into the heart of Nejd, capturing town after town in the Nejd Expedition
Nejd Expedition
The Egyptian Attack on Nejd 1817-1818 was a series of military conflicts waged by Egypt on behalf of the Ottoman Empire from 1817-1818. It was part of the Ottoman–Saudi War that lasted from 1811 to 1818...
. On reaching the Saudi capital at Diriyah
Diriyah
Al-Diriyah is a town in Saudi Arabia located on the northwestern outskirts of the Saudi capital, Riyadh. Diriyah was the original home of the Saudi royal family, and served as the capital of the first Saudi dynasty from 1744 to 1818...
, Ibrahim placed it under siege for several months until it surrendered in the winter of 1818. He then sent many members of the clans of Al Saud and Ibn Abdul Wahhab to Egypt and the Ottoman capital of Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
and ordered the systematic destruction of Diriyah. The last Saudi imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
(leader), Abdullah bin Saud
Abdullah bin Saud
*Saad*Saud*MuhammadAbdullah bin Saud ruled the First Saudi State from 1814 to 1818. He was the last ruler of the First Saudi State and was executed by the Ottomans...
, was later executed in Constantinople
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
.
The Al Saud survived in exile and went on to found the Second Saudi State
Second Saudi State
The Second Saudi State existed during the 19th century when the rule of the House of Saud was restored to central and eastern Arabia after having previously been brought down by an Ottoman-Egyptian invasion in 1818...
, which is generally considered to have lasted from Turki ibn Abdallah
Turki ibn Abdallah
*Fahd bin Turki*Jiluwi bin Turki*Faisal bin Turki*Abdallah bin TurkiTurki bin Abdullah bin Muhammad was the founder of the Second Saudi State and ruled the area of Najd during the period from 1821-1834 following administration by the Ottoman Empire.-Kingship:Leadership of the House of Saud passed...
's capture of Riyadh
Riyadh
Riyadh is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of Riyadh Province, and belongs to the historical regions of Najd and Al-Yamama. It is situated in the center of the Arabian Peninsula on a large plateau, and is home to 5,254,560 people, and the urban center of a...
(which he designated as the new capital) in 1824 until the Battle of Mulayda
Battle of Mulayda
Battle of Mulayda was the last major battle during the existence of the Second Saudi State. Following problems over Zakat and the arrest of the Rashidi leader, Ibn Sabhan, Rashidies planned to end the Saudi State and conquer both Qassim region and Riyadh...
in 1891. Compared to the First Saudi State, the second Saudi period was marked by less territorial expansion and less religious zeal. It was also marked by instability, which the Al Rashid clan of Jebel Shammar
Jebel Shammar
Jebel Shammar was a sovereign state, also known as the Emirate of Ha'il, located in what is today northern Saudi Arabia. It was founded in 1835. Following a period of conflict between the Al Saud and the Shammar's ruling Al Rashid family, the emirate was conquered by Saudi led coalition on August...
were able to exploit. The Saudi leader, Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal, sought refuge in Kuwait
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
in 1893.
Saudi take over of Ryadh
In 1901, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdul Aziz (the future Ibn Saud)Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia
King Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia was the first monarch of the Third Saudi State known as Saudi Arabia. He was commonly referred to as Ibn Saud....
, asked the Kuwaiti emir for men and supplies for an attack on Riyadh. Already involved in several wars with the Rashidis, the emir agreed to the request, giving Ibn Saud horses and arms. Although the exact number of men waxed and waned during the subsequent journey, he is believed to have left with around 40 men.
In January 1902, Ibn Saud and his men reached Riyadh. With only a small force, it was felt that the only way to take the city was to capture Al Masmak Castle and kill Ibn Ajlan, Chief of Riyadh. The castle was successfully captured and Ibn Ajlan was killed according to plan, and the city was taken within the night. With the capture of his family's ancestral home, Ibn Saud proved he possessed the qualities necessary to be a sheikh
Sheikh
Not to be confused with sikhSheikh — also spelled Sheik or Shaikh, or transliterated as Shaykh — is an honorific in the Arabic language that literally means "elder" and carries the meaning "leader and/or governor"...
or emir
Emir
Emir , meaning "commander", "general", or "prince"; also transliterated as Amir, Aamir or Ameer) is a title of high office, used throughout the Muslim world...
: leadership, courage, and luck; he would thereafter go on to unite most of the peninsula once again and found the modern state of Saudi Arabia.
Saudi-Rashidi War
Saudi-Rashidi War, also referred as the "First Saudi-Rashidi War" or the "Battles over Qasim", was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Sultanate of Nejd versus the Emirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the Rashidis. The warfare period of sporadic battles ended with Saudi takeover of the Qasim region, after decisive victory in Qasim on April 13, 1906, though other engagements followed into 1907.Al-Hasa and Qatif
In 1913, Ibn SaudIbn Saud of Saudi Arabia
King Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia was the first monarch of the Third Saudi State known as Saudi Arabia. He was commonly referred to as Ibn Saud....
, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
, annexed Al-Ahsa and Qatif into his domain of Najd
Najd
Najd or Nejd , literally Highland, is the central region of the Arabian Peninsula.-Boundaries :The Arabic word nejd literally means "upland" and was once applied to a variety of regions within the Arabian Peninsula...
.
During World War I
In December, the British government (started early 1915) attempted to cultivate favor with Ibn Saud via its secret agent, Captain William ShakespearWilliam Shakespear (explorer)
Captain William Henry Irvine Shakespear , was an English civil servant and explorer who mapped uncharted areas of Northern Arabia and made the first official British contact with Ibn Sa'ud, future king of Saudi Arabia...
, but this was abandoned after Shakespear's death at the Battle of Jarrab
Battle of Jarrab
The Battle of Jarrab was a territorial battle between the Al Sa'ud and their traditional enemies the Al Rashid in January 1915. It was a proxy battle of World War I between the British-supportedSa'udis and the Ottoman-supported Rashidis....
. Instead, the British transferred support to Ibn Saud's rival Sharif Hussein bin Ali
Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca
Sayyid Hussein bin Ali, GCB was the Sharif of Mecca, and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917, when he proclaimed himself King of Hejaz, which received international recognition. He initiated the Arab Revolt in 1916 against the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman Empire during the course of the...
, leader of the Hejaz
Hejaz
al-Hejaz, also Hijaz is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia. Defined primarily by its western border on the Red Sea, it extends from Haql on the Gulf of Aqaba to Jizan. Its main city is Jeddah, but it is probably better known for the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina...
, with whom the Saudis were almost constantly at war. Lord Kitchener
Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, ADC, PC , was an Irish-born British Field Marshal and proconsul who won fame for his imperial campaigns and later played a central role in the early part of the First World War, although he died halfway...
also appealed to Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca
Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca
Sayyid Hussein bin Ali, GCB was the Sharif of Mecca, and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917, when he proclaimed himself King of Hejaz, which received international recognition. He initiated the Arab Revolt in 1916 against the increasingly nationalistic Ottoman Empire during the course of the...
for assistance in the conflict and Hussein wanted political recognition in return. an exchange of letters
Hussein-McMahon Correspondence
The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence, or the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence, was a protracted exchange of letters during World War I, between the Sharif of Mecca, Husayn bin Ali, and Sir Henry McMahon, British High Commissioner in Egypt, concerning the future political status of the lands under the...
with Henry McMahon
Henry McMahon (diplomat)
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, GCMG, GCVO, KCIE, CSI was a British diplomat and Indian Army officer who served as the High Commissioner in Egypt from 1915 to 1917. He was also an administrator in British India, and served twice as Chief Commissioner of Balochistan...
assured him that his assistance would be rewarded between Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
and Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. British entered into the Treaty of Darin in which made the lands of the House of Saud a British protectorate. Ibn Saud pledged to again make war against Ibn Rashid, who was an ally of the Ottomans. Ibn Saud was also given a monthly stipend in exchange for waging war against Ibn Rashid.
Conquest of Ha'il
Conquest of Ha'il, also referred as the Second Saudi–Rashidi War, was engaged by the Saudi forces with its ally Ikhwan tribesmen upon the Emirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the last RashidiRashidi
Al Rasheed, the House of Rashid, or the House of Rasheed were a historic dynasty of the Arabian Peninsula, and the most formidable enemies of the House of Saud in Nejd...
rulers. On November 2, 1921, Jebel Shammar was completely conquered by Saudi forces and subsequently incroporated into the Sulatanate of Nejd.
Kuwait–Nejd Border War
The Kuwait-Najd Border War erupted in theAftermath of World War I
Aftermath of World War I
The fighting in World War I ended in western Europe when the Armistice took effect at 11:00 am GMT on November 11, 1918, and in eastern Europe by the early 1920s. During and in the aftermath of the war the political, cultural, and social order was drastically changed in Europe, Asia and Africa,...
, when the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
was defeated and the British invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikhdom under British protectorate". The power vacuum, left by the fall of the Ottomans, sharpened the conflict between the sheikhdom of Kuwait and Najd
Najd
Najd or Nejd , literally Highland, is the central region of the Arabian Peninsula.-Boundaries :The Arabic word nejd literally means "upland" and was once applied to a variety of regions within the Arabian Peninsula...
. The short war resulted in sporadic border clashes through 1921.
The border of the Nejd and Kuwait Emirates was finally established by the Uqair Protocol of 1922
Uqair Protocol of 1922
The Uqair Protocol or Uqair Convention was an agreement at Uqair on 2 December 1922 which defined the boundaries between Iraq and Nejd and between Kuwait and Nejd. It was brokered by Percy Cox, the British High Commissioner to Iraq, in response to Bedouin raiders from Nejd under ibn Saud...
.
Ikhwan raids on Transjordan
Ikhwan raids on Transjordan were a series of plunders by the IkhwanIkhwan
The Ikhwan was the Islamic religious militia which formed the main military force of the Arabian ruler Ibn Saud and played a key role in establishing him as ruler of most of the Arabian Peninsula, in his new state of Saudi Arabia. The Ikhwan were made up of Bedouin tribes...
, irregular Arab tribesmen of Najd
Najd
Najd or Nejd , literally Highland, is the central region of the Arabian Peninsula.-Boundaries :The Arabic word nejd literally means "upland" and was once applied to a variety of regions within the Arabian Peninsula...
, on Transjordan
Transjordan
The Emirate of Transjordan was a former Ottoman territory in the Southern Levant that was part of the British Mandate of Palestine...
between 1922 and 1924. Though the raids were not orchestrated by Ibn Saud, the ruler of Nejd, nothing was done by him to stop the raiding parties of his ally Ikhwanis. This however changed after the conquest of Hejaz, when the increasingly critical and negative stance of Ibn Saud on Ikhwan raids developed into an open fued and essentially a bloody conflict since 1927.
In early 1920s, the repeated Wahhabi incursions of Ikhwan from Najd into southern parts of his territory were the most serious threat to emir Abdullah
Abdullah I of Jordan
Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, King of Jordan [‘Abd Allāh ibn al-Husayn] عبد الله الأول بن الحسين born in Mecca, Second Saudi State, was the second of three sons of Sherif Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca and his first wife Abdiyya bint Abdullah...
's position in Transjordan. The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, thus the British maintained a military base, with a small air force, at Marka, close to Amman
Amman
Amman is the capital of Jordan. It is the country's political, cultural and commercial centre and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The Greater Amman area has a population of 2,842,629 as of 2010. The population of Amman is expected to jump from 2.8 million to almost...
.
Second Nejd-Hejaz War
The Ikhwan rebellion
As Saudi expansion slowed in the 1920s, some among the Ikhwan pushed for continued expansion, particularly to the British-controlled territories such as TransjordanTransjordan
The Emirate of Transjordan was a former Ottoman territory in the Southern Levant that was part of the British Mandate of Palestine...
to the north - where the Ikhwan raided
Ikhwan raids
Ikhwan raids may refer to several events during the Unification of Saudi Arabia campaign:* Ikhwan's plunders on Kuwait, during the Kuwait-Najd Border War 1921* Ikhwan raids on Transjordan 1922-1924...
in 1922 and 1924. Faisal al-Dawish
Faisal Al-Dawish
Faisal bin Sultan al-Dawish or commonly known as Faisal al-Dawish was a prince of Mutair tribe and one of the Ikhwan leaders, who assisted Ibn Saud in the unification of Saudi Arabia....
of the Mutair
Mutayr
Mutayr is one of the largest Sunni tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. The traditional leaders of Mutayr are the Doshan clan . The main branches of Mutayr today are Banu Abdullah, Al-'Olwa, and Braih....
tribe and Sultan bin Bajad of the Otaiba
'Utaybah
Utaybah is a large Arab tribe of the Arabian Peninsula. As is the case with many other large tribal confederations in the region, the name Otaibah only appeared within the last few centuries. Otaibah's original territory was concentrated in the area around Taif, but in the 18th century, their...
tribe, the leaders of the Ikhwan, were among those who accused Abdul Aziz
Abdul Aziz
Abdul Aziz is a male Muslim given name and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words Abd, al- and Aziz. The name means "servant of the Almighty", Al-Azīz being one of the names of God in the Qur'an, which give rise to the Muslim theophoric names.The letter a of the al- is...
of going "soft", with the former reportedly telling the latter that the Saudis were "as much use as camel bags without handles". A rebellion erupted
Ikhwan Revolt
The Ikhwan Revolt had begun in 1927, when elements of the Ikhwan, the radical irregular tribesmen of Arabia, undermined the authority of Ibn Saud and begun raiding neighbouring Iraq and Kuwait. The relations between the House of Saud and the Ikhwans deteriorated into an open bloody feud in December...
, climaxing in a battle at Sabillah
Battle of Sabilla
The Battle of Sabilla was the main battle of the Ikhwan Revolt in northern Arabia between the rebellious Ikhwan forces and the army of Ibn Saud. It was the last major battle, where one side rode camels, as the Ikhwan emphasized radical conservatism, shunned technological modernization...
, which some have labeled a massacre but pro-Saudi sources consider to have been a fair fight. Additional battles erupted through 1929 in Jabal Shammar and in the vicinity of the Awazim tribe. The rebellion was put down in 1930, with the surrender of last opposition elements. Though the survivors were jailed, their descendants remained opposed to Saudi rule, and one such descendant, Juhayman al-Otaibi
Juhayman al-Otaibi
Juhayman ibn Muhammad ibn Sayf al-Otaibi was a militant who led the takeover of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Islam's holiest site, in the last months of 1979.-Biography:...
, would gain infamy in 1979 when he led the Grand Mosque Seizure
Grand Mosque Seizure
The Grand Mosque Seizure on November 20, 1979, was an armed attack and takeover by Islamist dissidents of the Al-Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest place in Islam...
.
Declaration of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed on 23 September 1932. Ibn Saud's eldest son SaudSaud of Saudi Arabia
Saud bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud was King of Saudi Arabia from 1953 to 1964. He was removed from power by Faisal because of Saud's mismanagement and waste. He was the eldest surviving son of Ibn Saud and became Crown Prince in 1933. He died in exile in Greece.-Early life:Saud was born in 1902 in Kuwait...
became crown prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
in 1933.
Annexation of Asir
The region of Asir, in what is today southern Saudi Arabia, had been under Turkish rule from 1871 until the outbreak of the First World War, at which point its emir, Hasan ibn Ali Al Aid, "became virtually independent" and attempted to rule from AbhaAbha
Abha is the capital of Asir province in Saudi Arabia. It is situated at 2,200 metres above sea level in the fertile mountains of south-western Saudi Arabia near the National Park of Asir. Its mild climate makes it a popular tourist destination for Saudis...
. However, a struggle ensued between his forces and those of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi
Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi
-Further reading:Headley, R.L. "ʿAsīr." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.Anne K. Bang, The Idrisi State of Asir 1906-1934: Politics, Religion and Personal Prestige as State-building factors in early twentieth century Arabia,...
, who eventually set up the short-lived Idrisid Emirate
Idrisid Emirate
- Further reading :Headley, R.L. "ʿAsīr." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition.Anne K. Bang, The Idrisi State of Asir 1906-1934: Politics, Religion and Personal Prestige as State-building factors in early twentieth century Arabia,...
under Saudi tutelage. The emirate was subsumed by the Saudi state following a 1930 treaty which provided for the territory to come under Ibn Saud's direct control upon its emir's death. The Emirate was eventually incorporated into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1934.
Saudi-Yemeni War
With the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, a ZaidiZaidiyyah
Zaidiyya, or Zaidism is a Shi'a Muslim school of thought named after Zayd ibn ʻAlī, the grandson of Husayn ibn ʻAlī. Followers of the Zaydi Islamic jurisprudence are called Zaydi Shi'a...
state was forged in Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
under Imam Muhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din
Muhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din
Muhammad bin Yahya Hamid ad-Din was an Imam of Yemen who led the resistance against the Ottoman occupation in 1890-1904.-Outbreak of rebellion:...
and his descendants. The Yemenis claimed parts of Asir and came to blows with the Saudis in 1933. Writing in the American journal Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs is an American magazine and website on international relations and U.S. foreign policy published since 1922 by the Council on Foreign Relations six times annually...
in 1934, historian Hans Kohn
Hans Kohn
Hans Kohn was a Jewish philosopher and historian. Born in Prague during the Habsburg Empire, he was captured as a prisoner of war during World War I and held in Russia for five years...
noted, "Some European observers have wished to explain the armed conflict as a conflict between British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
and Italian
History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars
This articles covers the history of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars.-Italian unification :Modern Italy became a nation-state during the Risorgimento on March 17, 1861 when most of the states of the Italian Peninsula and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were united under king Victor...
policy in Arabia." Despite British ties to Saudi Arabia and Italian ties to Yemen, he concluded that "the rivalry between the two rulers is in no way caused or fostered by the rivalry of the two European states." However, in 1998, Alexei Vassiliev wrote, "The imam was instigated both by the Italians, who promoted assistance in order to increase their influence in Yemen, and by the British, who wished to detract Imam Yahya's attention from their protectorates in Aden
Aden
Aden is a seaport city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea , some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000. Aden's ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of an extinct volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a...
." The Saudis struck back, reaching the Yemeni port of Al Hudaydah
Al Hudaydah
Al Hudaydah is the fourth largest city in Yemen with a population of 400,000 people, and the centre of Al Hudaydah Governorate.-Overview:...
before signing a "treaty of Muslim friendship and Arab brotherhood" in Ta'if, which was published simultaneously in Mecca
Mecca
Mecca is a city in the Hijaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of above sea level...
, Sanaa
Sana'a
-Districts:*Al Wahdah District*As Sabain District*Assafi'yah District*At Tahrir District*Ath'thaorah District*Az'zal District*Bani Al Harith District*Ma'ain District*Old City District*Shu'aub District-Old City:...
, Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
, and Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
to highlight its pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism is an ideology espousing the unification--or, sometimes, close cooperation and solidarity against perceived enemies of the Arabs--of the countries of the Arab world, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs...
.
Remarking on the implications of the treaty, which stated "that [the two parties'] nations are one and agree to consider each other's interests their own", Kohn wrote, "The foreign policy of both kingdoms will be brought into line and harmonized so that both countries will act as one country in foreign affairs. Practically, it will mean a protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
over the Yemen by Ibn Saud, the stronger and much more progressive partner." Relations indeed remained close until civil war erupted in Yemen
North Yemen Civil War
The North Yemen Civil War was fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Imam...
in the 1960s, at which time the country became a staging ground for battle between conservative values and those of the Egyptian revolutionary Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death. A colonel in the Egyptian army, Nasser led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 along with Muhammad Naguib, the first president, which overthrew the monarchy of Egypt and Sudan, and heralded a new period of...
.
The Ikhwan movement
The exact circumstances under which the Ikhwan (brothers, brethren) arose remain unclear. However, it is known that they consisted of BedouinBedouin
The Bedouin are a part of a predominantly desert-dwelling Arab ethnic group traditionally divided into tribes or clans, known in Arabic as ..-Etymology:...
who were imbued with Wahhabi zeal at settlements known as hijras
Hijra (Islam)
The Hijra is the migration or journey of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. Alternate spellings of this Arabic word are Hijrah, Hijrat or Hegira, the latter following the spelling rules of Latin.- Hijra of Muhammad :In September 622, warned of a plot to...
. They played an important role in the Saudi rise to power, though the extent of that role is sometimes disputed.
See also
- Geography of Saudi ArabiaGeography of Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia is a country situated in Southwest Asia, the largest country of Arabia, bordering the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, north of Yemen. Its extensive coastlines on the Persian Gulf and Red Sea provide great leverage on shipping through the Persian Gulf and Suez Canal. The kingdom occupies...
- Saudi Arabia – United Arab Emirates border disputeSaudi Arabia – United Arab Emirates border disputeSaudi Arabia has had a number of border disputes with its neighbouring states in the Arabian peninsula.-General Aspects:The border dispute with the United Arab Emirates was apparently resolved with the Treaty of Jeddah which was signed at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on 21 August...
- Saudi–Kuwaiti neutral zone
- Saudi–Iraqi neutral zone
- Sykes–Picot Agreement
Footnotes
[a]. Unification of Saudi Arabia (combined casualties figure estimation 7,289–8,289+) of:- Battle of Riyadh (1902)Battle of Riyadh (1902)Battle of Riyadh was a minor battle of the Unification War between Rashidi and Ibn Saud rebels. It occurred on 13 January 1902, in Masmak Castle in Riyadh, The capital of present day Saudi Arabia....
– 37 killed. - Battle of Dilam (1903) – 410 killed.
- Saudi–Rashidi WarSaudi–Rashidi WarSaudi–Rashidi War of 1903-1907, also referred as the First Saudi–Rashidi War or the Battles over Qasim, was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Sultanate of Nejd versus the Emirate of Ha'il , under the Rashidis...
(1903-1907) – 2,300+ killed. - Annexation of Al-Hasa and Qatif (1913) - unknown.
- Battle of JarrabBattle of JarrabThe Battle of Jarrab was a territorial battle between the Al Sa'ud and their traditional enemies the Al Rashid in January 1915. It was a proxy battle of World War I between the British-supportedSa'udis and the Ottoman-supported Rashidis....
(1915) - Battle of Kanzaan (1915)
- First Nejd-Hijaz War (1919-1920) – 1,392 killed.
- Kuwait–Nejd Border WarKuwait–Nejd Border WarThe Kuwait-Najd Border War erupted in theAftermath of World War I, when the Ottoman Empire was defeated and the British invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikhdom under British protectorate". The power vacuum, left by the fall of the Ottomans,...
(1921) – 200+ killed. - Conquest of Ha'ilConquest of Ha'ilConquest of Ha'il also referred as the Second Saudi–Rashidi War, was engaged between the Saudi forces and its ally Ikhwan tribesmen upon the Emirate of Ha'il , under the last Rashidi rulers. On November 2, 1921, Jebel Shammar was completely conquered by Saudi forces....
(1921) - unknown - Ikhwan raids on TransjordanIkhwan raids on TransjordanIkhwan raids on Transjordan were a series of plunders by the Ikhwan, irregular Arab tribesmen of Najd, on Transjordan between 1922 and 1924. The repeated Wahhabi incursions fron Najd into southern parts of his territory were the most serious threat to emir Abdullah's position in Transjordan...
(1922-1924) – 500–1,500 killed. - Second Nejd-Hijaz War (1924-1926) – 450+ killed.
- Ikhwan RevoltIkhwan RevoltThe Ikhwan Revolt had begun in 1927, when elements of the Ikhwan, the radical irregular tribesmen of Arabia, undermined the authority of Ibn Saud and begun raiding neighbouring Iraq and Kuwait. The relations between the House of Saud and the Ikhwans deteriorated into an open bloody feud in December...
(1927-1930) – 2,000 killed.
External links
- Hous of Saud, a 2005 documentary by PBS' Frontline. Website includes interviews and an excerpt containing the chapter on the Ikhwan.